(1) Fate and Transport of Mercury in Environmental Media and Human Exposure

- MeHg - Minamata, Japan:

MeHg can cross the placenta and readily pass through the blood-brain barrier, with even higher levels of
MeHg reported in fetal than in maternal circulation [2]. Vulnerability of the developing fetus to MeHg
exposure was exemplified in Minamata, Japan by pregnant women who consumed seafood highly contaminated
with MeHg. This resulted in extreme fetal abnormalities and neurotoxicity (i.e., microcephaly, blindness,
severe mental and physical developmental retardation) even among infants born from mothers with minimal
symptoms [2].
- Mercury species lifetimes:
Among mercury species, elemental mercury (0 oxidation state), being the predominant species in ambient
air, has residence time of 0.5 to 2 years due to its low solubility in water and chemical inertness [6]. Hg0 can
be globally cycled by long-range transport [7]. Elemental mercury emitted from its sources can be thoroughly
mixed vertically in the troposphere, and its typical concentration is reported to be 1 to 4 ng.m-3 at
background sites [6]. Elemental mercury is often called dissolved gaseous mercury (Hg0) as DGM in water.
In contrast, Hg2+, mainly as reactive gaseous mercury (RGM) in the atmosphere is highly water soluble,
reactive, and less volatile than Hg0 with a lifetime of days in the atmosphere. Therefore, the amount of RGM
(Hg2+) in the atmosphere is typically less than 5% of the total mercury (TM) concentration, but RGM
(Hg2+) is important in terms of mercury deposition into water environments. In fact, Han et al. [8] reported
that gas-phase oxidized mercury (Hg2+) has a higher dry deposition rate in the air (1-4 cm s-1).
Another species in the atmosphere is particulate mercury (Hg(p)), which is the mercury species adsorbed by
particulate matter. Atmospheric deposition is the primary pathway for inputs of particulate mercury
(Hg(p)) and RGM (Hg2+) to natural waters in many cases. Mercury species in the atmosphere comprises various
species such as Hg2+, Hg(p), and Hg0, and each species has different physico-chemical characteristics and
consequently different atmospheric lifetimes. Therefore, mercury speciation is important when assessing the
atmospheric fate and transport of mercury.
In natural water environments, mercury can exist as several chemical species, including DGM (Hg0), dissolved
Hg2+ in water, and organic mercury mainly in the form of MeHg (CH3Hg+). Dissolved Hg2+ in water is often
called dissolved reactive mercury (DRM, Hg2+). DRM (Hg2+) undergoes various oxidation and reduction
reactions with strong a relationship with organic matter in water [9].
-Fate and Transport of Mercury:
+Long range transport of mercury
Mercury can be thoroughly mixed vertically in the troposphere, and it can be transported over long distances
on local, regional, and global scales [6,8,24]. In fact, previous studies have reported high concentrations of
MeHg in fish in non-industrial areas, even the Arctic [25-27]. Seigneur et al. [28] estimated that 21% of TM
from wet deposition in the United States originated from China. Weiss-Penzias et al. [29] also reported higher
mercury concentration events at Mt. Bachelor Observatory, a remote location on the West Coast of the US,
caused by long-range transport from East Asia, including China. These results imply that significant amounts
of mercury are transported from China to Korea by long-range transport by the prevailing wind direction
from the west.
+Deposition of mercury
Mercury is mainly deposited from the air to water by dry and wet deposition as RGM (Hg2+) [30,31]. The
deposited mercury has two fates: it is either adsorbed into sediments where it may be transformed to MeHg
or it is reduced to DGM (Hg0) in water [32,33].

Recent studies have shown that DGM can be produced in surface waters by the reduction of RGM (Hg2+)
[34]. Many physical and chemical environmental parameters can accelerate the reduction of Hg2+ to DGM,
including light intensity, water temperature, pH, and the concentration of dissolved organic matter [34-37].
Mercury has the specific property of continuously cycling between air and water phases [6,7]. DGM can be
re-emitted into the atmosphere by the volatilization of DGM. The volatilization of DGM is the only process
that removes mercury from aquatic systems. Only this process can limit MeHg production and accumulation in
fish [38,39].
+ Fate of organic mercury
Among mercury species, mercury compounds combined with organic carbon are called organic mercury. Among
organic mercury species, the best known species is MeHg, which exists as either dimethylmercury
((CH3)2Hg) or monomethylmercury (CH3Hg+). Most organic mercury species are formed by the chemical
reaction of Hg2+ ions with organic carbon in water and sediment by microbiological processes or abiotic
processes such as sunlight photolysis, resulting in bioaccumulation and biomagnification through the ecosystem.
MeHg is the major species that is accumulated in fish. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), mercury species in fish are mostly composed of MeHg. In seawater, mercury exists mainly as Hg0, and
MeHg is mostly degraded deep in the ocean; thus, it mainly exists as dimethylmercury in seawater [5]. At the
surface of seawater, MeHg does not exist because most MeHg can be volatilized, or demethylated by
sunlight. In contrast, there are significantly greater amounts of MeHg in fresh bodies of water such as rivers and
lakes compared to seawater. This is due to the low oxygen concentration and therefore the presence of sulfate
reducing bacteria (SRB) in the bottom of fresh water lakes and rivers [40,41].
MeHg is usually formed by specific bacteria such as SRB, or chemical reactions such as sunlight photolysis
reactions, and these reactions are affected by various environmental parameters [40-45]. However, it was
recently reported that biotic and abiotic demethylations of MeHg are considered to be important pathways of
mercury in water environments. Biotic demethylation reactions usually occur in sediment and freshwater
environments. It was reported that methyl- and phenylmercury can be deceased by algae in fresh water [40].
Demethylation of MeHg in water can also be abiotically mediated such as by sunlight photolysis or by reactive
oxygen species such as hydroxyl radicals. These biotic and abiotic demethylation reactions are the most
important mechanisms for reducing the bioaccumulation of mercury.
Mercury is present in the raw materials (e.g., limestone) and/or in the fuel (e.g.,coal) released in the combustion
process (cement industry source of mercury.
-Bioaccumulation of Mercury and Human Exposure to Mercury:
Mercury can be biomagnified rapidly, leading to high concentrations in top predators in aquatic ecosystems.
Most mercury species can be bioaccumulated, but the bioaccumulation of MeHg is higher compared to other
mercury species [49]. The many environmental parameters in water and sediment can affect the levels of MeHg
in fish [42].
MeHg in fish can be combined with the sulfhydryl group in the protein within the cells. Due to this
covalent bonding, the bioaccumulation intensity of MeHg compared to other inorganic mercury increases
at higher levels of a food web [42]. Therefore, the level of mercury can be highest in the top predator fish in a
food web. Even in the same fish species, the older individual fish have higher mercury levels than younger ones
[42,61].
Thus, parents, pregnant women, and women who might become pregnant should be particularly aware of
the potential harm of MeHg. Moderate consumption of fish (with low mercury levels) is not likely to result in
exposures of concern. However, indigenous populations and others who consume higher amounts of
contaminated fish or marine mammals, as well as workers who are exposed to mercury, such as in small scale
gold and silver mining, may be highly exposed to mercury and are therefore at risk [5].
(2) Greenhouse gas
- Sources of emission:
Electricity production (31% of 2013 greenhouse gas emissions) - Electricity production generates the
largest share of greenhouse gas emissions. Approximately 67% of our electricity comes from burning
fossil fuels, mostly coal and natural gas.[2]

Transportation (27% of 2013 greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation
primarily come from burning fossil fuel for our cars, trucks, ships, trains, and planes. Over 90% of the
fuel used for transportation is petroleum based, which includes gasoline and diesel.[3]
Industry (21% of 2013 greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions from industry primarily
come from burning fossil fuels for energy as well as greenhouse gas emissions from certain chemical
reactions necessary to produce goods from raw materials.
Commercial and Residential (12% of 2013 greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions from
businesses and homes arise primarily from fossil fuels burned for heat, the use of certain products that
contain greenhouse gases, and the handling of waste.
Agriculture (9% of 2013 greenhouse gas emissions) - Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture come
from livestock such as cows, agricultural soils, and rice production.
Land Use and Forestry (offset of 13% of 2013 greenhouse gas emissions) - Land areas can act as a sink
(absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere) or a source of greenhouse gas emissions. In the United States, since
1990, managed forests and other lands have absorbed more CO2 from the atmosphere than they emit.
- Greenhouse gases: Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the wavelength
range emitted by Earth.[1] In order, the most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are:
Compound

Formula

Concentration
atmosphere[23] (ppm)

Water vapor and clouds

H2O

1050,000(A)

3672%

Carbon dioxide

CO2

~400

926%

Methane

CH4

~1.8

49%

Ozone

O3

28

(B)

in Contribution
(%)

37%

notes:
(A)
(B)

Water vapor strongly varies locally

The concentration in stratosphere. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources (emissions of
the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas from the atmosphere by
conversion to a different chemical compound).[11] The proportion of an emission remaining in the
atmosphere after a specified time is the "airborne fraction" (AF). More precisely, the annual airborne
fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year's total emissions. Over the last 50
years (19562006) the airborne fraction for CO2 has been increasing at 0.25 0.21%/year.
(3) The atmosphere:
-History:
Earth is believed to have formed about 5 billion years ago. In the first 500 million years a dense atmosphere
emerged from the vapor and gases that were expelled during degassing of the planet's interior. These gases
may have consisted of hydrogen (H2), water vapor, methane (CH4) , and carbon oxides. Prior to 3.5 billion
years ago the atmosphere probably consisted of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), water (H2O),
nitrogen (N2), and hydrogen.
The hydrosphere was formed 4 billion years ago from the condensation of water vapor, resulting in oceans of
water in which sedimentation occured.
The most important feature of the ancient environment was the absence of free oxygen. Evidence of such an
anaerobic reducing atmosphere is hidden in early rock formations that contain many elements, such as iron and
uranium, in their reduced states. Elements in this state are not found in the rocks of mid-Precambrian and
younger ages, less than 3 billion years old.
One billion years ago, early aquatic organisms called blue-green algae began using energy from the Sun to split
molecules of H2O and CO2 and recombine them into organic compounds and molecular oxygen (O2). This solar
energy conversion process is known as photosynthesis. Some of the photosynthetically created oxygen combined
with organic carbon to recreate CO2 molecules. The remaining oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere, touching
off a massive ecological disaster with respect to early existing anaerobic organisms. As oxygen in the atmosphere
increased, CO2 decreased.

High in the atmosphere, some oxygen (O2) molecules absorbed energy from the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) rays and
split to form single oxygen atoms. These atoms combining with remaining oxygen (O2) to form ozone (O3)
molecules, which are very effective at absorbing UV rays. The thin layer of ozone that surrounds Earth acts as a
shield, protecting the planet from irradiation by UV light.
The amount of ozone required to shield Earth from biologically lethal UV radiation, wavelengths from 200 to
300 nanometers (nm), is believed to have been in existence 600 million years ago. At this time, the oxygen level
was approximately 10% of its present atmospheric concentration. Prior to this period, life was restricted to the
ocean. The presence of ozone enabled organisms to develop and live on the land. Ozone played a significant role
in the evolution of life on Earth, and allows life as we presently know it to exist.
- Temperature inversion (nghch nhit) in the troposphere:
Temperature inversion, condition in which the temperature of the atmosphere increases with altitude in
contrast to the normal decrease with altitude. When temperature inversion occurs, cold air underlies warmer
air at higher altitudes. Temperature inversion may occur during the passage of a cold front or result from the
(1) invasion of sea air by a cooler onshore breeze. (2) Overnight radiative cooling of surface air often results in
a nocturnal temperature inversion that is dissipated after sunrise by the warming of air near the ground. A more
long-lived temperature inversion accompanies (3) the dynamics of the large high-pressure systems depicted on
weather maps. (4) Descending currents of air near the center of the high-pressure system produce a warming (by
adiabatic compression), causing air at middle altitudes to become warmer than the surface air. (5) Rising currents
of cool air lose their buoyancy and are thereby inhibited from rising further when they reach the warmer, less
dense air in the upper layers of a temperature inversion. During a temperature inversion, air pollution
released into the atmosphere's lowest layer is trapped there and can be removed only by strong horizontal
winds. Because high-pressure systems often combine temperature inversion conditions and low wind speeds,
their long residency over an industrial area usually results in episodes of severe smog.
- Flight altitude issue:
There are a few reasons the optimal flight level is 30 to 40 thousand feet.
1. The higher the altitude the thinner (less density) the air is. With less air in the way there is less friction on an
airplane. Traveling in thin air requires much less energy compared to thicker air levels. (think about the force to
push your hand through water vs the air)
2. At higher altitudes there is less weather differentiation which causes turbulence. If you have ever flown in
turbulence you know that you don't like it.
3. Jet airplane engines are designed to run at peak efficiency with a specific amount of oxygen. Adjusting the
altitude to match that oxygen level generally puts a plane in that 30 to 40 thousand foot window. At that altitude,
you get the most thrust possible for every drop of jet fuel.
4. As I stated earlier, the higher you go the thinner the air gets. If you go over the 40 thousand foot mark it just
keeps getting thinner. This causes two problems. You can't get enough oxygen to mix with the fuel to produce
thrust, and without some resistance the plane's wings cannot produce enough lift. The lift problem comes down
to wing design. The wings are designed to produce a certain amount of lift at a certain speed.
5. The speed of sound reduces with less air density. Approaching the speed of sound produces a lot of resistance
and many problems that could destroy your average jumbo jet (remember what the concord looked like). As you
go higher you MUST go faster to produce enough lift. However, as you go higher the speed of sound reduces.
Therefore as you are going faster to keep going higher you are getting closer and close to supersonic flight. A
plane not prepared for the transition into supersonic flight would probably be ripped apart.
- Turbulence:
When Turbulence Happens

If you are flying during a storm or extremely cloudy weather, then your chances of flying through some
turbulence is high. Storms and cloudy weather can create different air pressure, which creates winds
moving in different directions,leading to turbulence.
However, it does not always matter what the weather appears to be. A flyer may assume that because it is
sunny out, the chances of turbulence are unlikely. Actually, calm winds during sunny days can create
thermals, which are bubbles of warm air or rising air currents. This can cause light turbulence or later lead
to afternoon thunderstorms, which will definitely lead to some turbulence.
What Pilots Do When Turbulence Hits
Pilots are able to avoid extreme turbulence by following weather patterns. However, turbulence still hits
during warm sunny days, so some turbulence is unpredictable. Pilots are trained to not fly directly into the
turbulence. Instead, they aim to take the smoothest route or go around. However, turbulence can be over
100 miles wide and long, so some disturbances are unavoidable.