Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247 257

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Seepage problems in the karstic limestone foundation

of the Kalecik Dam (south Turkey)
zguler b, Hidayet Taga c, Talip Karaogullarindan d
Sedat Turkmen a,*, Eray O
a

Department of Geological Engineering, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey

b
General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works, Ankara, Turkey
c
Department of Geological Engineering, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
d
6th Regional Directorate of State Hydraulic Works, Adana, Turkey
Received 1 February 2001; accepted 10 July 2001

Abstract
Seepage phenomena through the karstic limestone foundation of Kalecik Dam are investigated. The dam, designed as a
rock-fill dam with a height of 77 m, is already used for irrigation. The foundation consists of Mesozoic ophiolite, Paleocene
allochthonous units composed of different lithologies, and Miocene conglomerate. The conglomerate lies unconformably on the
other units. Quaternary basaltic lava patchily covers the others. Seepage from upstream to downstream occurs through the
allochthonous karstic limestone. This limestone, which is overlain by conglomerates, has a thickness increasing towards the
right abutment. To prevent seepage at the right abutment, a 200-m long and 60-m deep grout curtain along the dam axis was
constructed. After the impoundment, some springs occurred downstream, and for this reason, extra grouting was performed.
However, the seepage problem could not be solved. In order to determine the seepage direction and karstification pattern,
hydrological studies have been done. Additional investigation boreholes have been drilled to observe fluctuations of the
groundwater level and to analyze hydrochemistry. Also, dye tracer tests have been carried out. As a result of these
hydrogeological studies, seepage paths were observed in the karstic limestone located between the dam and the spillway. As
those carbonate rocks continue beneath the spillway, the seepage problems are enjected to continue. D 2002 Elsevier Science
B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Dam; Karst problems; Kalecik; Seepage

1. Introduction
The Kalecik Dam, located in the south of Turkey
near Osmaniye province, provides a barrier for water
from the Kalecik River, which is a tributary of the
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90-324-361-0102, +90-324-3610001/267; fax: +90-324-3610032.
E-mail addresses: sturkmen@yahoo.com, sturk@mersin.edu.tr
(S. Turkmen).

Ceyhan River. The dam, designed as a rock-fill dam

with a height of 77 m, is already used for irrigation
(Fig. 1). The general layout of the dam site is shown
in Fig. 2
The catchment area is approximately 145 km2. The
annual flow (1962 1981) is 1.6 m3/sec. The irrigation
area totals 4395 ha. Other technical data are presented
in Table 1.
The Kalecik Dam was constructed in 1985. When
water started to fill the reservoir, water leaked from the

0013-7952/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 3 - 7 9 5 2 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 8 5 - 0

248

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

Fig. 1. Location map.

side walls and crown of the diversion tunnel. The

damages to the diversion tunnel were repaired by
grouting, without reducing the seepage. Despite the
grouting, when the reservoir level reached an elevation
of 495 m in 1986, water flowed from the diversion
tunnel, with a discharge rate of 81 l/sec.
In 1987, because of the rise in the reservoir water
level, seepage increased, and new springs occurred at
different places in the valley.

In 1987, a series of investigations were planned to

find the causes of the seepage and to determine treatment (rehabilitation) methods. In 1991, geological and
hydrogeological investigations, dye tracer tests, water
chemistry, observation drillings, and grouting operations were done.
The regional geological studies of the area were
done by Arda (1970), Capan (1977), Yalcin (1980),
and Kozlu (1982, 1987). The first detailed geological

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

249

Fig. 2. General layout of the dam site.

study of the dam site was performed by Akdere

(1972), and during the project period by Yavuz
(1976), studied the geology further. After the dam
was completed, seepage problems were investigated
by Yavuz (1987), Altug et al (1987, 1988), Karaogullarndan (1990), and Ozguzel and Yardim (1992).
Similar studies have also been done in Oymapnar
Dam in Turkey by Altug (1999), the Salman Farsi
dam in Iran by Fouladi and Golshan (1999), the
Kafrein Dam in Jordan by Malkawi and Al-Sheriadeh (2000) and the Lar Dam in Iran by Uromeihy
(2000).

The main grouting curtain was finished during

dam construction, and additional grouting was performed later to prevent further leakage. The conTable 1
Technical data for the dam
Type

Rock-fill

Embankment volume
Crest length
Crest width
Crest elevation
Height of dam from tailwater

843,000 m3
194 m
10 m
537 m
77 m

250

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

struction of the additional grout curtain was completed in 1989. After the construction of this grout
curtain and further impoundment of the reservoir, the
reservoir level reached an elevation 531.1 m and at
that level, 456 l/sec of seepage was observed. Furthermore, new springs occurred at the downstream
part of the spillway. When the water level reached an
elevation of 526 m, dye tests were performed. It was
found that the seepage direction extended from
upstream to downstream towards the ungrouted parts
of the abutment.
After the reservoir level was lowered to an elevation of 504 m, a second dye test was conducted to
investigate the efficiency of the deep grout curtain.

2. Geological setting
In the study area, stratigraphic units from base to
top consist of Mesozoic ophiolite, Paleocene allochthonous units composed of different lithologies, and
Miocene conglomerate. The conglomerate lies uncon-

formably on the other units. Quaternary basaltic lava

patchily covers the others (Fig. 3).
Ophiolitic rocks outcrop at the left abutment of the
dam site and in the reservoir area. They are composed
of green to brown colored, serpentinized, peridotite
and diabase dykes. The diabase dykes are weathered
and jointed. The ophiolite is generally impermeable.
The Paleocene allochthonous units include four
different lithologic levels, which are characterized
by claystone sandstone (e1), conglomerate argillaceous limestone (e2), sandy limestone (e3),and karstic
limestone (e4) as shown in Fig. 3. The karstic limestone (e4) is overlain by Miocene basal conglomerate.
The thickness of the limestone unit having karstic and
jointed features increases towards the spillway at the
right abutment.
The Miocene conglomerate is red colored and has
an argillaceous matrix. It outcrops in the spillway and
reservoir area. Pebbles of the conglomerate are
derived from various rocks. The basalt lava, which
is grey-brown colored, porous, and fractured, is
exposed on the conglomerate in the spillway area.

Fig. 3. Geological map of the dam site.

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

At the left abutment of the dam site, ophiolitic

rocks and at the right abutment karstic limestones are
exposed (Fig. 3). The ophiolitic rocks are highly
weathered and impermeable. Conglomerates overlay
the limestone in the north of the spillway structure.
The bedrock surface of Paleocene allochthonous
unit is undulated. This boundary is found between the
limestone and ophiolite located at an elevation of
approximately 500 m. It was found at depths of
480, 443, and 399 m in boreholes SK-11, SK-12
and SK-13, respectively, shown in Fig. 3. Towards
upstream, the base of the limestone comes closer to
the surface. For example, in borehole SK-17, the
limestone ophiolite boundary is at a depth of 45 m,
in SK-6 is at 33 m, and in SK-19 is at 69 m. However,
in SK-13, the boundary is observed at an elevation of
138 m.

251

The limestone layers have a similar orientation.

Dips are 30 40 towards NE at the dam site. At the
spillway structure, the layers become horizontal.
Limestone is covered by ophiolitic rocks. Joints are
generally vertical and strike toward the downstream
springs (SE NW) (Fig. 4). Two faults control the
seepage from the reservoir to the K-4 spring. One
fault extends E W and the other N S (Fig. 3).

3. Karstification at the dam site

Karstification is dominant, especially in the limestone unit e4. Small to large karstic holes are particularly prominent at the higher elevations of this unit.
Large springs are discharged from the boundary of the
e4-impervious or semi-pervious units.

Fig. 4. Hydrogeological map of the dam site.

252

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

The springs K-1 and K-2: discharge from conglomerate argillaceous limestone (e2) claystone
sandstone (e1) boundary.
The springs K-3 and K-4: discharge from karstic
limestone (e4) sandy limestone (e3) boundary.
The spring K-5: discharge from karstic limestone
(e4) ophiolite boundary.
Permeability shows heterogeneous and anisotropic
characteristics during the development of karstic holes
along the joints of the karstic rocks. Karstification
developed preferably along the joints (Fig. 4). In
observation wells, the groundwater level changes
according to the reservoir level. In order to understand
this phenomenon, observation wells were drilled and
dye tests were conducted.
As a result of these studies for different reservoir
water levels, groundwater level maps have been
established, which include seepage paths in the karstic

limestone. Seepage paths through the karstic limestone extend towards the downstream springs. Four
zones can be differentiated (Fig. 5). They are
described as follows.
Zone A: this zone developed in ophiolitic rocks.
The Upper parts of the ophiolitic rocks are weathered
and semi-pervious. Before construction of the grout
curtain, water pressure tests (WPT) showed lugeon
values of 1 5.
Zone B: this is the ophiolite limestone boundary.
This crucial zone has been grouted by inclined boreholes in the third grout curtain. The seepage water
passes through this zone towards the K-1 and K-2
springs.
Zone C: this zone has been grouted in the third
grout curtain from the surface to an elevation of 442 m.
Zone D: this can be differentiated into two subzones. D-1 extends (in plan view of Fig. 3) to drillhole

Fig. 5. Geological cross-sections of the dam site and hydrogeological modellings.

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

253

Fig. 6. Location of the dye tracer tests and their velocities.

SK-13. The depth is approximately140 m. D-2

extends from drilling SK-13 to the right bank. The
extent of limestone below the conglomerate was
determined by further studies after the construction
of the first grout curtain. Dye tests and other studies

Table 2
The Results of fluorescent injection test in 1988
Observation location

Groundwater velocity (m/h)

Borehole SK-17
Borehole SK-14
Spring K-2
Spring K-3
Spring K-4
Spring K-5

12.0
14.0
6.0, visually observed
5.5
dry
6.0

show that the water seeps through this zone towards

the K-3.2 and K-4 springs, as shown in Fig. 5.

4. Observation of springs
During the studies from 1988 to 1990, all dye
tracer tests were repeated. All results have been
interpreted by comparing the spring discharge and
groundwater level data (Fig. 6).
Table 3
The results of Rhodamine injection test
Observation location

Groundwater velocity (m/h)

Borehole SK-13
Spring K-3

1.0
1.0

254

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

Table 4
The results of fluorescent injection test

Table 6
The results of fluorescent injection test

Observation location

Groundwater velocity (m/h)

Observation location

Groundwater velocity (m/h)

Borehole SK-22
Spring K-3.1
Spring K-3.2
Spring K-4
Spring K-5

3.2
2.0
6.0
6.0
5.0

Borehole SK-17
Borehole SK-19
Borehole SK-20
Borehole SK-21
Spring K-1
Spring K-2
Spring K-3
Spring K-4
Spring K-5

36.0
79.2
6.0
14.1
no evidence
4.5, visually observed
4.5
dry
3.6

4.1. Springs before the construction of the deep grout

curtain
4.1.1. K-1 spring
After the reservoir impoundment, leakage of
around 80 l/sec was observed in the diversion tunnel
between station 390 and 444 m, from the invert and
the side walls. The reservoir level was at an elevation
of 495.3 m. Water seeped into pipes, contact and
consolidation grouting was conducted, 57 drainage
holes were drilled. Total discharge of water seeping
from the tunnel was around 1 25 l/sec.
4.1.2. K-2 spring
During consolidation grouting of the left side of the
tunnel outlet, a new spring with 3 l/sec discharge was
observed. As the reservoir level rose, the discharge of
this spring increased. Fluorescent poured from SK-13
and dye could be observed at that spring. The discharge was between 3 5 l/sec.
4.1.3. K-3.1 spring
The elevation of the spring is at 450 m. This spring
was detected when the reservoir water level reached
an elevation of 520 m.
4.1.4. K-4 spring
This spring was observed in the limestone when
the reservoir level reached an elevation of 518 m.
Several discharge locations occurred within an area of
Table 5
The results of salt injection test
Observation location

Groundwater velocity (m/h)

Borehole SK-21
Spring K-3.1
Spring K-3.2
Spring K-4
Spring K-5

3.3
4.9
10.0
2.0
6.9

100 m2. The seepage near the diversion tunnel outlet

and the access roads belongs to this group of springs.
After the construction of the deep grout curtain, the
location of the spring moved 50 m downstream, and
the reservoir level increased from an elevation of 518
to 523.5 m. The discharge was around 26 l/sec.
4.1.5. K-5 spring
This occurred at an elevation of 430 m, far away
from the embankment of the dam at the ophiolite
limestone boundary. After the spillway construction,
the discharge was around 33 62 l/sec.
4.2. Springs after re-establishing the deep grout
curtain
4.2.1. K-3.2 spring
This occurred at the contact between the spillway
structure and the Kalecik River. The total discharge,
together with K-3.1, is around 11 192 l/sec. But 80%
of the discharge comes from the K-3.2 spring.

Table 7
Comparison of spring discharge and reservoir levels after the
additional deep grout curtain
Reservoir level

502.0
504.0
523.4
523.8
527.7
529.8
530.9
531.4

(1988)
(1990)
(1988)
(1990)
(1988)
(1991)
(1991)
(1991)

Spring discharge (Q, l/sec)

K-1

K-2

K-3

K-4

K-5

15
1
15
14
20
24
25
25

39
3
41
20
57
44
49
51

54
11
91
91
129
157
184
192

dry
dry
4
2
80
92
122
126

42
39
101
76
95
51
60
62

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

255

Table 8
Comparison of spring discharge in 1988 and 1990
Observation location

1988 discharge measure (elevation of reservoir

level was 502.5 m) (l/sec)

1990 discharge measure (elevation of reservoir

level was 504.0 m) (l/sec)

K-1
K-2
K-3

15
39
44

1
3
11

4.2.2. Spillway springs

This group of springs was observed within an area
of 100 m2 on the right bank located 20 25 m upwards
from the river.

5. Dye tracer tests

Dye tracer tests were carried out to study the
seepage problem at different reservoir levels. Injection
points were established by taking into consideration
the change of groundwater level and spring discharge
data. The Turner Filter Fluorometer Model III apparatus was used for the dye tracer path.
5.1. First dye tracer test
Fluorescent was injected from SK-18. The test
results are shown in Table 2.
Rhodamine was injected from SK-19. The test
results are shown in Table 3.
Salt was injected from SK-17. At all observation
points where fluorescent was observed, salt was
present. The velocities of salt and fluorescent were
found equal.
5.2. Second dye tracer test
This test was conducted after the construction of
the grout curtain in 1990, when the reservoir level was
around an elevation of 526 m.
Fluorescent was injected from SK-19. The test
results are shown in Table 4.
Salt was injected from SK-22. The test results are
shown in Table 5.
Rhodamine injected from SK-17 disappeared in the
reservoir water.

5.3. Third dye tracing test

The first test was repeated as a third test to understand the efficiency of the reconstruction of the deeper
grout curtain.
Fluorescent was injected from SK-18. The test
results are shown in Table 6.

6. Relationship between reservoir level and spring

discharge
In order to determine the efficiency of the first
grout curtain and the later constructed deep grout
curtain, reservoir level and spring discharges were
compared (Table 7).
Springs K-1, K-2, K-3 and K-4 show similar
properties, but K-5 is different from others. Spring
K-5 is not affected by reservoir water level changes.
6.1. Springs K-1 and K-2
The most significant increase of discharge in these
springs were noticed when the water level was
between 523.8 and 529.8 m elevation. At K-1, discharge increased from 14 to 24 l/sec. At K-2, increase
was 20 44 l/sec (for 1 m rise of reservoir level, K-1
increased 1.6 l/sec; K-2 increased 4 l/sec).

Table 9
The groundwater velocity between springs and SK-18
Observation
location

Velocity in
1988 (m/h)

Velocity in
1990 (m/h)

K-1
K-2
K-3

6
6
5.5

4.5
4.5
3.6

256

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

Table 10
Groundwater velocity between boreholes, downstream and upstream of grout curtain
Observation location

Velocity in 1988 (m/h)

Velocity in 1990 (m/h)

Borehole of grout curtain SK-14

Borehole at downstream of grout curtain SK-20

14
drilled in 1990

1
3

6.2. Springs K-3 and K-4

These springs were the ones caused by seeping
water. The main increase of discharge at K-3 spring
was determined when reservoir level was between
530.5 and 531.4 m of elevation (for 0.9 m rise of
reservoir level, K-3 discharge increased 30 l/sec).
When reservoir level elevation was between 523.8
and 529.8 m, for 1 m rise of reservoir level, K-4
discharge increased 15 l/sec. When reservoir level
elevation was between 530.5 and 531.4 m, for 1 m
rise of reservoir level, K-4 discharge increased 26 l/
sec.
After the reconstruction of the deep grout curtain,
the comparison of spring discharge and reservoir
levels are shown Table 7.

(5) The most significant effect of the deeper grout

curtain was observed in SK-20 and SK-21 (karst
investigation drillholes) when the elevation of the
reservoir level reached 528 m. While the groundwater
level in SK-20 was high before the reservoir level
reached 528 m, it reversed when the level reached 528
m. In that case, the discharge of K-1 spring increased
from 14 to 24 l/sec and K-2 from 20 to 44 l/sec. Due
to the reconstruction of the deeper grout curtain, there
was a significant decrease in the discharge of springs
near the embankment of the dam. However, dye tests
have shown that there was a washing phenomenon in
the karst paths upstream of the grout curtain. The
existence of washable fills in the karst paths may
cause seepage through the grout curtain. Therefore, all
these observations should be continued.

7. Discussion

8. Conclusions

When the reservoir water level elevation was

between 502.5 and 526.0 m, dye tests were carried
out in order to understand the seepage direction. After
the reconstruction of the deeper grout curtain, when
reservoir level elevation was 504.0 m, a new dye test
was done in order to determine the efficiency of the
grout curtain. The results of these tests are as follows:
(1) After the reconstruction of the deeper grout
curtain, the discharge of springs near the embankment
of the dam decreased (Table 8).
(2) Groundwater velocity between the springs and
SK-18, where the dye was injected, decreased (Table
9).
(3) Groundwater velocity decreased between boreholes, which are at the downstream partial grout
curtain and very near the embankment of the dam,
and SK-18, where the dye was injected (Table 10).
(4) The elevation of the K-4 spring changed.
Before the deeper grout curtain, it was 518.7 m, and
it became 523 m afterwards.

As a conclusion, it is determined that the leakage

occurs through the karstic limestone; that these karstic
features developed along the discontinuity planes that
were affected by tectonic movements. It is observed
that the grout curtain, which was performed during the
dam construction, is not effective and the leakage
occurs under the main grout curtain. Reservoir level
increase affects the spring discharges directly. During
impoundment, some new springs were observed and
former spring discharges increased. Limestone is
located widely under the spillway structure. For that
reason, a new grout curtain is recommended to be
done also under the spillway structure.

References
Akdere, K., 1972. Sarkz Osmaniye Ovas Kalecik Baraj Muhendislik Jeolojisi Planlama Raporu, DSI. Ankara.
Altug, S., 1999. Oymapnar Arch Dam, Turkey: foundation treatment

S. Turkmen et al. / Engineering Geology 63 (2002) 247257

in karstic limestone and reservoir curtains. International Commission on Large Dams (ICOL), 193 212 Antalya, Turkey.
Altug, A., Kocabas, I., Kaplan, A., Surel, U., 1987. Ceyhan Kalecik Baraj, Su Kacaklar ile ilgili Teknik Seyahat Raporu, DSI.
Ankara.
Altug, A., Kaplan, A., Guner, N., 1988. Ceyhan Kalecik Baraj
Kacaklar Kars Arastrmas Jeoteknik Semineri, DSI. Cevizli,
Istanbul.
Arda, O., 1970. Amanos Daglarnn En Kuzey kismindaki ofiyolitik
kayaclarda Baz nadir elementlerin XRF Metodu ile Kantitatif
Determinasyonu ve Interpretasyonu. MTA Enstitusu Dergisi
Say 75 Ankara.
Capan, Z.U., 1977. Ofiyolit olgusu TJK Yerbilimleri Konferans
Dizisi, TJK Special Issue 3 6, Ankara.
Fouladi, C., Golshan, S., 1999. Result of field investigation of
karstic foundation of Salman Farsi Dam project (Iran). International Commission on Large Dams (ICOL), 19 32 Antalya,
Turkey.
Karaogullarndan, T., 1990. Ceyhan Sarkz Projesi Kalecik Baraj
Onarm Enjeksiyonlar Calsmar ve Sonuclar. DSI, Adana.

257

Kozlu, H., 1982. Iskenderun Baseni jeolojisi ve petrol olanaklar.

TPAO Rapor no: 1921, Ankara.
Kozlu, H., 1987. Misis Andrn dolaynn stratigrafisi ve yapsal
evrimi: Turkiye. Petrol Kong 7, 104 116 Ankara.
Malkawi, A.I.H., Al-Sheriadeh, M., 2000. Evaluation and rehabilitation of dam seepage problems. A case study: Kafrein dam.
Engineering Geology 56, 335 345.
Ozguzel, N., Yardim, I., 1992. Kalecik Barajnn Jeolojisi ile Su
Kacaklarn Izleme ve Degerlendirme Raporu, DSI, Adana.
Uromeihy, A., 2000. The Lar Dam; an example of infrastructural
development in a geologically active karstic region. Journal of
Asian Earth Sciences 18, 25 31.
Yalcin, N., 1980. Amanoslarn Litolojik Karekterleri ve Guneydogu
Anadolunun Tektonik Evrimindeki Anlam. TJK Bulteni Cilt
23, Say (1) Ankara.
Yavuz, N., 1976. Ceyhan Sarikiz Osmaniye Ovas Projesi, Kalecik
Baraj Kesin Proje Asamas Muhendislik Jeolojisi Raporu, DSI.
Adana.
Yavuz, N., 1987. Ceyhan Sarikiz Osmaniye Ovas Projesi, Kalecik
Baraj Yapm Sonras Muhendislik Jeolojisi Raporu, DSI. Adana.