Digital Comm Week 6 7 FourSlidesPerPage

EE3723 : Digital Communications
Detection
Matched filter reduces the received signal to a single variable
z(T), after which the detection of symbol is carried out
Week 6-7:
The concept of maximum likelihood detector is based on

Statistical Decision Theory
Detection
It allows us to
Error Probability
formulate the decision rule that operates on the data

optimize the detection criterion
Signal Space
Orthogonal Signal Space
z (T )
MAJU-Digital Comm.-Week-6-7
Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise
H 1
>
<
H 2
Bayes Decision Criterion and Maximum

Likelihood Detector
Hence
H1
z
> ( a1 + a2 )
0
<
2
H2
The output of the filtered sampled at T is a Gaussian random process
where z is the minimum error criterion and 0 is optimum

threshold
For antipodal signal, s1(t) = - s2 (t) a1 = - a2
H1
>
z
0
<
H
2
Probability of Error
Error will occur if
If signals are equally probable
s1 is sent s2 is received
PB = P ( H 2 | s1 ) P ( s1 ) + P ( H 1 | s2 ) P ( s2 )
P ( H 2 | s1 ) = P (e | s1 )
P (e | s1 )
p ( z | s1 ) dz
PB =
s2 is sent s1 is received
P ( H 1 | s2 ) = P (e | s2 )
=
P (e | s2 )
1
by Symmetry
P( H1 | s2 )
[ P(H2 | s1 ) + P(H1 | s2 )]
2
Numerically, PB is the area under the tail of either of the

conditional distributions p(z|s1) or p(z|s2) and is given by:
p ( z | s 2 ) dz
The total probability of error is the sum of the errors
PB =
PB = P (e, si ) = P ( e | s1 ) P ( s1 ) + P (e | s2 ) P ( s2 )
i =1
= P ( H 2 | s1 ) P ( s1 ) + P ( H 1 | s2 ) P ( s2 )
1
[ P ( H 2 | s1 ) + P ( H 1 | s2 ) ]
2
P ( H 1 | s2 )dz =
p ( z | s2 )dz
1 z a 2
2
exp
dz
2 0
Error probability for binary signals

Recall:
1 z a 2
2

exp
dz
0 2
2

0
( z a2 )
u=
PB =
Where we have replaced a2 by a0.
u2
1
exp
du
2
2
( a1 a 2 )
2 0
To minimize PB, we need to maximize:
a1 a0
The above equation cannot be evaluated in closed form (Qfunction)

Hence,
Q( z)
PB
( a1 a0 ) 2
or
We have
a a2
= Q 1
equation B .18
2 0
20
( a1 a0 ) 2
z
1
exp
z 2
2
Therefore,
a a
PB = Q 1 0 equation B.18
2 0
2
0
Ed
2 Ed
=
N0 / 2 N0
a1 a0 1 ( a1 a0 ) 2 1 2 Ed
=
=
=
20
2 0
2
2 N0
Ed
2 N0
8
The probability of bit error is given by:
Ed
PB = Q
2N0
The probability of bit error for antipodal signals:
2 Eb
PB = Q
N0
(3.63)
Ed = [s1(t) s0 (t)] dt
2
= [s1(t)] dt + [s0 (t)] dt 2 [s1(t)s0 (t)]

T
The probability of bit error for orthogonal signals:
Eb
PB = Q
N
0
The probability of bit error for unipolar signals:
Eb
PB = Q
2N
0
Error probability for binary signals
10
Relation Between SNR (S/N) and Eb/N0

In analog communication the figure of merit used is the

average signal power to average noise power ration or SNR.
In the previous few slides we have used the term Eb/N0 in the
bit error calculations. How are the two related?
Eb can be written as STb and N0 is N/W. So we have:
Eb
STb
S W
S E R
=
= or SNR = = b b
N 0 N / W N Rb
N N0 W

Table for computing of Q-Functions
11
Thus Eb/N0 can be thought of as normalized SNR.

Makes more sense when we have multi-level signaling.
Reading: Page 117 and 118.
12
Comparing BER Performance

Bipolar signals require a factor of 2 increase in energy compared to
orthogonal signals
Since 10log102 = 3 dB, we say that bipolar signaling offers a 3 dB better
performance than orthogonal
For Eb / N 0 = 10 dB
PB ,orthogonal = 9.2 x10 2
PB , antipodal = 7.8 x10 4
For the same received signal to noise ratio, antipodal provides

lower bit error rate than orthogonal
13
Evaluating Error Performance
14
Error Performance based Designing
Problem:
Problem:
Consider a Binary Communication System that receives equally

likely signals s1 (t ) and s2 (t ) plus AWGN (see the following
figure).
Assume that the receiving filter is a Matched Filter (MF), and that
the noise Power Spectral Density N 0 is equal to 10-12 Watt/Hz.
Use the values of received signal voltage and time shown on figure
to compute the Bit Error Probability.
0
s1 (t ) (millivolts)
Consider that NRZ binary pulses are transmitted along a

communication cable that attenuates the signal power by 3 dB
(from transmitter to receiver). The pulses are coherently detected at
the receiver, and the data rate is 56 kbits/s. Assume Gaussian noise
with N0 =10-6 Watts/Hertz. What is the minimum amount of Power
needed at the transmitter in order to maintain a bit-error probability
of Pe = 10-3?
t ( s)
t ( s)
0
s 2 (t ) (millivolts)
15
16
Signals vs vectors
Signal space
What is a signal space?
Representation of a vector by basis vectors
Vector representations of signals in an N-dimensional orthogonal

space
Orthogonality of vectors
Why do we need a signal space?
Orthogonality of signals
It is a means to convert signals to vectors and vice versa.

It is a means to calculate signals energy and Euclidean distances
between signals.
Why are we interested in Euclidean distances between signals?

For detection purposes: The received signal is transformed to a
received vectors. The signal which has the minimum distance to the
received signal is estimated as the transmitted signal.
17
Orthogonal signal space
18
Example of an orthonormal basis

Example: 2-dimensional orthonormal signal space
N-dimensional orthogonal signal space is characterized by N

linearly independent functions { j ( t ) }Nj=1 called basis functions.
The basis functions must satisfy the orthogonality condition.
ji =
1
1
< i ( t ), j ( t ) > =
i ( t ) *j ( t ) d t
K
K 0
2
cos(2t / T )
1 (t ) =
T
(t ) = 2 sin(2t / T )
2
T
0t T
j , i = 1,..., N
0t <T
2 (t )
0t <T
0
1 (t )
< 1 (t ), 2 (t ) >= 1 (t ) 2 (t )dt = 0

0
Where
ij
1 i = j
=
0 i j
1 (t ) = 2 (t ) = 1
is the correlation coefficient.
Example: 1-dimensional orthonornal signal space

1 (t )
0
1 (t ) = 1
1
T
K is the normalizing constant which makes the signal space

Orthonormal.
19
t
1 (t )
20
Signal space
Signal space
Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms {si (t )}iM=1
j =1
where
a ij = < s i ( t ), j ( t ) > =
s i ( t )
0
s i = (ai1 , ai 2 ,..., aiN )
*
j ( t )dt
Vector representation of waveform
si (t )
j =1
N (t )
T
ai1
j = 1,..., N
0t T
i = 1,..., M
Vector to waveform conversion
1 (t )
i = 1,..., M
NM
j =1
Waveform to vector conversion
j =1
si (t ) = aij j (t )
si (t ) = aij j (t )
where each member of the set is of duration T, can be expressed

as a linear combination of N orthonogal waveforms
where
NM
{. j (t )}N
N
aij = si (t ) *j (t )dt
aiN
1 (t )
ai1
M = sm

aiN
sm
ai1
M

aiN
ai1
N (t )
si (t )
aiN
s m = (ai1 , ai 2 ,..., aiN )
ij
Waveform energy (Parsevals theorem)
21
Basis Functions: An example
22
Basis Functions: An example

Linear combination of basis functions
A set of 8 orthogonal of basis functions
Waveforms in the span

of basis functions
11[n] + 02[n] + 1/33[n] + 04[n] +

1/55[n] + 06[n] + 1/77[n] + 08[n] =
11[n] + 02[n] + 1/93[n] + 04[n] +

1/255[n] + 06[n] + 1/497[n] + 08[n] =
11[n] + 1/22[n] + 1/33[n] + 1/44[n] +

1/55[n] + 1/66[n] + 1/77[n] + 1/88[n] =
What signals can we form with this set of basis

functions?
23
24
Representation of a signal in signal space
Example: Baseband Antipodal Signals
25
Example: BPSK
26
Example QPSK
27
28
Synthesis Equation = Modulation
Example: Baseband Antipodal Signals
29
Example: BPSK
30
Correlation
Measure of similarity between two signals
cn =
1
Eg Ez
g (t ) z (t )dt.
Cross correlation
+
gz ( ) = g (t ) z (t + )dt.
Autocorrelation
+
g ( ) = g (t ) g (t + )dt.
31
32
Analysis Equation = Detection
Correlation Detector
33
Correlation Detector: Examples
34
Correlation Detector Example: QPSK
35
36

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EE3723 : Digital Communications

The concept of maximum likelihood detector is based on

formulate the decision rule that operates on the data

Detection of Binary Signal in Gaussian Noise

Bayes Decision Criterion and Maximum

The output of the filtered sampled at T is a Gaussian random process

where z is the minimum error criterion and 0 is optimum

Error will occur if

If signals are equally probable

Numerically, PB is the area under the tail of either of the

The total probability of error is the sum of the errors

Error probability for binary signals

Where we have replaced a2 by a0.

To minimize PB, we need to maximize:

The above equation cannot be evaluated in closed form (Qfunction)

The probability of bit error is given by:

The probability of bit error for antipodal signals:

= [s1(t)] dt + [s0 (t)] dt 2 [s1(t)s0 (t)]

The probability of bit error for orthogonal signals:

The probability of bit error for unipolar signals:

Error probability for binary signals

Relation Between SNR (S/N) and Eb/N0

In analog communication the figure of merit used is the

Table for computing of Q-Functions

Thus Eb/N0 can be thought of as normalized SNR.

Comparing BER Performance

For the same received signal to noise ratio, antipodal provides

Evaluating Error Performance

Error Performance based Designing

Consider a Binary Communication System that receives equally

Consider that NRZ binary pulses are transmitted along a

Representation of a vector by basis vectors

Vector representations of signals in an N-dimensional orthogonal

Why do we need a signal space?

It is a means to convert signals to vectors and vice versa.

Why are we interested in Euclidean distances between signals?

Orthogonal signal space

Example of an orthonormal basis

N-dimensional orthogonal signal space is characterized by N

< 1 (t ), 2 (t ) >= 1 (t ) 2 (t )dt = 0

is the correlation coefficient.

Example: 1-dimensional orthonornal signal space

K is the normalizing constant which makes the signal space

s i = (ai1 , ai 2 ,..., aiN )

Vector representation of waveform

Vector to waveform conversion

Waveform to vector conversion

where each member of the set is of duration T, can be expressed

s m = (ai1 , ai 2 ,..., aiN )

Waveform energy (Parsevals theorem)

Basis Functions: An example

Basis Functions: An example

A set of 8 orthogonal of basis functions

Waveforms in the span

11[n] + 02[n] + 1/33[n] + 04[n] +

11[n] + 02[n] + 1/93[n] + 04[n] +

11[n] + 1/22[n] + 1/33[n] + 1/44[n] +

What signals can we form with this set of basis

Representation of a signal in signal space

Example: Baseband Antipodal Signals

Synthesis Equation = Modulation

Example: Baseband Antipodal Signals

Analysis Equation = Detection