Skripsi Oil Exploitation and Agricultural Commodity

IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)
Volume 14, Issue 1 (Jul. - Aug. 2013), PP 01-09

e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
www.Iosrjournals.Org
Oil Exploitation and Agricultural Commodity Export in Nigeria:

An Empirical Evaluation of the Extent and Impact of the Dutch
Disease
Ogbonna, Innocent Chukwuka1, Uwajumogu, Nkechinyere R. (PhD)1
Chijioke, Godwin 2 Nwokoye, Ebele S. 3
1
Department of Economics, Renaissance University, Ugbawka, Enugu State, Nigeria

Department of Banking and Finance, Renaissance University, Ugbawka, Enugu State, Nigeria
3
Department of Economics, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State
Abstract: The study examined the impact of crude oil discovery, exploitation and exportation on the
agricultural commodity export (AGO) in Nigeria in the period 1970-2011. Specifically, the study sought to
evaluate how the discovery and exportation of crude oil has impacted on the production and export of
agricultural output. Annual time series data sourced mainly from the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) statistical
bulletins for various years were analyzed using co-integration and vector error correction model in a bid to
delineate the long run relationship between (AGO) and oil export (OX). Our results show that in the long run,
Dutch disease (DD) is present in Nigeria. A 1% increase in OX will depress AGO by 16%, that is, the more
Nigeria produces and exports oil, the lower the output and less competitive the traditional tradable sector
(AGO) becomes. The paper recommends that policy makers should make considerable investments in
developing other economic sectors, re-channel the extra revenue from oil to accumulate income-producing
foreign assets, and come up with a number of tax and import duty waivers, import substitution and
diversification measures in order to boost productivity in the lagging traditional tradable sector and develop
other agro-allied industries to improve the value chain.
Keywords: Agricultural Export, Booming Oil Sector, Dutch Disease, Lagging Tradable Sector, Nigerian
Economy,
I.
Introduction
Nigerias external sector has remained the same since independence in 1960 characterized by the
dominance of a single export commodity. In the decades of 1960s and 1970s, the external sector was dominated
by agricultural commodity export. It accounted for about 50% of the GDP, employed more than 75% of the
labour force and produced over 70% of total food consumption (Reynolds, 1966)[1]. Perhaps, more significant
was the sectors foreign exchange earning capacity. In the 60s, Nigeria was the worlds largest exporter of
groundnut, the second largest exporter of cocoa and palm produce, and occupied a prominent position in rubber,
cotton, and hides and skin export (WB 1975)[2]. In real terms, the country produced the following tones:
305,000, 800,000, and over 1,000,000 of cocoa, palm oil and kernel, and groundnut respectively (CBN,
2000)[3]. As percent share in total export, agricultural commodity export accounted for approximately 71%
before the 70s (Iyoha, 2002)[4] and was the predominant earner of foreign exchange used to pay for imported
manufactured goods. Thus, agricultural commodity export dominated the external sector accounting for about
77% of foreign exchange earnings in the first decade of independence.
The world-class performance of the primary agricultural commodity export could not be sustained as
from the mid 70s. The discovery of oil in Nigeria by the Shell DArcy (now Shell BP) in 1956 and its first
export of crude consignment in 1958 (WB 1975)[2] marked the beginning of oil exploitation in Nigeria. The
production of crude oil which is of the light and sweet type and highly sought after in the international oil
market, and the unrest in the Persian Gulf in 1973, which led to the four-fold increase in the per barrel price of
crude marked the era of oil boom. From 1975 to 2011 crude oil export dominated the external sector accounting
for between 92.7% and 98.7% of total export. As percent of federal government revenue, oil export dominated
the external sector earnings accounting for 26.3 in 1970, 77.5 in 1975, 83.5 in 2000, 85.8 in 2005, and 73.9 in
2010 (TABLE 1.1). The foregoing suggests the unimpressive and lagging performance of the traditional
agricultural exportable in the past three decades. According to Bitrus (2011)[5], agriculture was relegated to the
background both as occupation and as a major foreign exchange earner. Most Nigerians hitherto employed in
the sector, moved to the now booming sector of the economy which was at that time providing over 90% of the
nations revenue. However, shortly after the collapse of agricultural sector and its domination by the newly
discovered oil, the situation changed. From 2.5 million barrels per day and 40 dollars price tag per barrel, oil
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Oil Exploitation and Agricultural Commodity Export in Nigeria: An Empirical Evaluation of the
production fell to less than 1 million barrels per day and less than 30 dollars per barrel in 1979 (FGN 1983[6] in
Bitrus 2011)[5].
The policy concern over the years has therefore been to expand the non-oil export in a bid to diversify
the countrys export base. The diversification of the nations economy is important for many reasons. Firstly,
the sale of oil and its products and government revenue from these were not sustainable during the past decades
due largely to the volatility in the international oil market. Secondly, crude oil is an exhaustible resource and
therefore unreliable for sustainable development. Thirdly, to overcome the known and unimpressive feature of
the Nigerian external sector the dominance of a single export commodity since independence.
The wholesale adoption of the IMF induced Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in the second
part of 1986 (Ogbonna, et al, 2012)[7], the foundation membership of World Trade Organisation (WTO) in
1995, and the adoption of the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) policy in 1999 ushered in diversification,
deregulation and the restructuring of the productive base with positive bias for the production of agricultural
exports. The foreign exchange reform that facilitated the cumulative depreciation of the effective exchange rate
was expected to increase the domestic prices of agricultural exports and therefore boost domestic production.
However, despite these pro diversification and deregulation policies, the growth in the supply of
primary agricultural products for export has remained sluggish relative to the oil export. Specifically, while the
former as proportion of total export was 97.3% in 1960, and 42.4% in 1970, the latter was 2.7% and 57.6%
respectively in the same periods. However, in 1989, agricultural exportable fell drastically to 5.1% and further
to 2.3% in 2006 before rising marginally and insignificantly to 3.6% in 2010. On its part, oil export, instead
rose to 94.9% in 1989, further to 97.7% in 2006 before falling marginally and insignificantly to 96.4% in 2010
(TABLE 1.1).
The rise in the exploitation and export of natural resource (oil) side by side with the decline in
agricultural export symbolizes the Dutch Disease (DD). The DD called the resource curse or the curse of oil
is an affliction that often affects relatively small resource-rich countries as a result of the exploitation and export
of natural resources. The concept was coined from the experience of Netherlands in the 60s when, as a result of
the exploitation and subsequent export of the newly discovered large deposits of natural gas in the North Sea,
the manufacturing tradable sector became less competitive, declined and assumed lagging tradable sector with
a ripple effect on the whole economy which also declined. The objective of this paper is therefore to determine
the extent of DD in Nigeria and its impact on the economy taking the agricultural sector as the traditional
declining tradable sector. The study is for the period 1970 to 2011.
The knowledge gap this work intends to fill is the empirical examination of the extent and impact of
DD in Nigeria since the discovery of oil, hence addressing the countries specific dimension to oil exploitationDD debate. The study is different from previous studies as the agricultural sector is taken as the traditional
tradable sector as against earlier studies that took the manufacturing sector as the declining tradable sector in the
Least Developed Countries (LDCs) (see for example Kuralbayeva, et al, 2001[8]; Roemer, 1985)[9]. In this
context, the study takes as a point of departure the empirical evaluation of the extent and impact of DD in a
small open economy, Nigeria, using agricultural sector as the declining tradable sector. The rest of the work is
structured as follows: section 2 examines the DD theory and literature. Section 3 presents the model and data
sources; section 4 presents econometric methodology and discusses the results while section 5 concludes the
work.
Table 1.1: Agricultural Commodity Export, Oil Export and Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) in
Nigeria: 1960-2011
YEAR
1960
1970
1975
1980
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2011
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
%
% TOTAL
% TOTAL
GDP
EXPORT
REVENUE
63.9
97.3
89.6
41.3
33.1
73.7
7.4
22.5
20.6
2.1
35.8
32.7
1.3
26.7
31.6
1.2
29.4
33.8
1.3
16.5
32.8
1.7
14.2
35.2
3.6
26.1
30.9
3.9
24.9
%
GDP
6.9
11.5
17.2
21.4
37.5
39.6
47.7
38.9
33.4
35.9
OIL PRODUCTION
% TOTAL
% TOTAL
EXPORT
REVENUE
2.7
58.2
26.3
92.6
77.5
96.1
64.2
97.1
73.3
97.6
70.6
98.7
83.5
98.3
85.8
96.4
73.9
96.1
75.1
*Note: 1996-2007 base period is May 2003; 2008-2011 base period is November 2009
Source: CBN Statistical Bulletin, various years
II.
REAL EFFECTIVE
EXCHANGE RATE
(REER)*
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
18.01
58.25
143.78
92.38
89.91
; NA = Not Available.
Theory and Literature Related to Dutch Disease
One of the well known economic models on DD is found in the seminal work of Corden and Neary
(1982)[10]. Known as the Spending Effect and Resource Movement Effect, this model is used to describe
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the mechanisms of the paradoxical deleterious consequence of natural resource exploitation on the countries
where they occur. DD is an economic term and was first used in the magazine The Economist in 1977 to
describe the negative correlation between natural resource exploitation and economic growth if harmonious
management and diversification strategy are not pursued after having acquired the windfall profit from
increased price of natural resource. In their core model, Corden and Neary in explaining the spending and
resource movement effects divided the open economy into three sectors the booming export sector (B), which
centres on natural resource discovery and the ensuing exploitation. The lagging export sector (L), which often is
the traditional manufacturing activity (traditional agriculture in our case here), and the non-tradable sector (N),
which consists of goods and services produced only for domestic consumption. B and L produce tradable goods
and face given world price. All outputs are produced specifically by the factors that belong to each sector and
labour is domestically mobile between all sectors. They then showed that the lagging traditional tradable sector
(L) is crowded out by the other two sectors B and N as a result of an appreciation of the real exchange (REER)
of the domestic currency (guilder) following the large inflow of foreign currency, resulting from sharp surge in
natural resource prices and resource movement away from L which makes the traditional lagging exports (L)
less competitive and therefore less attractive to importers.
Corden (1984)[11] explains three reasons why the boom has occurred: The first is a once-for-all
exogenous technical improvement in B, represented by a favourable shift in the production function, confined
within the country concerned. Two, there has been a windfall discovery of the new resources which increased in
supply of the specific factor, and, three, B produces only for export, with no sales at home and there has been an
exogenous rise in the price of its product on the world market relative to the price of imports.
The spending effect occurs when some part of extra income made in B is spent either directly by the
employer or indirectly by the government through extra tax revenue from B. This extra spending would
produce an appreciation of the real exchange rate so that if the income elasticity of demand for N is positive, its
price becomes higher and more profitable to produce compared to tradable. This increase in price of N caused
by increase in the demand of N derived from the occurrence of the resource boom is spending effect. On the
other hand, resource movement effect is the reaction derived from the boom in natural resource sectors that
requires more labour into B. But because the domestic non-tradable goods sector also thrives, labour shift
comes at the expense of the lagging export sector, which is already under performing due to the unfavourable
real exchange rate appreciation. Thus, according to Corden and Neary (1982)[10], the movement of labour out
of L into B lowers output in L, and they called it de-industrialization. This shift occurs with no effect on the real
exchange rate and hence on N market. There is also a movement of labour out of N into B at a constant real
exchange rate, but because the demand for N has risen due to increase in both output and revenue of B, these
jointly brings about labour shift from L into N dropping the demand and output of L. As a result, the natural
resource boom (direct de-industrialization) reduces both the demand and output of L but increases that of N
(indirect de-industrialization). In other words spending effect tends to make output of N higher than initial
situation and resource movement effect tends to leave it unaffected.
Ruehle and Kulkarni(2007)[12] further assert that the DD can also be explained by examining the
effect of resource discovery, exploitation and subsequent rise in income in the domestic economy. An increase
in the exports of B results to inflow of reserves and in the broadly defined money supply (MS), such that:
MS = Md + Rf
Where MS is broad money supply, Md is domestic money supply, and Rf is foreign reserves. Any positive
change in either the Md or Rf result in increase in MS and hence inflation in the domestic economy. An increase
in the export price of B will increase the Rf, increase MS and hence inflation.
Ebrahim-Zadeh (2003)[13] notes that the weakening of the competitiveness of the lagging export sector
is irrespective of the exchange rate regime the country operates the REER appreciates whether fixed of
floating. However, it should be noted that while in the developed countries (DCs), the industrial sector is the
traditional tradable sector, in the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), the traditional tradable sector, which is
crowded out with a resource boom is most often the agricultural sector. Corden and Neary (1982)[10], Stijns
(2003)[14] call the case in DCs de-industrialization and Stijns (2003)[14] calls it de-agriculturation in the
LDCs if the DD takes effect.
Henry (1991)[15] in Bitrus (2011)[5], indicated that in the middle of 1980, Nigeria was the only
country out of six countries (Nigeria, Indonesia, Algeria, Iran, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago), where the
quality of life of its citizens had fallen below the shock level. He thus summarized the performance of Nigerian
economy into three main points as follows:
i) The specific uses to which petroleum revenue was put conditioned the structure of socio-political sharing. The
social interest and class contrast were low because the state was under pressure to render services to the people
which continued from military government to military government.
ii) There was no much pressure to use petroleum revenue to ameliorate the agricultural sector productivity. This
is where Nigeria differs from Indonesia in the study. In Indonesia, petroleum revenue was used to ameliorate the
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agricultural sector. In Nigeria, that was not done. Thus, Indonesia progressed, while Nigeria declined
economically.
iii) Macroeconomic adjustment of Nigeria led to declining national revenue, and this differs from other
petroleum exporting countries. Indonesia adopted a rapid exchange rate between 1978 and 1980 in form of
devaluation. Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago experienced a large devaluation in 1981 without any hesitation on
such adjustment.
By the forgoing analysis, Nigeria seems to be cited in some works as an example of a country with the
characteristics of the DD in West Africa. This is as a result of a fall in the exportation of the non-oil sector,
particularly agricultural products such as cocoa, groundnut, cotton, tin and columbite and palm oil. The resultant
effect was that petrol became the only exporting sector. Coussy (1991)[16] has maintained that while Cameroon,
on the other hand, seems to have escaped the DD, the potential difficulties involved in relying on primary
exports have been on the export prices and revenue instability, declining terms of trade, and balance of payment
crises resulting from the collapse of primary exports market prices.
Utomi (2003)[17] in Bitrus (2011)[5] has asserted that every oil windfall has created policy shocks that
have increased uncertainty and resulted in retrenchment rather than real growth of the Nigerian economy. He
further cited definite instances to corroborate his stance as follows:
The Yom Kippur War windfall of 1973 facilitated the Udoji awards and the damage to the consumption ethic of
Nigerians, which hunts us today. The Iranian revolution windfall of 1979/80 sets us up for DD after DD as
expanding budget begot the open general license for imports that led us down the path of debt crisis. The
ultimate was 1991 windfall following the Gulf War which increased our recklessness so much that in the year of
that windfall we ended up with perhaps the worst deficit we had up to that point, creating the inflationary
pressures that did havoc to real incomes.
Olusi and Olanguju (2005)[18] noted that while labour migrate from the traditional tradable sector to
the booming tradable sector leading to a decline in the former in DCs, migration of labour in the LDCs is rather
from the traditional tradable to the non-tradable small manufacturing sector also leading to a decline in the
former. Except for the retail outlets in the booming tradable sector, the high skill required in the capitalintensive segments of the oil sector is in short supply in the LDCs. FOS (1996)[19] report that the proportion of
the labour force engaged in agricultural sector increased from 56.6% to 60.4% from 1984-1994 is in tandem
with this proposition. In support of the proposition that the high skill required in the capital-intensive segments
of the oil sector is in short supply in the LDCs, Ajakaiye (2001)[20] submits that the oil sector is mainly
extractive with little linkage to the domestic economy. The booming oil sector thus remains largely an enclave
industry that it had been since its discovery, hence, in Nigeria, as in many other LDCs, labour instead, migrates
to the non-tradable sector of building and construction, services and the relatively small modern import
substituting manufacturing sector.
II.1 Empirical Literature
The empirical literature on DD may be grouped into two: those studies relating to DCs and those
relating to LDCs. On DCs, Jimenez-Rodriguez and Sanchez (2003)[21] results of their investigation on whether
oil exploitation and exportation benefited Norway and United Kingdom (UK) are mixed. While their results
showed that Norway benefited significantly from oil price increases, such increase in the price of oil showed a
significant negative impact on the UK GDP growth. Similarly, Ross (1986)[22] also investigated the case of
DD in the UK and found that after discovery and exploitation of crude oil in the country from 1975, REER
appreciated by between 51% to 55% in the period 1977 to 1980 leading to the decline in the manufacturing
output from 4% in the period 1973 and 1979 to 14% between 1979 and 1982.
Ellman (1981)[23] reports that as a result of the exploitation and export of large deposits of natural gas
in the North Sea in Holland, the textile and clothing industries nearly varnished, while others metal
manufacturing, vehicles, ships, mechanical engineering and construction industries decline. The report showed
that only services (non-tradable) sector expanded. Stijns (2003)[14] in a comprehensive study using World
Trade Data, found that energy-price led booms have systematically tended to hurt energy exporters
manufacturing exports.
As for LDCs, Warr (1985)[24] asserts that the Indonesian economy, though witnessed energy boom
which had distinctive effects on domestic prices, it is not clear that the structure of her economy was affected by
the DD due largely to prudent management of her exchange rate. Other studies, Kuralbayeva, et al (2001)[8],
Roemer (1985)[9], Jazeyeri (1986)[25] reject the presence of DD function on LDCs investigated. Olusi and
Olagunju (2005)[13] examined the existence of DD in Nigeria using quarterly data of variables of interest and
adopting VAR model consisting of impulse response functions and variance decomposition analyses found
evidence of DD in Nigerian economy, albeit, as a delayed occurrence. The duo recommends that Nigerian
government should lay more emphasis on the agricultural sector hitherto not given deserved attention. Other
studies for Nigeria (Abdullahi, 1981[26], Chukwuemeka and Nzewi, 2011[27], Sekumade, 2009)[28] all found
4 | Page
evidence of DD and affirmed that agricultural sector was neglected during the oil boom era.
Aliyu (2011)[29] in his empirical work using graphic descriptive statistics and the one-way analysis of
variance technique, sought to know whether the neglect of agricultural sector was as a result of the discovery
and exploitation of oil in Nigeria during the oil boom period of 1973-1983. The study found a significant
increase in the quantity of capital expenditure allocated to agricultural sector during the oil boom period and that
more capital expenditure was allocated to agricultural sector than was allocated to either of health, education or
defence sector in Nigeria during the period. He concludes by rejecting the hypothesis that the neglect of
agricultural sector was as a result of oil boom.
III.
Model, Data Sources, Measurement and Justification
III.1
Model
Having examined theoretically the DD situation in Nigeria, we turn to empirical examination of its
extent, impact and attendant consequences on the agricultural output in Nigerian economy. We regress
agricultural output proxied by non-oil export against oil export and other control variables. The intention is to
determine the impact of oil exploitation and exportation on the agricultural production and exportation in
Nigeria. In doing so, we are able to determine the extent and impact of DD in agricultural commodity export in
Nigerian economy. Hence, following the works of Olusi and Olagunju (2005)[18], Bitrus (2011)[5], JimenezRodriguez and Sanchez (2003)[21], we represent the reduced form of a standard open economy macroeconomic
model as a multivariate dynamic system and thus specify with some modifications, and proceed to test the long
run relationship among the variables in the model:
AGO = o + 1OX + 2RGDP + 3REER + 4INF + 5OPN +
.
(1)
a-priori = ()
(+)
()
()
(+)
where: AGO = Agricultural commodity output (proxied by non-oil export revenue); RGDP = Real
Gross Domestic Product; OX = Crude Oil Export; REER = Real Effective Exchange Rate; INF = Inflation Rate;
OPN = Openness, and is the error term.
III.2
Data Sources
The macro data such as AGO, RGDP, OX, REER, INF and OPN for the estimation of the equation are
sourced from CBN statistical bulletin various years and covered the period 1970-2011.
III.3
Measurement and Justification of Variables

The main activities in the Nigerian economy include agriculture, oil production and manufacturing.
These three sectors constitute the major contributors to the countrys export receipts. Exports of agricultural and
manufacturing outputs together constitute non oil export (NOX) receipts. All efforts to expand the
manufacturing sector of the economy and improve its contribution to export receipts since independence
remained a far cry. Hence, for Nigeria, NOX consists traditionally of agricultural products both processed and
unprocessed (Ogbonna, et al 2013)[30]. AGO will be proxied by NOX receipts.
Nigeria is a major producer of oil in the world. She is the 6 th producer member of Organization of Oil
Exporting Countries (OPEC), the 11th world producer, and the 5th biggest supplier of crude oil to the United
States (Bitrus, 2011)[5]. On yearly average, the sector contributes more than 95% of countrys total export since
1980 (Ogbonna, et al 2013)[30]. The capacity of the sector to negatively influence substantially the nations
lagging sector and expose it to DD phenomenon is not in doubt. The variable is therefore expected to relate
negatively with the AGO given the DD postulation.
Economic growth is measured by the rate of change of real GDP (RGDP). The expansion of an
economy will increase its capacity to produce for export via imported technology (Okoh, 2004)[31]. Hence,
RGDP is included in the model as determinant of AGO and is expected to relate positively with it.
Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) is included to show the effect of an appreciation of real
exchange rate which results from the high demand of domestic currency derived from the resource boom. An
appreciation of exchange rate will depress the lagging traditional tradable goods sector, and hence impact
negatively on the AGO.
Macroeconomic stability is an important factor for the attainment of higher economic growth through
increased agricultural production. An improved macro-economy would lead to more incentives for firms and
investors to invest and grow the agricultural output. A measure of macroeconomic stability employed is the
inflation, mainly because of its importance in previous studies (Olusi and Olagunju (2005)[18], Bitrus (2011)[5].
With a low inflation there is likelihood for more investors showing interest in domestic production for
export. This is because a rise in domestic prices relative to foreign prices will make domestic goods more
expensive so that relatively domestic firms (residents) import more an export less. Inflation is expected to relate
negatively with the dependent variable.
An open economy permits trade in the tradable goods/services sector. The degree of openness is
5 | Page
measured as a ratio of total trade to GDP (Ogbonna, et al 2013)[30]. According to Olaniyi (2005)[32], the trade
openness implemented in the post 1986 structural adjustment period contributed to Nigerias export
performance. Thus, it is expected that openness relates positively with the AGO in Nigeria.
IV.
Econometric Methodology, Results and Discussion
IV.1
Econometric Methodology
In order to check the time series properties of the variables used in the model, we apply the unit root tests.
We utilize the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Philips Perron (PP) unit root tests to investigate the order of
integration of the variables in the model. Equation 2 which include a constant and trend term is used:
Yt = 1+2+sYt-1+SYt-1+
(2)
1 1 + ..
where = difference operator, Yt = each of the series, Yt-1 = the lag of each series and is pure white noise
satisfying all the classical assumptions. Equation 2 permits the test to determine if the variable Yt is a stationary
series. The null hypothesis in the ADF/PP tests is that Yt is non-stationary, that is, has a unit root (Ho: =0) and
is rejected if is significantly negative (Ha: <0). If the calculated ADF/PP statistic is higher than McKinnons
critical values, then the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected and the series is stationary or integrated of order zero
I(0). Alternatively, non-rejection of the Ho implies non-stationarity leading to the conduct of the test on the
difference of the series until stationarity is achieved and the Ho is rejected.
Phillips and Perron (1988)[33] use a nonparametric method to correct for the serial correlation of the
disturbances. The test is based on the estimate of the long run variance of residuals. There modification of the
Dickey and Fuller test is called Z() test. The critical values for and Z() are the same if the residuals
are generated by an independent and identical process. Although the Phillips and Perron (PP) tests and the
Dickey and Fuller tests provide identical results, the power of the ADF tests is more than the PP tests in the
presence of negative moving average components (Adeniyi 2010)[34].
IV.2
Results
Table 4.1: ADF and PP Unit Root Test Results
Varia
bles
AGO
OX
RGDP
ECM
Level I(0)
ADF
PP
-4.648*
-4.648*
1st Difference I(I)

ADF
PP
-5.440*
-5.440*
-7.700*
-7.700*
-4.673*
-4.673*
-
Variab
les
REER
INF
OPN
OPN
Level I(0)
ADF
PP
-3.241***
-3.241***
-3.945**
-3.945**
-3.945**
-3.945**
1st Difference I(I)

ADF
PP
-6.170*
-6.170*
-
Notes: (1) ADF and PP = Unit root tests with constant and trend
(2) *, ** and *** indicate statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% level respectively
(3) McKinnon (1973)[35] critical values are: -4.242(1%), -3.536(5%) and -3.204(10%).
The results presented in TABLE 4.1 indicate that only INF and OPN are stationary at levels while
AGO, OX, RGDP, and REER are non-stationary at levels. However, they became stationary after first
difference, which implies they are I(I) series. Given the unit root properties of the series, we proceeded to test
for actual numbers of co-integration equations that exist among the variables, that is, whether a long run cointegrating relationship exist among the variables in (1). Co-integration tests are undertaken based on the
Johansen and Juselius (1990)[36] maximum likelihood framework. The purpose is to see whether there exists a
long run equilibrium relationship among the variables. The results of the tests are presented in TABLE 4.2.
Starting with the null hypothesis (Ho) that there are no co-integrating vectors (r = 0) in the model, the
results show that there exist at least one co-integrating (long run) relation in the model since both the trace (
trace) and maximum Eigen ( max) statistics reject the Ho of r 0 against the alternate of r 1 at the 5% level
of significance. This is indicative of at least one co-integrating vector (three for trace statistic and one for
maximum eigenvalue statistic) in the model which moves the relationship towards long run equilibrium. That
there are three co-integrating vectors for trace statistic and one for maximum eigenvalue statistic suggest a
conflict, but this is recognized in the literature and the argument is that since the trace statistic takes into account
all of the smallest eigenvalues, it possess more power than the maximum eigenvalue statistic. Johansen and
Juselius (1990)[36] recommend the use of the trace statistic when there is a conflict between the two statistics
(TABLE 4.2). Thus, OX, RGDP, REER, INF and OPN co-integrate with agricultural commodity export (AGO),
thereby confirming the presence of a fundamental long run relationship among the variables.
Given the stationary behavior of the agricultural commodity export (AGO) and its co-integration with
oil export (OX) and other control variables, the most natural approach is an error correction model with OX as
the long run anchor term. The significance of ECM in the model is to indicate how disequilibrium in AGO can
be adjusted in the short run. Thus, we determine how AGO reacts in the long run to changes in OX in Nigeria.
Following dynamic version of error correction model (ECM) is specified with some variables in their
logarithmic form:
6 | Page
LnAGOt = o + 1LnOXt + 2LnRGDPt-1 + 3REERt + 4INFt + 5OPNt-1 + 6ECMt-1 +
. (3)
Where: 6 is the speed of adjustment of Nigerias agricultural export sector to changes in oil export; Ln stands
for natural log; ECM is the value of the residuals in (1); , o-5, OX, RGDP, REER, INF, OPN, and are as
earlier defined.
Table 4.2: Results from Johansen Co-integration Rank Test (Trace) and (Maximum Eigen-value)
Null
Trace Statistic
Critical Value at 5
Null Hypothesis
Maximum-Eigen
Critical value at 5
Hypothesis
per cent
Statistic
percent
r = 0*
189.1873
94.15
r = 0*
123.4878
94.15*
r = 1*
95.2141
68.52
r=1
59.32279
68.52
r = 2*
48.7798
47.21
r=2
47.21
54.46
r=3
16.8648
29.68
r=3
29.68
35.65
r=4
6.3894
15.41
r=4
15.41
20.04
r=5
0.1011
3.76
r=5
3.76
6.65
Note: r represents number of co-integrating vectors. Trace test and Max. eigenvalue tests indicate 3 and 1 cointegrating equations
respectively at the 5% level. * Denotes rejection of the null hypothesis at the 5% level.
From the estimates of (3) as presented in TABLE 4.3, the coefficient of ECM is -0.58, which is a
reasonably good adjustment process. The speed of adjustment which is significant at 5% is indicative that about
58% of the disequilibrium in the previous years shock adjusts back to the long run equilibrium in the current
year. Patterson (2000)[37] in Ogbonna, et al (2013)[30] asserts that the negative sign of the ECM coefficient is
indicative that an increase is required through the independent variables.
Table 4.3: Error Correction Model (Results of (3))
Dependent
Variable
AGO
P>|z |
Std. Err.
Constant
.0103606
0.956
.1864557
OX
-0.15592
0.477
0.21911
RGDP
-8.03e-08
0.393
9.39e-08
Independent Variables
REER
INF
-0.001109
-0.002079
0.844
0.722
.0056401
.0058459
OPN
0.050526
0.944
.7183749
ECM
-0.575532
0.029
.3384331
Source: Authors computation using Stata 11
IV.3
Discussion
The long run analysis reveals the existence of Dutch disease in Nigeria. With the negative coefficient
of -0.15592 for oil export (OX), it implies that a percent increase in OX will depress agricultural commodity
export (AGO) by about 16%, an indication that the discovery, exploitation and exportation of oil in Nigeria
since the 70s has contributed in making the once upon a time AGO less competitive, decline, and assume the
lagging tradable sector. As a result, the expected contribution of AGO in growing the Nigerian economy is not
being realized as attention shifts away into oil exploitation and exportation. The P>|t| of 0.477, however, is
indicative of an insignificant impact. The finding is consistent with some studies for Nigeria (Olusi and
Olagunju, 2005[18]; Bitrus, 2011)[5], but inconsistent with the findings of Aliyu (2011)[29], Roemer (1985)[9]
and Jazayeri (1986)[25]. Aliyu study was on Nigeria; Roemer study was on Nigeria, Mexico and Venezuela;
while Jazayeri studied Iran and Nigeria. Except for Aliyu, others however, assumed oil and manufacturing as
the tradable sectors instead of agriculture and crude oil. In most developing economies, agriculture is the
traditional export sector, while crude oil sector is relatively newly discovered.
Equivalently, with the negative coefficients of -8.03e-08 for RGDP, -0.0011 for REER and -0.0021 for
INF, the implications are that increases in these variables depress AGO. Specifically, it implies that a percent
change in RGDP will depress AGO by 803%, an indication that the spending of extra revenue from oil hurt
AGO as such are channeled towards the production and consumption of domestic goods and services. For REER
it means that when it goes up (depreciates), AGO will grow but because of extra spending on non-tradable
domestic goods and services, caused by extra revenue from oil, derived from resource (oil) boom (spending
effect), the REER of the domestic currency (the naira) appreciates making the traditional agricultural export less
competitive, less attractive to importers, lower farmers income earnings, decline in output production and a
reduction in export trade. On its part, the negative coefficient of inflation depicts its depressing effect on AGO.
This is expected since the increase in the price of OX as a result of the boom leads to positive change in foreign
reserves, increase in money supply (MS), rise in inflation and a depressing effect on AGO. However, the P>|t|
value for each of these variables is greater than 0.05 indicating an insignificant statistical relationship between
the variables and AGO. OPN coefficient is 0.051, implying that higher degree of openness will improve
agricultural commodity export.
To redress this known feature of Nigeria since independence in 1960 the dominance of a single export
commodity there is a need to diversify the economy away from oil based to other sectors such as agriculture,
7 | Page
science and technology, manufacturing among others; and this will prevent Dutch disease by preserving these
sectors from being crowded out by the oil sector. Policy makers should thus make considerable investments in
developing other economic sectors as well as come up with a number of tax and import duty waivers and import
substitution measures in order to boost productivity in these sectors, develop other agro-allied industries and
hence improve the value chain. The central bank of Nigeria (CBN), Bank of Industry (BoI) and other specialized
banks should collaborate in the area of providing intervention funds for the sectors at softer terms than
obtainable in the open market. Finally, policy makers should re-channel the extra revenue from oil away from
the production and consumption of domestic goods and accumulate instead income-producing foreign assets and
thus reduce REER appreciation, improve AGO competitiveness and attraction to importers, increase farmers
export earnings, increase output production and hence increase export trade
V.
Conclusion
The study empirically examined the presence of Dutch disease in Nigeria since the discovery, exploitation
and exportation of oil. Cointegration technique and Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) were used to
examine the long run and short run relationships respectively. The results show that agricultural commodity
production for export (AGO) is influenced negatively by the discovery and exportation of oil in Nigeria. A 1%
increase in oil export revenue and real GDP will depress agricultural commodity export proceeds by 16% and
803% respectively. Equally, a 1% appreciation of real effective exchange rate (REER) will impact negatively on
traditional export proceeds by 001%. The negative coefficient featured by oil export as a function of traditional
agricultural exportable symbolizes the existence of DD or resource curse in Nigeria. From the results obtained,
the main drivers of the lagging traditional export sector are oil export revenue and real GDP. It is evident from
the study that extra revenue from oil has been hurting the AGO because the purpose and manner of usage always
favour goods and services produced only for domestic consumption. It is imperative that the management and
disbursement of the extra revenue from oil should be to accumulate income-producing foreign assets channeled
towards diversification of the economy and improved methods of agricultural production for export so as to
improve the supply of foreign exchange from other sectors, avoid further damage to agricultural commodity
export, and hence, improve Nigerian economy.
Our study has demonstrated that contrary to some earlier findings (Aliyu (2011)[29], Roemer
(1985)[9], Jazayeri (1986))[25], and consistent with some recent findings (Olusi and Olagunju, 2005[18]; Bitrus,
2011)[5], resource curse is present in Nigeria, but in the long run. Earlier works on Nigeria had used
manufacturing export as the traditional declining tradable sector but this study instead used agricultural tradable
sector as the sector crowded out (de-agriculturation) by the resource boom the oil export. The existence of
DD in Nigeria confirms the existing neglect on agricultural commodity production and export since the
discovery of oil early 70s.
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Report on Nigerian Case Study prepared for the African Economic Research Consortium Research Project titled:Explaining African
Economic Growth Performance May 1-95
Bitrus, N. B. (2011) An Evaluation of the Impact of the Dutch Disease on the Nigerian Economy (1970-2006) A Ph.D Thesis
submitted to the School of Post-graduate Studies, University of Jos, in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Economics, (October)
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Ogbonna, I.C, N.R. Uwajumogu, E. Nwokoye and G. Nzeribe (2012) Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in Nigeria:
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Kuralbayeva, K., A. Kutan and M. Wyzan (2001) Is Kazakhstan Vulnerable to the Dutch Disease? Zentrumfur Europaische
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Roemer, M. (1985) Dutch Disease in Developing Countries: Swallowing Bitter Medicine. In The Primary Sector in Economic
Development: Proceedings of the Seventh Arne Ryde Symposium, (August)
Corden, W. and J.P. Neary (1982) Booming Sector and De-industrialisation in a Small Open Economy. The Economic Journal, Vol.
92, No. 368 (December), pp. 825-848
Corden, W. M. (1984). Booming sector and Dutch Disease Economics: Survey and Consolation. Oxford Econ.. Papers 36, 3:pp.359380
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Ebrahim-Zadeh, C. (2003) Dutch Disease: To Much Wealth Managed Unwisely. Finance and Development Vol. 40, No. 1 pp.1-4 in
Olusi, J.O. and M.A. Olagunju (2005) The Primary Sectors of the Economy and the Dutch Disease in Nigeria. The Pakistan
Development Review 44:2, pp. 159-175
Stijns, J. (2003) An Empirical test of the Dutch Disease Hypothesis using Gravity Model. Paper presented at the Congress of EEA,
Stockholm, (August)
Henry, (1991). Nigeria: From Windfall Gains to Welfare Looses? Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies. The resources
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Coussy, J. (1991). formes spcifiques du Dutch Disease en Afrique de lOuest : le cas du Nigeria et du Cameroon.Revue Tiers
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V. Brailovsky (eds.) Oil or Industry. London: Academic Press.
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Bello University and held in Zaria, Nigeria from September 21st 24th . pp 1-11
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Supply in Nigeria International Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol. 4 No 7, May, pp. 66 -74
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Oxford, UK.
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International Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol. 4 No 7, May, pp. 66-74
9 | Page

e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Scholarly Use of Internet by the Faculty of Medical Sciences: An

Evaluative Study
Ms. Priyanka Manjari Behera
Lecturer, Dept. of Library and Information Science, U.N (Auto) College of science and technology ,
Adashpur,cuttack, Odisha, India
Abstract: The study was conducted to assess
the Internet usage amongst Faculty members of medical

colleges. This study has taken a sample of 200 Faculty Members working in 03 Government Medicals Colleges
spread over three geographical revenue divisions of Odisha. This study aims to identify the use of Internet by
Faculty members of Medical Sciences and the purpose and frequency of using Internet by them. It covers only
four categories of Faculty Members in Medical Science who are working in Government Medical Colleges
(Allopathic) in Odisha and excludes those teachers who are working in Private Medical Colleges as well as
Homeopathic and Ayurvedic Colleges from the ambit. The study revealed that, most of the faculty members in
medical sciences who are using internet are keen to undergo further training in making best use of internet
resources and services so as to enhance their professional image.
Key words: www, internet usage, e-mail, web resources, health science info.
I.
Introduction
Internet is continuously evolving as a global communications network. Many health science

professionals across the globe use internet as a most valuable source of health information. Medical
professionals are increasingly relying on the internet to update their clinical knowledge. The speed with which
new technologies and treatments are being developed indicates that, many health professionals are
using the internet so as to access health- related information to guide them in their day to day practice and
use e-mail to communicate to the people and their fellow colleagues sharing clinical and health related
information.
There is an explosion in the amount of health information available on the internet. For
example, entering the word health in a generic search engine like, Google currently yields over
thousands of pages covering a wide spectrum of health science information. Today, there are different types of
health-related websites available on the internet which vary from highly-academic sites, online peerreviewed journals, various databases and websites, governmental sites, and health-provider-institutions sites
to countless individual contributions from citizens, patients ,as well as health science professionals, well
known medical practitioners and medical researchers world wide.
II.
Size Of Sample
For the purpose of the present study, information pertaining to the State of Use of Internet was
collected from 200 Faculty Members working in 03 Government Medicals Colleges spread over three
geographical revenue divisions of Orissa.
III.
Objectives
The basic objectives of this study are:

To unfold the internet use habit and attitude of faculty members in
(i)
Medical Science towards internet
use.
(ii) To find out the place and frequency of use of internet resources and services by the faculty members of
medical science.
(iii) To unmask the quantum of time spent by these faculty members in browsing the internet.
IV.
Limitations
The present study has the following limitations in its ambit:

(i) This study covers only four categories of Faculty Members in Medical Science such as the Professors,
Associate Professors, Assistant Professors, and Lecturers of three major Government Medical Colleges of
Odisha as the target respondents .
10 | Page
Scholarly Use of Internet by the Faculty of Medical Sciences: An Evaluative Study

(ii) This study is primarily concerned with those Faculty Members who are teaching only in Government
Medical Colleges within the territorial jurisdiction of the State of Odisha only .
(iii)This study included only those Faculty Members who working in three Government Medical Colleges
(Allopathic) and hence, excludes those teachers who are working in Private Medical Colleges as well as
Homeopathic and Ayurvedic Colleges in Odisha from its ambit.
V.
Analysis
The collected data has been analyzed and interpreted below:

5.1 Distribution of Respondents by Category of Posts
Table-1 shows that, 53(37.85%) out of 140 respondents are Associate Professors; followed by
46(32.85%) respondents are Assistant professors, 25(17.85%) respondents are Professors and only the
remaining 16(11.45%) respondents are currently working Lecturer/Senior Residents. This table shows that,
maximum respondents included in the sample are currently holding the post of Associate Professors. The
resulting responses are shown in the diagram below (Fig.1)
Table-1 Distribution of Respondents by Category of Posts
S.L.No
Designation
1
2
3
4
5
Professor
Associate professor
Assistant professor
Lecturer/Senior resident
Any other
No.
Respondents
25
53
46
16
0
Total=140
of
Percentage (%)
17.85
37.85
32.85
11.45
0
Total=100
Figure-1
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Any other
Lecturer/Senior
resident
Assistant
professor
Associate
professor
Percentage(%)
Professor
% of respondents
Designation wise distribution of respondents
Designation
5.2. Distribution of Respondents by Medical Colleges

Table-2 shows that, a total of 200 questionnaires were distributed among the faculty members of three
government medical colleges of Orissa, out of which 140 faculty members responded to the questionnaire. The
overall response rate of the faculty members from three government medical colleges is 70%. The college-wise
response rate is 50(76.92%) from MKCG college, Berhampur; followed by 50(71.42%) from VSS College,
Burla, 40(61.53%) from SCB Medical College, Cuttack. This table is diagrammatically shown in Fig.2 below.
Table-2 Distribution of Respondents by Medical Colleges
Sl.No.
1
2
3
Name of the Govt.

Medical colleges
MKCG Medical college,
Berhampur
VSS Medical college,
Burla
SCB Medical college,
Cuttack
Questionnaire
Distributed
65
No.
of
Respondents
50
Percentage (%)
70
50
71.42
65
40
61.53
Total=200
Total=140
76.92
11 | Page

Figure-2
Medical college wise respondents
90
% of respondents
80
70
60
50
Percentage(%)
40
30
20
10
0
MKCG Medical
college, Berhampur
VSS Medical college, SCB Medical college,

Sambalpur
Cuttack
Name of the Medical college
5.3. Distribution of Respondents by Internet Use Habit

From table-3 it is clear that, a majority of the faculty members,i.e. 110(78.57%) have used internet for
one or the other purpose; followed by 30(21.43%) faculty members do not use internet at all. However, it is
quite encouraging that, most of the medical college faculty members are interested in using internet to fulfill
their health information needs and to update their clinical knowledge as shown in the Fig.3.
Table-3 Distribution of Respondents by Internet Use Habit
S.L.No.
1
2
Types of Responses
Yes
No
No. of Respondents
110
30
Total=140
Percentage(%)
78.57
21.43
Total=100
Figure-3
Use of internet by Faculty Members
21.43%
Yes
No
78.57%
5.4 Distribution of Respondents by purpose of using Internet

Table-4 shows that, a majority of 58(52.72%) respondents are using internet for research purposes;
followed by 39(35.45%) respondents using internet for health education or clinical information, 35(31.81%)
respondents are using internet for to update their professional knowledge,32(31.81%) respondents using
internet for professional contact and/or communication and, only 12 (10.90%) respondents are using internet
for entertainment. The total percentage as depicted in the table 4 has exceeded 100% so about total number of
respondents because, most of the faculty members use internet for different purposes and the percentage of
such respondents under each of the set variables were calculated separately from the total number of
respondents. The graphical representation of the responses of the respondents is shown in the Fig. 4 below.
Table-4 Purpose of Using Internet by Faculty Members
S.L.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Purpose of Internet use

Research
Entertainment
Health Education/clinical information
Professional communication
To update professional knowledge
Any other
Total
No. of Respondents
58
12
39
32
35
12
188
Percentage(%)
52.72
10.90
35.45
29.09
31.81
10.90
170.87%
12 | Page

Figure-4
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Any other
To update
professional
knowledge
Professional
communication
Health
Education/clinica
l information
Entertainment
Percentage(%)
Research
% of respondents
Purpose of internet use
Purpose of use
5.5. Distribution of Respondents by Experience in Using Internet

Table-5 shows that, majority of 55(50%) respondents are using internet with no specific period or
amount of experience. Presumably, these 50% users are either using internet since last more than 4 years or do
not use internet at all or use internet as and when required having no specific time frequency for such use;
followed by 22(20%) respondents have the internet usage experience of 1-2 years; 12(10.91%) respondents each
have been using internet for a period of less than 6 months and between 6 months-1year and, only
9(8.18%)respondents are using internet since last 2-4 years. Thus, a majority of around 92% respondents do
not have adequate experience in using internet. The resultant data are reflected in figure 5 below.
Table-5 Distribution of Respondents by Experience in Using Internet
S.L.No.
1
2
3
4
5
Year of Experience
Less than 6 month
6 months-1 year
1-2 years
2-4 years
Any other duration
No. of Respondents
12
12
22
9
55
Total=110
Percentage(%)
10.91
10.91
20
8.18
50
Total=100
Figure-5
Experience in use of internet
60
% of respondents
50
40
30
Percentage(%)
20
10
0
Less than 6 6 months-1
month
year
1-2 years
2-4 years
Any other
duration
Year of Experience
5.6. Distribution of Respondents by Frequency of Using Internet

Table-6 shows that, 46(41.81%) of the total respondents use internet 2-3 times a week; followed by
34(30.93%) respondents use internet daily,16(14.54%) respondents use internet once in a month and 9(8.18%)
respondents use internet 2-3 times a month, while only 5(4.54%) respondents use internet with no specific
duration i.e. as and when they require information they use internet. This shows that, a large number of
respondents use internet weekly, presumably because they use internet at week ends. Surprisingly, none of the
respondents use internet daily presumably due to the fact that, the faculty members in Medical Sciences remain
busy in their day-to-day health-care and clinical practice which compel them to use internet at leisure. The
resultant data are shown diagrammatically in figure-5.
13 | Page

Table-6 Distribution of Respondents by Frequency of Using Internet
S.L.No.
1
2
3
4
5
Frequency of time
Daily
2-3 times a week
Once in a month
2-3 times a month
Any other duration
No. of Respondents
34
46
16
9
5
Total=110
Percentage(%)
30.93
41.81
14.54
8.18
4.54
Total=100
Figure-6
% of respondents
Frequency of using internet

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Percentage(%)
Daily
2-3 times a
week
Once in a
month
2-3 times a
month
Any other
duration
Frequency of time
5.7. Distribution of Respondents by Place of Access to Internet

Table 7 clearly reveals that, a majority of 92(83.63%) respondents are using internet at their home or
clinic, followed by 23(20.90) respondents are using internet at commercial Cyber caf, 12(10.91%) respondents
are using internet at their respective colleges or in their respective workplace; 7(6.36%) respondents are using
internet at their hospital library, and only the remaining 3(2.72%) respondents are using internet at any other
place that remain unspecified which may be through mobile internet. The total percentage as depicted in the
table 7 has exceeded 100% so also the total number of respondents because, most of the faculty members use
internet in more than one place for their convenient hours and accessibility and the percentage of such
respondents under each of the set variables were calculated separately from the total number of respondents.
Hence, the percentage exceeded 100%. The resultant data are diagrammatically shown in the figure- 7.
Table-7 Distribution of Respondents by Place of Access to Internet
S.L.No.
1
2
3
4
5
Variables
At college or work place
At hospital library
At home and/or clinic
At commercial cyber caf
Any other
Total
No. of Respondents
12
7
92
23
3
137
Percentage (%)
10.91
6.36
83.63
20.90
2.72
124.52%
Figure-7
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Any other
At
commercial
cyber caf
At hospital
library
At home
and/or clinic
Percentage(%)
At college
or work
place
% of respondents
place for access of internet
Variables
VI.
Conclusion
Internet provides a number of medical websites and medical resources which are quite helpful for
health professionals. Health professional used internet primarily for research purpose and to update their clinical
knowledge. They used internet to access health-related information to guide them in their day to day practice
and use E-mail to communicate to the people and their fellow colleagues.
References
[1].
Rao(M),Mudhoi(Mahesh V.)and K.(Shivananda Bhat).2008. Towards Quality of Health Information on the Internet. DESIDOC
Journal of Library and Information Technology;28(6);pp.27-33
14 | Page

e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Review of Judicial Administration of Manipur in Early Period

(33-1122 A.D)
Yumkhaibam Brajakumar Singh
Research Scholar, Department of History Manipur University, Imphal
Abstract: The present study has been initiated to explore the authoritative accounts of Judicial System of
Manipur in early period (33-1122 A.D). As an independent, autonomous and sovereign kingdom, Manipur had
distinct system of Judiciary during the period. The findings may also be benefited to the researchers working in
the field of anthropology, human geography, politics, law etc.
Key Words: Stone Age, Judiciary, Womens Court, Indian Independence
I.
Introduction
Manipur is the extreme northeastern state of India with a rich cultural heritage. The language, dance,
songs, dress, festivals, beliefs, agriculture, administration, and sports have greatly contributed towards Indian
culture as a whole. Her unique historical tradition are recorded in the literature, epigraphs and the testimonies of
the Greek, Chinese and the Persian travelers and adventures. M. Mc. Culloh was a political Agent of Manipur in
two terms during the periods say 1844-1862 and 1863-1867 during the reign of Meidingu Nara Singh and
Meidingu Chandrakirti. He remarked that Manipur had different names to call by different neighboring
countries. It is called Meitheileipak by the Maniporees, the local people of Manipur. The Burmese called it
Kathe, the Bengalees, Moglai and the Assamese, Mekle (Pande, 1985).
Since the ancient time, Manipur was a trade route. In the 4th century B.C, Chinese cotton and bamboo
were carried through Manipur-Burma route from China to Bactria. It was also through Manipur-Burma route
that the Chinese-silk came to Bharu kaccha (Barygaza) which later as was imported in the emporia of Seleucia
and Alexandria (Pande, 1985). It has been firmly established by archaeological discoveries that the humanity on
the earth is more than three million years old. Manipur is an ancient civilization having the evidence of
habitation of Stone Aged men. The archaeological remains of Manipur reveal that Manipur was inhabited since
Stone Age which has wide cultural affinity in Asia, particularly with Stone Age, culture of South-East Asia
(Husain, 1998).
Singh (1969) observed that the history of Manipur like all parts of India had its root in the Stone Age
period. He also found a limestone cave at Khangkhui, at a distance of eleven kilometre to the South East of
Ukhrul town in Manipur. The excavation carried on by him in the cave yielded evidence of habitation of Stone
Age men in the cave. On the basis of the cultural material consisting of stone and bone tools in addition to found
remains, it can be argued that Khangkhui cave yielded evidence of upper or late Palaeolithic period, the first
evidence of Pleislocene man in Manipur dating back to about thirty thousand B.C. Singh (1935) also carried out
the excavation work at ancient site near Imphal and found pottery, the rectangular bronze in Devanagari script
(with a sign of dated 107 A.D).
Neolithic culture is found in both the hill and valley of Manipur. Recent
excavation works at Napachik and Nongpok Keithelmanbi have yielded good number of Neolithic materials
including Celts and Potsherds (Devi, 2003).
II.
Objectives
In view of the above facts, the present investigation aims to review the authoritative accounts of
historical changes in the structure of judicial function and administration of justice in the early period (33-1122
AD) of Manipur.
III.
Materials And Methods
Manipur was an ancient independent Kingdom and it continues till 1891 A.D. before the occupancy of
the British Empire. It has a long and glorious history from beginning of the Christian era. The recorded history
of kingship started from 33 A.D. and it mark the coronation of Meidingu Pakhangba. After Meidingu Pakhangba
a series of seventy five kings who rule over the kingdom of Manipur. Meidingu Budhachandra Singh (19411955) was the last king of Manipur (Singh, 1966). After the independent of India, Manipur had also merged in
the Indian Territory on the 15th October, 1949 (Sanajaoba, 1999). After the merger to the Indian Territory,
Manipur has totally changed in the system of administration. The focus of the present study is to explore the
concept and review of the judicial in Manipur in early period (33-1122 A.D). The word Judicial has two
15 | Page
Review of Judicial Administration of Manipur in Early Period (33-1122 A.D)

meaning. It may refer to the discharge of duties exercisable by judge or justice in Court or to the
administrative duties need not be performed in court but in rest of which it is necessary to bring to bear judicial
mind, that is a mind to determine what is fair and just or ill/evil and unjust in respect of the matters under
consideration (AIR, 1958). According to Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of English language
Judicial is pertaining to judgment in courts of justice or to the administration of justice.
IV.
Review And Analysis
The term administration of justice has a wide meaning and included administration of civil as well
as criminal justice. The expression, administration of justice may necessarily be included the power to try suit
and proceedings of a civil as well as criminal nature, irrespective of whom the parties to the suit or proceeding
or what its subject-matter may be. This power must necessarily included the power of defining, enlarging,
altering, amending and diminishing the jurisdiction of the courts and defining their jurisdiction territorially and
pecuniary. A judgment approach is inherent in the administration of justice, whether legal or administrative.
However the term judicious is lacking in that legal vigour that is generally associated with the term judicial. The
duly to give just decision or make a just order is the same as the duly to act judicial standard is correlated with
legal justice whereas a sample judicious approach is a practice to be fair in every sphere. The practice to be fair
is an alternative to the obligation of being strictly judicial. The administration of justice consists in the use of the
governmental machinery of the state in enforcing right of redressing wrongs. Justice can best be administered
with the help of law. Law is but an instrument and justice the end (Aiyar, 1998).
In India, early societys code of law has been gathered over several centuries often incorporated
many elements of law of code of ancient societies. The earliest surviving law code was drawn up by
Mesopotamian ruler Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) It contents 282 laws, with heading such as Family, Labour,
Personal, Property and Trade. This code was engraved on a stone pillar (Dorling, 2005). The code which is
complied is the oldest known in history, older by nearly a thousands years than the Mosaic and of earliest date
than the so called laws of Menu (Johnson, 1992). The great law giver, Hindu is supposed to have lived
sometimes subsequent to B.C. 1400. The book of institutes that bears the called the Manava Dharamastra
seems to have been a compilation from the various laws in force throughout a part of Northern India and of
existing law books of Dharamasastra (Kapoor, 1991).
In Manipur, the judicial administration is started with the establishment of the foundation stone of
the state formation. The state formation of Manipur is generally and conventionally assumed to have been begun
with the commencement of the history of Manipur. The person who inaugurated the royal dynasty and
principality of the Meitei Ningthouja is attributed in the auspicious name of Meidingu Nonda Lairen Pakhangba
(33-154 A.D.) Manipuri Puyas considered Meidingu Nonda Lairen Pakhangba as of divine origin. He was
Ayuk-Nungthil Lai Oi, Numidang Mee Oi which meant that he was a god in the day time which is meant that
he was impartial in the administration of justice and a human being in the night that is he did his mainly duties
to his wife and sons in the night (Singh, 1976).
The courts during the reign of Raja Pakhangba (33-154 A.D) were of two kinds the Kuchu and the
Pacha. The Kuchu was the highest court having comprehensive jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. In this court
the king and his noble tried cases. The Raja presided over its meeting. Besides, there was a court for female- the
Pacha. The Pacha tried all cases connected with females such as adultery, divorce, wife-beating, assault and any
other cases in which females were involved. The Rani of Pakhangba namely Laisna was the president of the
Pacha. The strength of the court was 11 (eleven) including the president. The ten wives of the Ningthou Pongba
Tara were members of the court. Appeals could be had against the decision of the court to the Kuchu.
The
Pacha determined the form of punishment to be inflicted to female criminals. The highest punishment awarded
was Khungoinaba, in which the head of the culprit was shaved, her bare breast and head were painted red with a
mixture of turmeric and lime, and she was exposed in the market an almost naked condition. Women criminals
were neither imprisoned nor put to death (Singh, 1976).
After Meidingu Nonda Lairen Pakhangba the
succeeding six kings were also treated as the legendary personnel and their accounts of judiciary and
administration of justice are in obscurity. Hence the former and previous scholars of Manipur had provided the
historical accounts since the regime of Meidingu Naophungba during 428-518A.D who was treated as the
first king of Manipur to use the function of judicial administration in associated with the natural law and mainly
devoted to the penal system (Singh and Singh, 1966).
Meidingu Naophungba:
Naophungba was an important ruler who has been referred to in a number of religious, ethical, social
and political treatises as a king to whom was revealed the teaching of several religious preceptors (Kabui, 2003).
The judicial account of Manipur that affected the judicial administration is appeared to have the establishment in
the form of oral tradition. The oral traditional are turned into black and white during the regime of Meitei Lord
Chandrakirti Singh, K.C.S.I. (Knight Commander of Star of India). In the written statement of Loyumba
16 | Page

Shinyen the judicial administration of Manipur is provided to have been commenced during the reign of Meitei
Lord Naophungba (Chandrasekhar, 1975). The statements with regards to Naophungba, he is tail of gods or
ending time-point of the age of divine and the head of the human being the starting point of the human history
by establishing government of man in the form and further principality and kingdom. The judicial
administration of Meidingu Naophungba Kingdom, he is said to have been frame same element for the
administration of judicial system. This legal element one appeared to have been associated with the natural law
mainly devoted to the penal system. Here are the prescribed legal elements. They are:
i) The Queen (Chief Queen) She is not allowed to lay man in any kind to sorrows and sufferings. She
would not be thrifty or frugality when she was doing anything for the welfare and betterments of the
monarch. She would be a woman of words and not the use of double-talk (ambiguous or misleading
speech).
ii) The King He would be the man of words and not talk word of double meaning and to talk in positive and
negative words to two persons. If he speaks double words of he gives order of different words in the same
point, it will bring problems to the administration and judicial system and it will be a bad omniness of the
country.
iii) Administration Functionaries Preceptors (Private and Public) School, man of letter, administrative
functionaries and machineries will always be faithful to the state of kingdom and if anything that will bring
harmful, hurt to the kingdom or the interest of the people have been in their knowledge. It will be disclosed
and broad-cast to the estate authority and republic. If it no so it will win the country. The king and queen
will have not longevity of life or they will be cut short.
General:
The natural phenomena of the climatic condition will remain normal. If any natural climatic emerge it
will destruct the state of administration. As the natural resource to the activities of man who are following the
natural laws with regards to the observation and observance of senior and junior among the populace, general
population, higher classes. The judicial system of man made judiciary will be in each true part of administration
of justice. If any breach of such course it will make problem to the artificial judiciary. So the elements of
judiciary in the feature of penal infliction according to the committed crime are said hereunder as flourish during
those days.
(i) The accused who committed the thief of cow, horse, slaves and servants are the mutilate the hind limb.
(ii) The accused who committed the looting are to be mutilated the fore limb.
(iii) Those who committed cheating, fraud, deception and have deceptive mind are to cut mouth of the
committed crime.
(iv) Those who committed wrongful aspiration for the royal ladies and rape of others wife are to be blinded.
(v) Those who committed the social crime by marriage of the same blood lineal ladies are to be exposed to the
public.
(vi) Those who committed intrigues and conspiracies against the king are to be vanished.
(vii) Those who committed waging war against the king are awarded capital punishment etc.
These function of the judicial administration is traditionally function to the regime of Meidingu Keinou
Irengba (984-1074 A.D). After the Meidingu Keinou Irengba, the function of the judicial administration is
developed. The next king was Meidingu Loyamba who ruled Manipur from 1074 to 1122 A.D (Singh and
Singh, 1966). He is known as the great law giver (Kabui, 2003). During the time of Meidingu Loiyumba, the
Lanlup system has introduced. Lanlup refers to the various groups which had been formed primarily to defend
the land. No able bodies male was exempt. But it is also included the general internal service to the land in the
way of works relating to roads, bridges and transportation, communications, collection of tribute payment, care
of water supply, drainage, sanitation, forest products, building of granaries, collection of agricultural produce
and the storing of the grain, care of domesticated birds and animals, including horse and elephants, keeping of
wild life under control for the safety of human lives, keeping up with foreign relations, regular scouting of
enemies both within and at the borders, defense and nation building. These services were rendered to the
country in lieu of a state tax. At a later period each male served ten working days in the Lanlup for every forty
days. But in times of war all males were considered to be on duly (Paratt, 2005). Meidingu Loiyamba was a
great reformer. He definitely put an end to a social order prevalent before his time and ushered in new one.
Reformation is a difficult work specially for those who by nature lack tact or are over jealous. It is a great tribute
to Meidingu Loiyamba that his reforms were carried out with peace (Kabui, 2003).
Loiyamba Shilyen is a constitution, a royal addict often the name of Meidingu Loiyamba. Loiyumba
Shilyen is the most important historical source and document for the reconstruction of the social, economic,
polity and judiciary of the Manipur of the period. He was the first king of Manipur to have his constitution in
written. His constitution Loiyumba Shinyen is a mile-stone in the constitutional development of Manipur. The
17 | Page

constitution had been in force in Manipur up to 1891 (Singh, 1986).
During the reign of Meidingu
Loiyamba, for controlling the land, his land was divided into six Panas (Divisions) (Singh and Singh 1966).
They are i) Luplem Lup, ii) Thoucha Lup, iii) Kongcha Lup, iv)
Lukhuba Lup, v) Chingcha Rup and vi)
Khaicha Rup.
These Lups/ Rups are divided in the concept of introduction of the voluntary labour system of
Lanlup as paying the taxes in the kind of labour to the state by the subject of the Meitei Kingdom. So, the
judicial system though the monarch handles the power as a whole was for whole of territorial jurisdiction.
During his time principals of criminal laws were very serve. There are also the punishments or order of the king
who committed their crime i) For the theft of cattle was punishable with mutilation of the legs, ii)
The
person who committed burglary was punished with the mutilations of the hands, iii) For giving false statement
and false accusation were punishable with deprivation of the tongue, and iv) Indecency towards the queens of
the king was an offence punishable with deprivation of the eyes (Singh and Singh 1966).
During his time no one was above laws. Despite head of the state/country, the king had to submit to
law. Although this is somewhat at variance with the English concept on the subject, it was perfectly in keeping
with Hindu views of Laws and justice; for according to Hindu ideas, all people including kings must bow down
to law. It would indeed be wrong to say that Manipur had all the paraphernalia of Rule of Law at this time, but
this little kingdom had some fore-taste of it in the eleventh century in the reign of Loiyamba (Singh, 1965).
V.
Conclusion
Since the ancient time, Manipur was an independent, autonomous and sovereign kingdom. Monarchism
prevailed from the beginning of the history of Manipur and it is belief that all the monarchs were benevolent in
character and mercifulness in the characteristics. There were a strong public opinions that in past a group of old
ladies of the country could go to the king to appeal/complain if and when miscarriage of administration of
justice. All the people of kingdom were to serve the king, ten days after a monarch called Lallup. In the early
period of Manipur there was females/womens court by the name of Pacha Wayenshang in the judicial
administration of Manipur. Some scholars remark that Pacha Court existed since the time of Meidingu
Pakhangba (33-154 A.D) and Laisna the Rani of Pakhangba was the president of the Pacha. Meidingu
Naophungba (428-518 A.D) was the first king of Manipur to use the function of judicial administration in
associated with the natural law and mainly devoted to the penal system. These function of judicial
administration is traditionally function till the regime of Meidingu Irengba (984-1074 A.D). After Meidingu
Irengba, the great law giver, Meidingu Loyumba had thrown Manipur (1074 to 1122 A.D.). During his time,
Manipur was divided into six Panas (Division of land) allotted by the authority of the monarchial kingdom.
Meidingu Loiyamba is said to have frame regulations to conduct and administer the affairs of the human labour
participating or allotment of labours and administration of justice in the society by framing a constitution,
Loyamba Shinyen.
All the procedures of the court were in oral submission. There is no written statement
or petition. Before the year 1891 A.D there was no codified code of law in Manipur and justice was
administered according to traditional common law in the context of the state of society prevailed in the Manipur.
References
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AIR-1958. State of Punjab, Punjab-63, P. 69.

Aiyar, K. J. 1998. Judicial Dictionary (A complete law Lexicon), Twelve Edition, P. 46.
Chandrasekhar, K. 1975. Loiyamba Shinyen. Imphal, Pp. 33,129.
Devi, L. K. 2003. Archaeology in Manipur, P. 169.
Dorling, K. 2005. Illustrated Family Encyclopedia, P. 504.
Husain, M. 1998. Encyclopaedia of North East India, Vol. III, Manipur, New Dehli, P. 16.
Jhaljit, R. K. 1965. A Short History of Manipur. Imphal. P. 58.
Johnson, R. 1992. Great Events of the World B.C. 5867-1905 A.D Vol. I, Manas Publication Delhi, P. 14.
Kabui, G. 1989. History of Manipur, Vol. I, Pp. 101, 124.
Kapoor, S. The Indian Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, P. 4276.
Pandey, S. N. 1985. Source of the History of Manipur. Manipur University, Imphal. Pp. 14-22.
Paratt, S. N. 2005. The court Chronicle of the kings of Manipur: The Cheitharol Kumbaba, P. 29. Rout Lodge, 2 Park Square Milton
Park, Abingdon, Oxen.
Sanajaoba, N. 1993. Manipur Treaties and Documents (1110-1971), Vol. I; Delhi. P. 444.
Singh, L.I and Singh, N. K. 1966. Cheitharol Kumbaba, Imphal. Pp. 9, 691, 699.
Singh, M, I. 1986. Constitutional & Legal History of Manipur. Imphal, Pp. 10-11.
Singh, N. I. 1976. The Manipur Administration (1709-1907), Ph. D. Thesis, Gauhati University, Pp. 24-25.
Singh, W. Y. 1935. Report on the Archaeological studies in Manipur.
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e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Effect of Parental Musical Interest Background on Their

Childrens Choice of Music as a Course of Study
Grace E. Ekong (Ph. D)
Department Of Music University Of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
Abstract: This study examined the influence of parental musical interest; and academic background on
childrens interest in music as a course of study. Two research questions and two hypotheses were raised to
guide the study. The study used ex-post facto research design. The study sample comprised 390 Basic 9 Music
students selected from the 12 public secondary schools in Uyo Local Government offering music using simple
random sampling technique. Researcher-developed instrument titled: Parental Musical Interest, Background
and Children Musical Interest Questionnaire (PMIBCMIQ), a 22-item opinion scale with four response options
was used for data collection. The instrument had a reliability index of .84 determined using Cronbachs alpha
reliability coefficient formula. The results of data analysis using the independent t-test statistics showed that
students whose parents are highly interested in music tend to be highly interested in musical studies too. Based
on the findings, it was recommended, among others, that parents should properly guide their wards in their
choice of career rather than dissuade them from their career of interest or try to force them into careers that
they are not interested in.
Keywords: Childrens interest in music; Parental academic background;;Parental musical interest; musical
study
I.
Background
Humanity refers to the human (man and woman) creature made in the likeness of the Supreme Being.
Endowed with qualities and attributes unknown to him to develop, utilize, and create impact on his immediate
and outer environment, this being, created with unrestricted freedom and liberty to choose between options,
may like, love, hate, approve/disapprove, counter, condemn in totality what his nature beams the light. He tends
to prefer certain things to some others. When he chooses a life partner, his likes/dislikes are religiously nurtured
or condemned, though at times with severe reprimand. This transcends into their first important close associates,
their offspring.
Psychologists have made several attempts at laying bare to us certain conditions/changes which take
place in man and his reactions, positive or negative. They have made us to understand that humans possess
some traits which are innate (probably acquired hereditarily) or born out of influences from
relations/interactions/experiences with the outer society. Musical traits stand out as one of such traits which
could be acquired hereditarily, that is, springing from a childs parental musical interest/inclinations. A child is
born with it and may, in the course of his growth, development, and exposure, exhibit this trait, or may
deliberately ignore it. To Sloboda, Davidson, and Howe (2009: 48),
Folk psychology assumes that differences between people in musical ability are directly caused by
inherent biological variability. From birth, some individuals are supposed to have an inborn potential
to be musical, or have a natural talent or gift for music, or innate aptitude for it.
Ignoring the musical trait may depend on a childs sense of valuing. He has several options, like his parents, to
choose from. He may naturally prefer what his parents prefer or value. He may, in the same vein, shun his
parents favourites. Barnett and Chick, Kelly, Kleiber, Hutchinson, Baldwin and Cladwell, all cited in Ho
(2011), assert that parents are significant factors in the development of childrens leisure interests and values.
Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman (1976) see music as a form of human behaviour created by human beings
for human beings. This musical behaviour, according to them, is bound to be influenced by certain factors,
namely, biological, social, cultural, and technological factors. Biological factors tend to relate with the make up
of the human and his intrinsic qualities. Humans have the tendency to follow or accept what others do or think
and this conformist behaviour can be strong enough to affect musical interests (Abeles et al). It is only when
there is a sense of valuing and appreciation of attributes that conformity is likely to take effect. Interest, valuing
and appreciation, according to Tyler (1986) are sub-categories of the affective objectives of education. To
Tyler, valuing is an emotional commitment, to those cherished objects, activities or ideas which drive or direct
the interests, attitudes, and satisfactions of individuals cherishing the objects, activities or ideas. Interest refers
to a feeling of curiosity or concern about something that makes the attention turn towards it; or a power, quality
or aspect of something that attracts attention, concern or curiosity (Microsoft Encarta, 2009).
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Effect Of Parental Musical Interest Background On Their Childrens Choice Of Music As A Course Of
These definitions imply that there must be an appreciation of the object or thing which the individual
derives joy and satisfaction from. Tyler (1986) opines that one desires more of the thing he/she appreciates;
desires to express himself/herself creatively; and identifies himself/herself with the object appreciated. In the
light of this, children may tend to appreciate and identify themselves with what their parents hold in high
esteem and are inclined to. In a study conducted by Ho (2011), the findings revealed that 47.4% of respondents
(students) perceived their parents as the most influential people for their learning instruments, 26% rated private
instrumental tutor; 7.6% rated school music teacher; 7.3% - friends/classmates; 3.5% - brothers and sisters;
3.5% - orchestra conductor; while 3.0% rated orchestra member and others 1.8%. In the same study, 14-rank
reasons for learning music instruments were stated by Ho for respondents rating. Students interest (48.4%)
was rated highest followed by parental encouragement (18.8%). The study also revealed that these parents
learned musical instruments. Though the study was based on the learning of musical instruments, it has
implication for general classroom music studies.
II.
The Problem
Music education is seen as a weapon for combating ignorance, poverty, and disease; a bridge between
confusion and comprehension, a dam for conserving mans stores of civilisation, a rocket subservient to a state
of intellectual sovereignty, and an instrument par excellence for effective national development ( Amoyedi cited
in Essien, 2011). These, therefore, place a great demand and responsibility on not only music educators, but
everyone inhabiting a geographical entity including parents. Parents prepare the grounds for teachers while
governments provide the enabling environment/tools for these ideals to be achieved. The level of preparations
and provisions of ideal environments/tools, in this regard, determine whether these ideals will flourish or
remain moribund. With the high emphasis on science and technology and low intake of students into music
departments of Universities across the nation, opinion of some people points to the fact that academic music
study may lose its pride of place in the scheme of things. Besides, most families are not giving their
children/wards the needed encouragement and support even when musical traits are glaring in them. RusselBowie, Mclnerney, and Yeung (2001) assert that many families fail to provide children with nurturing musical
background. The home, they opine, is the bedrock of every childs developmental prospect. Several studies
have shown that the home constitutes the most influential factor on student learning (Garber & Ware, 1972;
Shapiro & Bloom, 1977; Revicki, 1981; Kalinowski & Sloane, 1981; Olson, 1984; Brand, 1986; Asmus, 1986;
Olszewski, Kulieke, & Buescher, 1987; Kemp, 1996; Shiraishi, 1997; Cleveland, Jacobson, Lipinski, & Rowe,
2000). Kemp (1996) sees the home environment as the key element in the development of musical talent,
particularly in the early stages of development. In the same vein, Olszewski, Kulieke, and Buescher (1987)
opine that parents often have the power to direct their children away or toward certain activities, particularly
when their children are young. Parents interest and involvement in their childrens/wards musical training
determine whether the children/wards will continue with music lessons and practice ( Creech & Hallam;
Moore, Burland, & Davidson; cited in Ho, 2011). It is most likely that parental musical interest background
may be the strongest predictor of their childrens interest in music as a course of study.
This researcher had witnessed many situations where students, having been admitted into and enrolled
in the department to study music, had opted out for other courses. One of the major reasons for such
withdrawals had been parental factors (Parents dislike for music as an academic discipline in schools). Such
parents see music as a course not worth studying in school.
There is need, therefore, to ascertain the root cause of this malady. Could the cause be attributed to the
childrens musical background? Could parental musical interest background affect their childrens/wards
interest in academic music pursuit? Could students interest in academic music study be a function of the
academic background of the parents? This paper, therefore, set out to examine the influence of parental musical
interest background as a factor in childrens interest in music as a course of study.
Purpose of the Study
This study examined the influence of parental musical interest and academic background on childrens
interest in music as a course of study. The objectives were:
1. To determine the influence of parents musical interest on their childrens interest in musical study.
2. To examine the influence of parents musical interest on their childrens interest in musical study given
their academic background.
Research Questions
In order to give this study a focus, the following research questions were posed:
1.
How does parents musical interest influence their childrens
interest in musical study?
20 | Page
2.
How does parents musical interest influence their childrens

interest in musical study given their academic background?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated and tested at .05 level of significance.
1. There is no significant influence of parental musical background on childrens interest in music study.
2. There is no significant influence of parental academic background on childrens interest in music study.
III.
Methodology
Design
The study used ex-post facto research design. This design was chosen since both the independent and
dependent variables had already occurred and the researcher only had to make inference based on the facts
already on ground.
Population
The target population consisted of all the 5471Junior Secondary three (Basic 9) students in the 12
public schools in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, where music is taught.
Sample and Sampling Technique
The study sample comprised 390 Basic 9 Music students selected from the 12 public secondary
schools in Uyo Local Government offering music using simple random sampling technique.
Instrumentation
Researcher-developed instrument titled: Parental Musical Interest Background and Children Musical
Interest Questionnaire (PMIBCMIQ), a 22-item Likert scale with four response options was used for data
collection. The options were Strongly Agree (4), Agree (3), Disagree (2), and Strongly Disagree (1). Four music
experts validated the instrument. The final copy of the instrument was drawn after the experts scrutiny and
suggestions. The reliability index of the instrument, determined using Cronbachs Alpha yielded a reliability
index of .84.
Method of Data Collection
The researcher, with the assistance of the Music teachers in the selected schools, administered the
questionnaire to the respondents during their normal Music periods. The completed copies of the questionnaire
were collected on the spot, immediately after completion. This was necessary to forestall non-return of the
questionnaire.
Method of Data Analysis
Data generated from the study were analysed using the independent t-test statistics.
IV.
Results
Research Hypothesis One: There is no significant influence of parental musical background on childrens
interest in music study.
Table 1: Independent t-test Analysis of Scores on Parents Musical Interest and Childrens Interest in Musical
Study (n = 390)
Parents Musical Interest
Mean
High
Low
266
124
28.38
26.14
Std.
Deviation
2.08
2.68
t cal
Df
Sig.
1.54
388
0.02
Decision
S
In Table 1, the results show that the calculated t value, t-cal, for parents musical interest and their
childrens interest in musical study is 1.54 at df 388, and that the calculated level of confidence, Sig., is 0.02.
This probability level is less than 0.05 in which decision is based indicating that there is a significant influence
of parents musical interest on their childrens interest in musical study. Hence, hypothesis 1- There is no
significant influence of parental musical background on childrens interest in music study was rejected. The
mean scores of 28.38 for those whose parents are highly interested in music and 26.14 for those whose parents
are not interested in music in Table 1indicates that students whose parents are highly interested in music tend to
be highly interested in musical studies.
Research Hypothesis Two: There is no significant influence of parental academic background on childrens
21 | Page
interest in music study.
Table 2: Independent t-test Analysis of Scores on Parental Academic Background and Childrens Interest in
Musical Study (n = 390)
Parental Academic Background
Mean
High
Low
279
111
26.38
26.14
Std.
Deviation
2.08
2.33
t cal
Df
Sig.
Decision
2.82
388
0.12
NS
In Table 2, the results show that the calculated t value, t-cal, for parents musical interest and their
childrens interest in musical study is 2.82 at df 388, and that the calculated level of confidence, Sig., is 0.12.
This probability level is greater than 0.05 in which decision is based. This indicates that there is no significant
influence of parental academic background on their childrens interest in musical study. Hence, hypothesis 1There is no significant influence of parental musical background on childrens interest in music study was
upheld.
V.
Discussion
VI.
Conclusion
This study examined the influence of parental musical interest and academic background on childrens
interest in music as a course of study. The results in Tables 1 and 2 indicated that there is a significant influence
of parents musical interest on their childrens interest in musical study and that there is no significant influence
of parental academic background on childrens interest in musical study. Students whose parents are highly
interested in music tend to be highly interested in musical studies too. This is in tandem with Hos (2011)
findings that parents who are interested in music would support their childrens interest in musical study. The
no significant influence of parental academic background on their childrens interest in musical study implies
that parental academic background is not a significant predictor of childrens interest in musical study.
Consequent upon the findings of this study, it is hereby concluded that parents musical interest is a
significant predictor of childrens interest in musical study but parental academic background is not.
VII.
Recommendations
Based on the observations made, it is recommended that parents should properly guide their wards in
their choice of career rather than dissuade them from their career of interest or try to force them into careers that
they are not interested in. It is also recommended that this study should be replicated in other parts of the
country to allow for effective generalization of findings.
References
[1].
[2].
[3].
[4].
[5].
[6].
[7].
[8].
[9].
[10].
[11].
[12].
[13].
[14].
[15].
Abeles, H. F., Hoffer, C. R., & Klotman, R. H. (1979). Foundations of music education. New York: Schirmer Books.
Asmus, E. P. (1985). Students beliefs about the causes of success and failure in music: A study of achievement motivation. Journal
of Research in Music Education, 34, 262 278.
Brand, M. !986). Relationship between home musical environment and selected musical attributes of second-grade children.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 34, 112 -120.
Cleveland, H. H., Jacobson, K.C., Lipinski, J. J., & Rowe, D. C. (2000). Genetic and shared environmental contributions to the
relationship between the home environment and child and adolescent achievement. Intelligence, 28(1), 69 86.
Essien, M. A. (2011). Indigenous instructional materials in the music education of secondary schools in Akwa Ibom State. Journal
of the Association of Nigerian Musicologists (JANIM), (5), 130 140.
Garber, M., & Ware, W. B. (1972). The home environment as a predictor of school achievement. Theory into Practice, 11(3), 190
195.
Ho, W. C. (2011). Parental support and student learning of musical instruments in Hong Kong. Visions of Research in Music
Education, 19. Retrieved from http://www-usr.rider.edu/vrme-/
Kalinowski, A., & Sloane, K. (1981). The home environment and school achievement. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 7(1), 85
96.
Kemp, A. E. (1996). The musical temperament. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Olson, C. C. (1984). Effects of parenting and home environment on student achievement in grades 3 to 5. A paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of The American Educational Research Association (68 th), New Orleans, L. A., April 23 -27, 1984). (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 247002).
Olsewski, P., Kulieke, M., & Buescher, T. (1987). The influence of the family environment on the development of talent: A
literature review. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 11, (1), 6 28.
Revicki, D. A. (1981). The relationship among socioeconomic status, home environment, parent involvement, child self-concept,
and child achievement. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED206645.
Shapiro, C., & Bloom, J. S. (1977). Home environment, self-concept, and urban students achievement: A bibliography and review
of research. Trenton, N. J.:
New Jersey State Department of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED161972).
Shiraishi, I. M. (1997). A home-based music therapy program for multi-risk mothers. Music Therapy Perspectives, 15(1), 16 23.
22 | Page
[16].
Tyler, R. W. (1986). Changing concepts of educational evaluation. International Journal of Educational Research, 10(4), 94 101.
Internet Sources
[17].
[18].
[19].
[20].
Asmus, E. P. (2009). The impact of music education on home, school, and community.
http://www.uncg.edu/mus/SoundsOfLearning/HomeSchoolCommunity.pdf [Accessed June 24, 2009].
Encarta Dictionary On-line (2009). Interest. http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary/Interest.html [Accessed June 8, 2009].
Russell-Bowie, D., Mclnerney, D. M., & Yeung, A. (2001). Student teachers perceptions of anxiety and confidence in relation to
music education. <http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/rus01123.htm> [Accessed June 8, 2009].
Parental Musical Interest Background And Children Musical Interest Questionnaire (Pmibcmiq),
Section A: Parental Musical/Academic Background
1.
Gender: Male
Female
2.
Which of your parents is very much interested in music?

Father
Mother
None
3.
Is any of your parents a musician? Yes
4.
If Yes, Which?
Father
Mother
No
None
5. What is the highest educational qualification of:

a. Your mother?
FSLC
WASC or Equivalent
B. A/B.Sc/B.Ed.
M.A/M.Sc/M.Ed. and Above
N.C.E.
b. Your father?
FSLC
WASC or Equivalent
N.C.E.
B. A/B.Sc/B.Ed.
M.A/M.Sc/M.Ed. and Above
6.
Which of your parents studied music in school?

Father
Mother
None
Section B: Parents Musical Interest Background

S/N
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Item Description
SA
4
A
3
D
2
SD
1
7. My parents love singing.

8. My parents can play Western musical
instruments
9. My parents can play traditional
musical instruments
10. There are music equipments in our
house.
11. My parents like traditional music.
12. My parents like popular music.
13. My parents like gospel music.
14. My parents like all types of music.
15. My parents take delight in watching musical events.
Section C: Students Interest In Music As A Course Of Study

S/N
Item Description
SA
4
A
3
D
2
SD
1
16. I like music.

17. I love singing
18. 18. I have musical instruments which my
parents bought for me.
19. I like all types of music.
20. I always enjoy music classes
21. Music is one of my best subjects in school
22.
22. I will read music in the University
23 | Page
Junior Secondary Three (Basic 9) Music Students Population In Uyo Local Government, Akwa Ibom
S/N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Name of Schools
Cornelia Cornelly College, Uyo
Christian Secondary School, Uyo
Community Secondary Commercial School,
Ikot Oku Ikono
Community Comprehensive Secondary School,
Fourtowns
Ikono Ibom Community Secondary School
Community Secondary School, Aka Offot
Ikot Okubo Offot
Community Secondary School, Mbak Etoi
Offot Ukwa Secondary School, Obio Offot
Secondary School, Etoi
Ikot Ekpeyak Ikono
Northern Ikono Secondary School, Ikot Odung
Uyo High School, Uyo.
Total
Students
Population
500
600
142
630
100
1054
250
250
215
580
250
NIL
900
5,471
Grace E. Ekong is currently a lecturer in the Department of Music, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom
State, Nigeria. She had her academic musical training at the University of Cross River State, Uyo (Nigeria
Certificate in Education); the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria (Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts); and
finally at the Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria (Ph.D). Her area of specialization is Music Pedagogy
and Performance. She teaches courses in music education, African music, research, history of Western music,
performance (Western/African dance, Oboe, and voice). She is a singer, dancer, music pedagogue, researcher,
choral music/dance adjudicator. She has taught at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education in her
country. Her hobbies include singing, games and sports, dancing, reading, meeting great minds for exchange of
ideas. Her interest is in music pedagogy, research and practice in music education, African music studies,
performance, and inter/intra musical culture exchange. She has several articles to her credit.
24 | Page

e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Spatial Modelling of Cardiovascular Mortality Patterns: A GIS

based Study of Rural Bist Doab Region (Punjab, India)
Anandvir Kaur Saini
(Department of Geography, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India)
Abstract: Population health is a major area of concern for researchers in developing nations with large
demographic base. Most of the geographical studies done in India have focused on modelling communicable
diseases only. The importance of constructing spatial models for non-communicable diseases has risen
tremendously in recent times due to their ever-increasing burden. The present paper attempts to create a
regression model of cardiovascular mortality in Bist Doab region of Punjab (India) . A composite risk factor
score was calculated block-wise and was used as an explanatory variable for the observed spatial patterns of
cardiovascular mortality. The regression modelling was done using Ordinary Least Squares method of Spatial
Analyst tool in ArcGIS 9.3. The resultant regression coefficient was 0.44 and the model was capable of
explaining nearly 35% of variation in the observed spatial patterns of cardiovascular deaths. The model was
statistically significant at 0.05 level. Given the complex aetiology of cardiovascular diseases and the lack of
block-wise data on several key risk factors, it was concluded that this model displayed considerably good
performance. Finally, Morans I test was used to check spatial autocorrelation to ensure that the residuals are
not spatially autocorrelated.
Keywords: Cardiovascular diseases, GIS, Punjab, Regression model, Risk factors.
I.
Introduction
The importance of constructing spatial models for non-communicable diseases has risen tremendously
in recent times due to their ever-increasing burden. The spatial etiology of a disease can be investigated by
discovering where the disease occurs and subsequently relating its spatial characteristics to the relevant features
of physical and human environment. Out of all diseases, cardiovascular diseases are the worlds largest killers
that claim 17.1 million lives every year, representing 29% of all global deaths. About 82% of the deaths caused
by cardiovascular diseases occur in low- and middle-income countries [1]. These diseases are typically multicausal in which several factors are implicated.
The problem of cardiovascular diseases in India has assumed epidemic proportions, earning it the
dubious sobriquet of being the Heart Disease Capital of the World [2]. The World Health Report (2002) has
projected cardiovascular diseases to be the largest cause of death and disability in India by 2020, which will
account for 42% of the total mortality from all causes [3]. Within the country, the state of Punjab has the highest
proportion (approximately 50%) of cardiovascular deaths out of the total mortality. Punjab can be divided into
three distinct cultural regions namely, Majha, Malwa and Bist Doab (Map 1 and 2). The present paper aims to
construct a regression model of cardiovascular mortality recorded in rural areas of the states Bist Doab region
specifically.
Bist Doab is a natural region which extends from 3057 N to 327 N latitude and 754 E to 7638 E
longitude. It is bounded by river Beas in the north-west, Satluj in the south and Shiwalik hills in the east. The
region accounts for nearly 20% of Punjabs total population and around 68% of its people live in rural areas. In
terms of administration, the region has four districts namely, Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Kapurthala and S.B.S.
Nagar (Nawanshahar), which encompass 30 Community Development Blocks. There are 3,528 villages, 35
towns and 2 cities (Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur) in the region. The present study pertains to the rural areas of the
region.
II.
Data and Methods
The study has been conducted for the year 2009 and the analysis was done at block-level. The causespecific mortality data for this study has been obtained from village-wise death registers available in the Office
of Registrar (Births and Deaths) of all the four districts of the Bist Doab region and was aggregated at blocklevel. Apart from it, data on various risk factors of cardiovascular diseases has been compiled from Block at a
Glance publication of Economic and Statistical Organization (Punjab), Website of Excise and Taxation
Department (Punjab) and Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center, Washington, D.C. (U.S.A.).
25 | Page
Spatial Modelling of Cardiovascular Mortality Patterns: A GIS based Study of Rural Bist Doab
Map 1: India - Location of Punjab
Map 2: Punjab - Location of BistDoab
The following methods and techniques were applied for analysis and representation of data:
1. Proportional Mortality Rate: The Proportional Mortality Rate was calculated block-wise using the formula
given below and the values were plotted on map using Choropleth technique in ArcGIS 9.3 software.
Proportional Mortality Rate = Number of deaths from Cardiovascular Diseases 100
Number of deaths from All Causes
2. Cardiovascular Risk Index: This index was developed to study the extent of risk to cardiovascular health in
different parts of the study region by exploring the composite spatial distribution of various risk factors. The
indicators used in the formulation of this index were chosen after a thorough review of literature and keeping in
view the availability of relevant data. The cardiovascular risk index (CRI) consisted of the following five
components:
(i.)
Alcohol Vends Index (AVI): It has been observed that the mere presence or absence of an alcohol
vend in a village directly affects the availability and level of alcohol consumption in the surrounding
area. Thus the Alcohol Vends Index was used to portray the availability of alcohol in the region. The
indicator used for its calculation was number of males per alcohol vend in each block. Lower the
number of males per alcohol vend in an area, higher will be the risk to cardiovascular health owing to
higher per capita availability of alcohol. Alcohol Vends Index (AVI) was arrived at using the following
formula:
AVI =
max (x ) - x
max (x ) - min (x )
(ii.)
Milch Cattle Index (MCI): This index reflected the availability of milk and milk products in the study
area. Since block-wise data on availability or consumption of milk and milk products was not available,
so the number of milch cattle per person was used as a surrogate indicator such that higher the
number of milch cattle per person, higher will be the risk of developing cardiovascular ailment due to
greater fat consumption. Milch Cattle Index (MCI) was calculated as follows:
MCI =
x - min (x )
max (x ) - min (x )
(iii.)
Health Services Index (HSI): Health Services Index was calculated from the indicator named
population served per health institution. Lower the population served per health institution in an area,
lower is the risk to cardiovascular health. Since the data on the number of private health institutions
was not available at block-level, so only government ones were considered. The formula used for
computing Health Services Index (HSI) was:
HSI =
x - min (x )
max (x ) - min (x )
(iv.)
Average Slope Index (ASI): The role of living on moderate altitudes with uneven terrain in promoting
physical activity has been well accepted in existing literature. The eastern parts of Bist Doab region are
hilly while the central and western parts are flat plains. Thus physiography of the region has significant
influence on the spatial distribution of cardiovascular mortality. Robinsons method of slope analysis
was applied on contour map of the region for calculating the block-wise average slope in degrees.
Higher the average slope of an area, lower will be the risk of acquiring cardiovascular diseases, owing
26 | Page
(v.)
to the greater level of physical activity involved. The Average Slope Index (ASI) was calculated as
given below:
ASI =
max (x ) - x
max (x ) - min (x )
Industrial Units Index (IUI): The industries present in an area are a marker of physically inactive
workforce and in some cases, high levels of air pollution as well. Therefore, higher the number of
industrial units per hectare, higher is the risk to cardiovascular health. The Industrial Units Index was
calculated from this indicator using the following formula:
IUI =
x - min (x )
max (x ) - min (x )
Thus, the overall Cardiovascular Risk Index (CRI) was calculated as follows:
CRI = (AVI + MCI + HSI + ASI + IUI)
5
A choropleth map was prepared to depict the block-wise distribution of CRI and this score was
eventually used in the regression analysis of cardiovascular mortality.
3. Regression Analysis: The regression analysis was done at block level using Ordinary Least Squares
(OLS) method in ArcGIS 9.3 software. The OLS tool created a single regression equation as follows:
Y = a + bX + E
where, Y = dependent variable
X = independent / explanatory variable
a = intercept
b = regression coefficient
E = random error / residual
The Proportional Mortality Rate (PMR) was the dependent variable and Cardiovascular Risk Index
(CRI) was used as the explanatory variable. The value and sign of regression coefficient denotes the strength
and type of relationship the explanatory variable has to the dependent variable. In case of linear regression, the
regression coefficient is a constant that represents the rate of change of dependent variable as a function of
change in explanatory variable. The intercept represents the expected value for the dependent variable if the
explanatory variable is zero. The residuals denote the difference between observed and predicted values of the
dependent variable and are shown in the OLS output map as under predictions (where the actual proportion of
cardiovascular mortality is lower than predicted) and over predictions (where the actual proportion of
cardiovascular deaths is higher than predicted). In a properly specified regression model, the over and under
predictions display a random spatial distribution. Morans-I spatial autocorrelation test was used to ensure that
the over/under predictions do not portray spatial clustering. If the over/under predictions tend to cluster, it
implies that some key explanatory variable is missing. The results of regression analysis were interpreted from
the numeric output of OLS method.
III.
Spatial Variation In Proportional Mortality Rate
The total number of deaths from all causes occurring in rural areas of Bist Doab region in 2009 was
24,573. Out of these, 6,796 deaths (nearly 28%) were caused due to cardiovascular disorders. Approximately
65% of the persons who died from cardiovascular diseases were males, while the rest 35% were females. The
distribution of cardiovascular mortality observed at block level shows the following spatial patterns (Map 3):
Map 3: Rural Bist Doab - Proportional Cardiovascular Mortality, 2009

27 | Page
(i.)
(ii.)
(iii.)
(iv.)
Areas of Very High PMR (above 35%): The central parts of the region portray a very high rate of
mortality (PMR above 35%), which include the blocks of Nadala (53%), Phagwara (45%), Nakodar
(45%), Jalandhar East (43%), Shahkot (41%), Rurka Kalan (37%) and Jalandhar West (36%).
Areas of Moderately High PMR (25 to 35%): The eastern parts and some blocks of the western parts
of the region reflect moderately high cardiovascular mortality (PMR from 25 to 35%), which consist of
Tanda (32%), Dasuya (31%), Dhilwan (30%), Adampur (29%), Lohian (28%), Hoshiarpur-II (27%),
Sultanpur Lodhi (27%) and Kapurthala block (26%).
Areas of Moderately Low PMR (20 to 25%): The blocks falling in the category of moderately low
cardiovascular mortality (PMR from 20 to 25%) are largely situated in the south-eastern parts of the
region and some of them lie in the east-central parts. These blocks include Saroya (25%), Garhshankar
(24%), Nawanshahar (24%), Balachaur (23%), Hoshiarpur-I (22%), Phillaur (22%), Bhogpur (22%),
Talwara (21%) and Aur (20%).
Areas of Low PMR (below 20%): The category of low cardiovascular mortality (PMR below 20%)
encompasses most of the blocks lying in the eastern hilly parts of the study area and one block of the
south. These include Nurmahal (19%), Bhunga (19%), Mahilpur (18%), Mukerian (18%), Hajipur
(17%) and Banga block (11%).
IV.
Geographical Distribution Of Cardiovascular Risk Index
The pattern of cardiovascular risk index displays the distribution of geographically antecedent sources
of major risk factors of cardiovascular diseases. The index has great variation from one part of study area to the
other, as discussed below (Map 4):
Map 4: Rural Bist Doab - Cardiovascular Risk Index, 2009

(i.)
(ii.)
(iii.)
(iv.)
Areas having High CRI (above 0.6): The level of risk is high (CRI above 0.6) in and around the
central parts of the region encompassing the blocks of Nadala (0.73), Phagwara (0.70), Phillaur (0.69),
Jalandhar East (0.69), Shahkot (0.67), Dhilwan (0.65), Jalandhar West (0.63) and Nurmahal (0.62).
Areas having Moderately High CRI (0.5 to 0.6): The risk score is moderately high (0.5 to 0.6) in the
adjoining areas lying both to the east and west of this high risk axis. This group includes the blocks of
Rurka Kalan (0.59), Nakodar (0.59), Kapurthala (0.58), Adampur (0.58), Bhogpur (0.57), Lohian
(0.57), Sultanpur Lodhi (0.56), Tanda (0.52), Mukerian (0.52) and Aur (0.51).
Areas having Moderately Low CRI (0.4 to 0.5): The third category of moderately low risk score (0.4
to 0.5) is spread over the south-eastern parts and some blocks of the north-eastern parts. The blocks
falling in this group include Banga (0.47), Garhshankar (0.47), Mahilpur (0.46), Hajipur (0.45), Dasuya
(0.42), Balachaur (0.42), Hoshiarpur-I (0.41) and Saroya (0.41).
Areas having Low CRI (below 0.4): The spatial expanse of the areas recording low cardiovascular
risk score (below 0.4) is spread over the eastern blocks of Nawanshahar (0.38), Hoshiarpur-II (0.37),
Talwara (0.23) and Bhunga (0.20).
V.
Regression Model of Cardiovascular Mortality
In order to explain the variation in cardiovascular mortality, a regression model has been created at
block level by considering Proportional Mortality Rate (PMR) as the dependent variable and Cardiovascular
28 | Page
Risk Index (CRI) as the explanatory variable. The model has been used to determine the spatial dependence of
variation in cardiovascular mortality on the devised cardiovascular risk score. The value of regression
coefficient comes out to be +0.44. The sign of the coefficient reflects positive linear direction of the
relationship. This means that as the cardiovascular risk score goes up, the rate of cardiovascular mortality also
goes up.
The regression coefficient is statistically significant at 0.05 level. The coefficient of determination (Rsquared) is 0.35 which implies that the resultant model explains about 35% of the variation in cardiovascular
mortality. The performance of the model could not be enhanced due to serious limitation of data on important
behavioural risk factors of cardiovascular diseases like smoking, physical inactivity etc.
Map 5: Rural Bist Doab - Patterns of Regression Residuals, 2009

The spatial autocorrelation of the regression residuals was checked using Morans I test. When a
regression model is performing well, no structure is displayed by the residuals and they reflect a random spatial
distribution. The results of test for spatial autocorrelation reveal that the value of Morans I index is 0.16 and the
over- and under-predictions of the regression model do not cluster spatially (Map 5). Thus the composite
cardiovascular risk index devised in this paper has been successful in explaining 35% of the variation in
cardiovascular mortality observed at block level.
VI.
Conclusion
The present research work has its own peculiar strengths and limitations. The paper attempted to fill the
glaring research gap on geographical patterns of cardiovascular mortality in Punjab state of India, which holds
the top slot in prevalence of cardiovascular diseases among all states of the country. In order to sum up the
effect of major cardiovascular risk factors, the present research work devised a composite risk index. The main
advantage of using this index was that it summarized the geographical antecedents of some of the important risk
factors proven to influence cardiovascular health of people. Additionally, it was easier to interpret one number
than finding patterns across multiple indicators. Cardiovascular diseases are extremely multi-causal in nature.
Therefore, the construction of a reasonably good regression model using individual independent
variables was not an easy task. Hence the composite index was calculated to overcome this problem and
facilitate the regression analysis of cardiovascular mortality patterns.
The main limitation of this study was the unavailability of spatial data on key cardiovascular risk
factors like physical inactivity, smoking, alcohol consumption, intake of fats, psychosocial stress etc. Therefore,
indirect measures and surrogate indicators were used to determine the extent of risk to cardiovascular health in
various parts of the region. However, the paper provides a strong basis for exploring deeper research questions
in this direction. In order to determine why the composite index was rising or falling in spatial terms and what to
do in response, there is a need to go back to the factors upon which the index was based. For addressing this
issue, the individual determinants of cardiovascular diseases should be dealt with separately. This raises
important agenda for future research on the geography of cardiovascular diseases.
Keeping in view the complex aetiology of cardiovascular diseases and the lack of block-wise data on
several key risk factors, it can be concluded that the regression model constructed in this paper displayed
considerably good performance. The value of the resultant regression coefficient turned out to be 0.44 and the
model was capable of explaining nearly 35% of variation in the observed spatial patterns of cardiovascular
29 | Page
mortality in the Bist Doab region of Punjab. The regression model was statistically significant at 0.05 level. In
Health Geography, the potential of GIS should be tapped in building such models for studying the causal factors
of both infectious and non-infectious diseases. Additionally, the spatial visualization of disease patterns can
provide valuable inputs to rural-targeted health policies.
Acknowledgements
The author duly acknowledges the financial support provided by University Grants Commission (India)
in the form of Senior Research Fellowship for carrying out the present research work.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
World Health Organization, Cardiovascular diseases (http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/en, 2010)

The Tribune, Why India must work harder at heart health (Chandigarh, Dec 10, 2010)
World Health Organization, The world health report (http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/whr02_en.pdf, 2002)
30 | Page

e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
The Language Challenge in Nigerias Public Sphere

Fred A. Amadi (PhD)
Senior Lecturer on the Departmental Board of Mass Communication at the
Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Abstract: The debating activities of the public sphere stimulated the development of pre-modern Europe. So far,
such activities had failed to do same for Nigeria a country in dire need of development. This paper
investigates why public discourse in Nigeria has so far failed to develop Nigeria. To do the investigation, I
purposively selected eight textual exemplars from stories which three Nigerian newspapers wrote when they
covered the 2005 National Political Reform Conference in Nigeria. I presented the selected textual exemplars
on a text box and then subjected the texts to interpretation using the method of critical discourse analysis. When
I triangulated my interpretation with comments I got when I interviewed the journalists behind the interpreted
texts, I found reasons why the mass media, as presently organized, cannot constitute an appropriate arena for
development-boosting public discourse in Nigeria. On this light, I suggested some re-adaptation in a way that
could motivate intellectuals into fashioning credible arenas for development discourse activities.
Keywords: Premises, reconditioning, public sphere, mass media
I.
Introduction
Habermas has done a seminal work on the concept of public sphere (Habermas, 2001). Doubt also
exists as to whether his work about the concept describes a historical reality that existed or whether he was
describing a set of ideas that are yet to be put into practice (Gripsrud, 2002). Whatever the case, it is generally
accepted that the activities of the classical public sphere pressured pre-modern European feudal lords into
granting civil liberty to their citizens.
The first of what is known as public sphere was the plebeian public sphere (Gripsrud, 2002).
Repressive excesses and feudal vanity marked their proceedings. The plebeian public sphere later
transformed into the literary public sphere. The literary public sphere was an arena where learned men (men of
letters) confronted feudal and papal oppression with logical argumentation/debate.
When the bourgeoisie joined forces with the literary public sphere, that move restricted the
membership of the public sphere to only learned and rich men (Gripsrud, 2002). The restriction was meant to
ensure that nobody in the public sphere owed their livelihood to an employer. The restrictive move also
premised the belief that only rich men could be free from the fears of losing their means of livelihood. The
thinking was that men who entertained no such fear were the ones who could muster the courage to express their
views without hindrance. Adherence to the twin conditions of financial independence and appropriate education
was the reason women, artisans and other petit bourgeoisies were excluded in the bourgeois public sphere
(Gripsrud, 2002).
Custodians of the pre-modern public sphere were never in doubt regarding the power of the spoken
word (Gouldner, 1976). Commentators (Gouldner, 1976) agree that the linguistic activism expressed in the
debates and argumentations of the pre-modern public sphere was what changed the conscience of the feudal
oppressors and readied them for a liberal outlook on the world and on their fellow men. In fact Lerner (1958)
attributes the contemporary affluence of the western world to the liberating ideas that flowed from the activism
of the classical and bourgeois public spheres. Lerners (1958) faith in the efficacy of the public sphere
compelled him to urge third world countries to replicate the debating activism of the pre-modern public sphere.
The Problem
Many developing countries in Africa have attained independence for more than 45 years. During this
period, much dialogue and other forms of linguistic activism have been taking place. Nigeria is an example.
Many observers agree that there has been much discussion on a range of issues in Nigeria (Onojovwo, 2008;
Ogbondah, 2005). Despite this agreement, commentators (Nwakanma, 2010) believe that Nigeria has nothing to
celebrate in terms of development after 50 years of independence. A closer look at many other African countries
might yield comments that decry lack of development. Lack of development, despite much debates and
argumentations, constitutes a problem. Using Nigeria as a setting, this paper examines the proceedings of the
2005 National Political Reform Conference that was organized by the then Obasanjos administration in
Nigeria. The examination is designed to ascertain whether the use of language during the conference undermine,
in any way, the principle of rational discourse.
31 | Page

The Public Sphere in the Era of Community
The communal set-up of the pre-modern world was humane. That era could be explained in the context
of ToenniesGemeinschaft or community (Mayhew, 1997 p. 15). The communal set-up of Gemeinschaft
brimmed with natural will. Natural will in the pre-modern community created a solidarity that was based on
fellow-feeling. Natural will summoned men to be their brothers keepers. Gemeinschaft or community made
men to believe that life here on earth could be improved for everybody through human knowledge and more so
when such knowledge is deployed in rational discourse (Gouldner, 1976).
The community life of the pre-modern era called on men to transform their convictions into actions. It
reminded men that they were the foci of power and that by virtue of such endowment they had a moral
responsibility to change their community in a rational manner (Gouldner, 1976). The determination of people to
change their life in the pre-modern community was seen as a sacred labor and a reformed kind of politics. In the
pre-modern era, men joined politics not because of personal aggrandizement. In the pre-modern public sphere,
activists of change saw themselves as involved in a disinterested kind of politics. Influence in that kind of
politics was defined solely from the standpoint of group interest rather than the standpoint of enjoyable privilege
which its possessor would consume privately. The politics of pre-modern era presumed that rhetoric was its
starting mechanism (Gouldner, 1976).
In the pre-modern public sphere, speakers did not give one another orders because of the relative
equality they shared. Men in that public sphere were opulent. That meant that such men would only be
persuaded through a rational process. Such men were not compelled since their opulence shielded them from
compulsion (Gouldner, 1976). The rule for discursive activity in the pre-modern public sphere was based on
rational discourse. Rational discourse is an honest and ethical method in a communication encounter. It is a
special kind of communication where a speakers statement is challenged to make communication become a
systematic argument that makes a special appeal to demonstrate the validity of a claim (Littlejohn, 1996;
Gouldner, 1976).
Public Sphere and the Ascendency of Narcissistic Culture
Toennies analysis of the concept of Gesellschaft or society (Mayhew, 1997, p.15) explains why
mass media public sphere has not stimulated development in Africa. The structure of human relation fostered by
Gesellschaft is based on artificial will. Artificial will is bereft of fellow-feeling. In Gesellschaft or society,
unlike in community, ties are based on calculation of interests. A social system that operates on the principle of
interest-calculation produces a culture of narcissism (Tucker, 1998, p. 158).Citing Tocqueville, Tucker
informs that narcissistic culture produces democratic despotism (Tucker, 1998, p. 158). Quoting Tocqueville,
Tucker describes democratic despotism as a recipe for producing passive and atomized citizens. Atomized
citizens cannot establish ties with one another. In a situation where citizens cannot establish such ties, they also
cannot muster an attachment to public good. Instead of striving for such attachment, people wittingly or
unwittingly embrace selfishness in a manner that makes general indifference look like public virtue (Tucker,
1998). When selfishness and general indifference are enthroned, narcissistic mentality firms up to make
public officials see the world as a dangerous place where people, except close family members and friends, are
regarded as untrustworthy (Tucker, 1998, p.158).
What the narcissistic culture of modern society destroys is societys way of communicating. According
to Mayhew (1997), instead of embracing the classical model of public sphere where rational discourse is prized,
communication in modern society has opted for new publics (Mayhew, 1997, p.6). Unlike in the pre-modern
public sphere where the mode of communication was strictly shaped by rational discourse, the model of
communication in the new publics is marred by manipulation (Fairclough, 2001). In the new publics,
manipulative communication manifest in different ways. An aspect of such manifestation is that of couching
brief bits of symbolic information in a manner that avoids questions. Another aspect is a style that promotes
speaking in structured situations. Many scholars refer to a style that promotes speaking in a structured situation
as a restricted variant/code of expression(Gouldner, 1976, p.59; Littlejohn, 1996, p. 197; Gripsrud, 2002, p.
32; Verschueren, 1999, p. 118 and Griffins 2000, p. 344)
Mayhew (1997) has explained why communicators and their audiences do not bother about this
distorted model of communication. Mayhew made his explanation in the context of what he refers to as
economics of information (Mayhew, 1997, p. 14). The economics of information cajoles rational actors to
accept information shortcuts or information token in order to save time, money and other resources.
According to Mayhew, both encoders and decoders accept a low-cost approximation of what they
would discover if they spent more time and effort searching for rational details. This laidback style of
communicating has degenerated into an irrationality which claims that the symbols we use to communicate no
longer have referents (Mayhew, 1997, p.276). What this wrong claim now promotes is the idea that
communicators should no longer bother with a redeeming real-life referent in messages so long as a message
evokes expected underlying values and sympathies of the audience (Mayhew, 1997, p. 275).
32 | Page

In Nigeria, this perverse trend in communication is on the rise. Early in 2009, for instance, the Nigerian
government vowed that Nigerians would enjoy 6,000 megawatts of electricity at the end of the year. By August
of the same year, the minister in charge of power came up with a statement countering the vow made earlier in
the year (Abati, 2009). In a similar vein, the minister in charge of transport had declared in July 2009 that the
contract for the second Niger-bridge, purported to have been awarded during Obasanjos administration, was a
hoax. According to him, all the media hype about the contract was a mere faade designed to make an
impression (Okocha, 2009). Since these instances are many, I have on the text Box below, presented more
empirical data. The data are used to explore what transpired in a typical Nigerian public discourse.
II.
Methodology
The textual exemplars presented as data in the text box below were purposively selected from three
leading Nigerian national newspapers. The textual exemplars were selected from the stories the newspapers
wrote when they covered the National Political Reform Conference staged in Abuja between February to July
2005. Newspaper coverage of the proceedings of that conference is considered a worthy source of data for this
paper because proceedings in that conference marked a special instance where Nigerians gathered in a good
number to engage one another in a debate. The three leading Nigerian newspapers from which the textual
exemplars were selected are Guardian, Punch and Vanguard. This sampling choice reflects the notion that
sampling in a qualitative research is often done with a small sample purposively selected for its typicality as
the best example that represents or reflects the other samples that were left out, (Maxwell, 1996, pp. 71 &79;
Wodak& Meyer, 2006, p. 18; Silverman, 2006, p. 308; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 181;Cresswell, 2007, p. 125).
This choice is also informed by a need to pick textual exemplars that exemplify how contemporary media
discourse in Nigeria is yielding ground to the erroneous belief that a message does not necessarily need to have
a concrete real life referent (Mayhew, 1997, p. 125). Choosing the selected exemplars as data is also done in
the context of the notion that a one-word quotation or a lengthy story-like description could count as data in
qualitative research, (Keyton, 2001, p. 70).
Given the view that spoken words are not neutral, Critical Discourse Analysis was used to analyze the
textual exemplars (Wodak& Meyer, 2008). Critical discourse analysis is widely viewed as appropriate for
describing, interpreting, analyzing and critiquing social life as reflected in texts (Luke, 1997). Critical Discourse
Analysis is also useful for revealing the discursive sources of power, dominance and inequality (Vandijk, 1988).
When researchers use Critical Discourse Analysis, what they do is to attribute a class of phenomena to
segments of text, (Fielding & Lee, 1998, p. 41). The need to check possible interpretative bias made me verify
my interpretation of the textual exemplars with the journalists and media organizations that wrote and/or
published the interpreted text. I did this verification along the line of the standard procedure for data
triangulation in qualitative research. It is a well-documented view that the use of a variety of data sources in the
way I did in this paper injects more validity in the findings and conclusions of a study/paper (Keyton. 2001, p.
77; Jankowski and Wester, 1991, pp. 62-63).
BOX 1: Contradictory and Manipulation Texts
S/No
1.
Newspapers
Guardian
2.
Guardian
3.
Vanguard
4.
Punch
5.
6.
Punch
Vanguard
7.
Punch
8.
Punch
Textual Exemplar
Up till now, I have not seen the document; I remember it very
well that the draft constitution was in the bag given to the
delegates at the inauguration (p. 23).
When the conference started, we had directives and mandates
but there was nothing about this constitution, it wasnt part of
the document put in our folder, it was not part of any
memoranda that we received (p.3).
The draft constitution argues for a single term of six years for
the president with clear proviso that anyone who has completed
two terms under the current constitution is not qualified to stand
(p. 14).
Kukah said the conference would continue to be transparent and
would shun any surreptitious move at teleguiding it (p. 2).
Im not Obasanjos spy (p. 14).
Obasanjo said the issue of funding for the conference has been
taken care of (p. 14).
Here is a president doing well for his nation, I dont know why
we should be making noise about adding extra two years to his
tenure (p. 3).
But he made it clear that there was yet no evidence that any
delegate was campaigning for an extension of the stay of the
present administration (p. 2).
Date
24/4/05
26/4/05
24/4/05
27/4/05
5/3/05
16/2/05
26/4/05
27/4/05
Sources: Vanguard, Punch & Guardian newspapers of Nigeria, February July 2005.
33 | Page

Analytic Interpretation
Textual exemplar 1 of Box 1 was uttered by the secretary to the conference. The first thing to note
about that exemplar is the contradiction in the place the speaker claimed he had not seem the document and at
same time claiming also that he remembered very well that the draft constitution was in the bag given to the
delegates at the inauguration. How can somebody be so sure to claim that what he had not seen was in a bag
given to them at inauguration?
More disturbing though is how the entailments of exemplar 1 contradict those of exemplar 2. While the
secretary to the conference was, in exemplar 1, affirming and denying at the same time that the draft constitution
was part of the document given to the delegates at the commencement of the conference, Bola Ajibola an
eminent Nigerian Lawyer who uttered exemplar two, was in that exemplar, contradicting what the secretary to
the conference was affirming in exemplar 1. The amazing thing about the whole conundrum is that the reporter
who reported the secretarys utterance cited in Box 1 as exemplar 1 met the secretary the following day and
wrote another story carrying the same contractions on page four of the same Guardian newspaper without being
aware of these contradictions. Perhaps, oversight like this might have prompted, scholars (Udoakah, 1993, p. 92)
to groan that journalists style of handling information often confuses the audience in ways that compel the
audience to come to terms with new realities in old ways and old realities in new ways. This resonates with
Kuncziks (1995, p. 143) view that journalists have but very shallow knowledge.
Amazingly, when I asked the Guardian to comment on whether the contradictions they ignored helped
their readers to understand the game the delegates were playing with the discredited draft constitution. The
responses I got from the news editor and one of their correspondents were.
1. Yes, absolutely. The first was by Mathew Hassan Kukah, co-secretary to the confab and
the second by Bola Ajibola (SAN). If nothing else, both statements must have conveyed
to the readers the confusion and uncertainty at the conference
Source: Interview on June 26th 2007 with News Editor of Guardian
2. Somebody should have done a follow-up.
Source: Guardian correspondent
When I observed that the failure of somebody to follow up demonstrated the newspapers indifference to the
audiences right to be properly informed, the response from the correspondent was:
2 Not that we were indifferent. Remember, Guardians interest was neutrality. We reported
everything the way we saw them, the audience was left to discern.
Source: Interview on July 25th 2007 with Guardian correspondent
Furthermore, the entailments of exemplar 3 of Box 1 above further highlights why the issue of the draft
constitution needed detailed reporting. The person who uttered those words was the person suspected of
smuggling in the illegal draft constitution that was intended to legitimize president Obasanjos third-term bid.
The manipulative sting in that exemplar is the lexically-specific (Simpson, 1993, p. 172) phrase: current
constitution. By specifically mentioning current constitution, the utterer dribbled the reporters and hoodwinked
them into representing his utterance in a manner that made both the reporters and the readers to overlook the fact
that if the draft constitution he smuggled into the conference had been accepted, that he and his sponsors would
have used the current constitution phrase to justify/legitimize President Obasanjos ambition to be the first
person to run the first six-year term canvassed in the smuggled constitution.
When I asked Vanguard newspaper why they did not feel uncomfortable with the current constitution
phrase, the responses I got from the news editor and the newspapers correspondent to the conference were:
1. You do not prescribe answers to your interviewee in press interview.
Source: Interview on June 23rd 2007, with News Editor of Vanguard
2.What is at issue is the amendment of the 1999 constitution and it is important to emphasize this
fact for the readers. The paper could not afford to assume that everybody would appreciate this
fact easily.
Interview on May 30th 2007 with Vanguards chief correspondent to the conference
My take on the significance of those waffled responses from Vanguard is that it typifies how
journalists fail to take to heart a useful view expressed by Julia Penelope as cited in Littlejohn (1996, p. 243).
Commenting on manipulative use of language, Penelope informs that:
Whether we are speaking or listening, writing or reading, being conscious of the functions of linguistic
structures when we try to communicate or interpret someone elses utterance enables us to identify immediately
and in context, uses of language that are dishonest, misleading or manipulative if we are to protect ourselves
against insidious uses of English, we have to be able to identify such uses and challenge them when someone
tries to coerce us linguistically.
34 | Page

The entailments of exemplars 4 and 5 on the text Box above is interpreted in the context of how they
fell prey to a discourse flaw known as modal categorical claim to truth and knowledge, (Fairclough, 2001, p.
105). Modality is always expressed by modal auxiliary verbs like may, might, must, should, can and so
forth. But aspects of modality that occur without the usual modal auxiliaries are the ones that newspapers often
latch themselves to and by doing so, succumb to a news-framing flaw which supports a view of the world as
transparent as if the news-framing style signals its own meaning to any observer without a further need for
interpretation. Modal categorical claim to truth and knowledge manifests in contexts where a commentator (a
news source) in saying things, makes excessive truth commitment in his/her proposition (Fairclough, 2001;
O,Shaughnessy and Stadler, 2007, p. 120).
In the light of the above, did Hassan Kukahs utterance in exemplar 4 not sound as though he was
absolutely sure that there was not and would never be attempts, in any guise, to manipulate the proceedings of
the conference? But the entailments of exemplar 3in the Box show that what Kukah tried to deny with the
categorical certainty in exemplar 4 was already going on when he made his categorical denial. Another proof
that Kukahs categorical statement was flawed came up when Jerry Ganas categorical denial that he was not a
spy as cited in exemplar 5 of the Box turned out to be the opposite.
To a lay reader, the statement cited as exemplar 5in the Box is brief and clear. But to a critical reader, it
might not be too difficult to realize that the statement was a subtext used to conceal other texts. The concealed
text (meaning) surfaced when President Obasanjos outburst against the chairman of the conference, as reported
in the Punch newspaper of June 27th 2005, revealed Jerry Ganas mission in the conference. That outburst also
revealed what Jerry Gana was concealing when he made the categorical denial that he was not Obasanjos spy.
In a Punch newspaper report of June 27th, 2005, Obasanjo had expressed disappointment that the
chairman of the conference was keeping him (Obasanjo) in the dark in respect of the proceedings at the
conference. The Punch report went further to quote Obasanjo saying that if not for his special delegate Jerry
Gana that he (Obasanjo) would have been in the dark regarding proceeding at the conference.
When Obasanjos outburst is squared with Jerry Ganas modal categorical text as embodied on
exemplar 5, the hypocrisy and distortive potential of modal categorical texts in mass media public sphere
becomes quite glaring. When I asked the journalists involved in this report to comment on whether their
representing Jerry Gunas utterance in the style under review did not help Gana to hide his ulterior motive of
being a presidential delegate during the conference, the editor of the Punch newspaper waffled thus:
No! We are only trying to expose him. It wont help him. Its just to expose his thought to the nation.
Thats what he called himself, he said he was not a spy, but its e-e-e- its now left to the public to judge him.
Because he was involved in the smuggling of that document and for him to say he wasnt a spy. Its now in e-ee public court to decide. As I have told you, in the punch, we report as it is. Thats exactly what we do. We try
to avoid imputation. And we leave the public to judge. They can read between the lines and beyond.
Source: Interview on 6th July 2007 with Editor-in-Chief ofPunch
My position on Punch editors comments is that his faith in the ability of the audience to judge is
exaggerated. This view resonates with those of many scholars. Ang (2001, p. 182) has already expressed the
view that the condition under which the audience is summoned to give alternative reading is too overdetermined. According to her, this makes it almost impossible for the audience to avoid the preferred meaning.
Citing what he calls populist ventriloquism Grossberg (1991 p. 139) informs that the word-choice used to
couch media messages makes it almost impossible for the masses to avoid preferred or dominant
reading/meaning in mass mediated texts. Condit (1991, p. 365) makes this view clearer when she said that
audiences are not free to make meaning at will from mass media texts.
Obasanjos utterance as embodied in exemplar 6 of the text Box exemplifies a disturbing use of
language in a restricted code/variant. The restricted variant of expression has a narrow range of options. The
restricted code of expression does not allow speakers to expand on what they mean. It thrives on shared sense of
assumption. It orients towards a social category for which everybody has the same meaning. It reduces the
number of alternatives for participants. Where such restriction is rife, manipulation becomes easy (Gouldner,
1976, p. 56; Littlejohn, 1996, p. 197; Gripsrud, 2002, p. 32; Verschueren, 1999, p. 118; Griffins, 2000, p. 344).
Given the high frequency of official corruption in Nigeria and also given the controversy which the
source of funds for the conference generated, it would have been better if newspaper readers were told precisely
what Obasanjo meant when he said that the issue of funds for the conference had been taken care of. When I
asked both Vanguard editor and its correspondent to the conference why they failed to go the extra mile of
ascertaining what Obasanjo meant in that restricted expression, their responses were:
1. But you cannot force Obasanjo or anyone for that matter to divulge what he wants to withhold because
there is no freedom of Information Act to force such compulsion.
Source: interview on June 23rd 2007 with News Editor Vanguard.
35 | Page

2.
I do not think the readers curiosity was sated by this story; clearly a lot could still have been done to
enlighten the public. It was a story with a short coming.
Source: interview on May 30th 2007 with vanguards Chief correspondent to the conference.
Take a look at exemplars 7 and 8in the Box. If you have done so you probably would have noticed a
glaring case of structural amnesia. Structural amnesia is a flaw that instantiates how the audience are denied
critical perspectives on issues/events because of a failure on the part of journalists to ask all necessary
questions of newsmakers (Kunczik, 1995, p. 161). In exemplar 7, the Punch newspaper (re) presented Greg
Mbadiwe, one of President Obasanjos appointees to the conference, making the proposition embodied in that
exemplar. In exemplar 8, on the other hand, the same Punch newspaper allowed Hasan Kukah, the co-secretary
of the conference, to be constructed as denying what the same newspaper had reported Greg Mbadiwe doing
only a day before. The most intriguing thing here is that the reporter who reported what Kukah was denying was
the same reporter who reported the entailment of exemplar 7 just a day before.
Amazingly, when I sought Punch newspapers opinion on why the reporter did not draw Kukahs attention to
the reporters earlier story where a delegate as prominent as Greg Mbadiwe did what Kukah was denying, the
responses I got were.
1. E-e-e its assumed that Kukah must have read it himself. Its not the duty of the reporter to
show another source. Yes! Its not his duty! What he should have done as a reporter was to
ask question that in the light of what Greg Mbadiwe said yesterday, what would be the
opinion of Reverend Kukah. But he missed that aspect.
Source: interview on 6th July 2007 with Editor in Chief of Punch newspapers
2.
Perhaps to get concrete position on the issue from Hassan Kukah since he was a principal
officer of the conference. Kukahs position would have been more authoritative than
Mbadiwes especially if the conference received such request for extension.
Source: Interview on May 24th 2007 with Punch newspapers special correspondent to the conference
III.
Conclusion
There are two intriguing statements by Kunczik (1995, p.53). The first statement is that the worst
thing threatening every societys social equilibrium is its mass media. The second is that the real battle for
freedom of speech is the freedom of the informed from the informers. This studys recommendations are
presaged with these two statements because of their interface with the reasons that prompted Kunczik to make
those statements. Amongst these reasons is journalists illusion of their work as that of free, independent and
objective professionals who report selflessly in service of humanity, (Kunczik, 1995, p.35f). This illusion does
not only make journalists to believe that they are born and not made (Kunczik, 1995, p.234) but worse still, this
illusion makes journalists believe that they know more than the audience what the audiences media need should
be (Kunczik, 1995, p.119f).
The recommendation this paper makes premises the rejection of journalists claim that they understand
more than the audience, what draws audiences interest in the media. Against this backdrop, this paper
recommends that journalism school intellectuals should stop, as suggested by Rosen, (1999, p.301), seeing
journalism the way journalists see it. The way of achieving this goal is to raise the consciousness of journalists
and journalism-school academics. Consciousness is targeted because consciousness is seen as the centre from
which power radiates (Gouldner, 1976, p.84). The raising of consciousness in this context must be targeted at
language. It must target how language contributes to the domination of some people by others and how
language-consciousness can, also, constitute an emancipatory tool. Journalists who are conscious of the
manipulative potentials of language would be able to check the myopia of assuming that asking news sources
for detailed comments amounts to biased imputations by a reporter.
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e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Agricultural Development Policy of CornAgropolitan Programin

Enhancing Farmers Revenuein Province Gorontalo
Djafar Ibrahim
Universitas Ichsan Gorontalo, Indonesia
Abstract: The purpose of this research is describe and analyze the implementation process of agricultural
development policy for agropolitan corn programs in terms of its legal basis, bureaucratic planning, and
performance in Gorontalo province. This research type is qualitatif with using of naturalistic method. The
findingsof this research are; 1). Agricultural development policies for corn agropolitanprogram as the leading
program in its execution has got support from the Government of Gorontalo beginning with the establishment of
the Department of agriculture and food security as executor; 2).To improve the performance of the
bureaucracy, government provide incentives in the form of regional performance allowances (TKD), provision
of agricultural technology (Alsintan, seeds, fertilizers, medicines and agropolitan task force as an escort for
farmers started land preparation to post-harvest; 3). Corn agropolitan program hasn't been able to increase the
farmers ' income, meaning that it has not fully enjoyed by farmers, especially farmers who have a narrow land
(less than one hectare).
Keywords: Agricultural Development Policy, Farmers Revenue
I.
Introdution
Today, new paradigm development is focused on distribution and public participation begins with
enactment act no 22 1999 that has been fine-tuned on act no 32 / 2004 about local government. In the
presidential regulation no.7 / 2005 on national medium term development plan (RPJMN) year 2004-2009, there
are five program revitalization agriculture that has been performed by the government namely: (1) Increasing
food security; (2) the development of agribusiness; (3) increasing the agriculturist prosperity; (4) fisheries
resources development; (5) enhancement of the utilization of fishery resources (Arifin, 2007)
In the medium term development plan (RPMJ) 2001-2006 and continued RPJ M 2007-2011 has been
set three priorities: development economics, education, and health. On the economic development of the
agricultural sector is represented by the particular corn agropolitanprogram, reason being it is widespread among
the community of farmers, the land available is extensive, it is supported by the technology of agricultural tools,
seeds and fertilizer. In addition, corn is also the sector that at most accommodateof labor, short-lived, so
economically more profitable farmers.
Based on some those reasons, then the agricultural development corn agropolitan program got very
good response from the farming community. This can be seen in the interest of farmers to replant corn that is
widespread in Gorontalo province so that corn production increased from 2-3 tons per hectare to be 4-6 tons per
hectare. The success in increasing production of corn and corn export to various neighbouring countries such as
Singgapura and Malaysia made the province of Gorontaloknown in Indonesia even internationally. Not only
that, at 2012 Gorontalo province had been believed to be the first international seminar of corn that was attended
by various corn-producing countries of the world.
The success achieved was not perceived by the farming community especially for corn farmerswho
have a narrow land (less than one hectare). Several supporting facilities such as seed corn agropolitan programs,
fertilizer, agricultural implements as well as bank credit is only enjoyed by farmers who have a large land (more
than two hectares). Otherthings such as scarcity of maize seed, fertilizer, drugs on the planting season and a low
price of corn at the harvest season so much enjoy the fruits of an increase in maize production was extensive and
farmers who are employers of corn while corn growers are narrower still in poor condition. It means corn
agropolitan program has brought the province of Gorontalo became famous in Indonesia and internationally has
not contributed in increasing farmers' income and welfare.
II.
Methods
This research using a qualitative approach with naturalistic methods (Sugiyono, 2008). The focus of
this research is; 1). Identify the process of agricultural development policy in corn agropolitanprogram include
the legal basis for execution work programs, and the results. 2). The impact of agricultural development policy
against the government, businessmen, corn agropolitanand agriculturist community program (increase in
production, an increase in income and welfare of the family farmer).
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Agricultural Development Policy of CornAgropolitan Programin Enhancing Farmers Revenuein

The research is provincial gorontalo. Data obtained from any informen through (1). Interview, (2).A
book record, (3).the voice recoreder. Beside from an informer, the data also obtained from several documents
and events in accordance with the focus of research. The techniques that used is analysis of interactive model
analysis consisting of three components analysis namely of reduction data, cereal offering data and conclusion
(Miles danHuberman, 1992)
III.
Results and Conclusion
3.1 Profile of Gorontalo

Gorontalo province is one of the 33 provinces in Indonesia. Gorontalo is an enlargement province of
North Sulawesi, established pursuant to law No. 39 of 2000 and officially established on February 16, 2001.
Broad its territory is 12.215,44 km2 (1.221.544 Ha) or 64% of Indonesia. Geographically gorontalo
situated between 0, 19 0, 15 south latitude and 120, 23 123, 43 east longitude. Gorontaloconsisting of 5
(five) regency namely regency gorontalo, bone bolango, pohuato, north gorontalo and gorontalo city. BPS Data
2011 showed that the population of Gorontalo province is 1.038,585 consisting of men is 520.885 and women is
517.700. The official statistics gorontalo 2009, that the number of poor people in 2007 is about 241.900 or
27,35 % of total population, in march 2008 as many as 221.623. In March 2009 of poor people is 224,617 that
means theres an increase in number of poor people as much as 2.994 people by 2009. This poor population
fluctuation is caused by poor farmers in Gorontalo. Poverty happens farmer level caused by the price is still low
due to the factor of infrastructure (roads, broken bridges) and a price controlled by collectors. This phenomenon
caused the farmers have yet to gain significant benefits from the increase in maize production.
3.2 Legal basis of agropolitan program
Enactment act no 32 / 2004 regional government has changed paradigm of public services system and
management development. Based on presidential no. 20 / 2004 on government working plans (RKP) in
achieving national development goal: 1). Creating safe and peace indonesia, 2). Manifesting indonesia equal and
democratic; and 3 ). Improve the welfare of indonesian people.
To realize that, the government of gorontalo has drawing up regional middle term development plans
(RPJMD) 2007 - 2012. The RPJMD for period 2007 - 2012 based on vision gorontalo as innovation province
and mission build gorontalo an independent, productive and religious, then has set a plan agricultural
development as the main source of revenue (PAD).
Department of agriculture and food security of gorontalo province in help make agricultural
developments assign vision realization of agricultural people of being formidable, culturedentrepreneur
through the agropolitanprogram and agribusiness approach that environmentally and local independence
oriented.
Based on the vision, department of agriculture and food security set its mission as follows: 1). Growing
up the spirit of entrepreneurship agricultural for people gorontalo civilized entrepreneur. 2). To realize
agricultural development through growth and development of agropolitan zone based on corn. 3). Steadying the
support system which includes natural resources, human resources technology, institutional, and facilities. 4).
To realize food security tough, through the program of sustainable agricultural development and
environmentally (Gorontalo The Agropolitan, 2005).
The main reason underlying the agropolitan corn program is supporting by potential of land resource is
483.649 Ha or 37% of the total area, its about 123.708 of households gorontalo residents livelihoods are
sourced from the agricultural sector and the GDP contribution (about 30%) (Department of agriculture and food
security Gorontalo, 2010).
Based on the regulation of agriculture minister no.273/KPTS/OT.160/4/2007 on guidelines for training
institutional of husbandman. Then for the mean the local administration unveiled regional regulation no. 07 /
2009 about the formation of organization and work procedures of the coordination board of agricultural
information, fishery, and forestry in provincial level, district/city, sub-district, up to the levels villages a whole
of gorontalo province.
This body has a duty to provide technical support, administrative and oporasional in the fields of
agricultural information, fishery and forestry (article 4 ). In article 5 is mentioned that the function of this body
is: a). Implementation planning to arrange the coordination in the field of agricultural information, fishery and
forestry; b). formulation of technical policy in agricultural information, fishery and forestry; c). Preparation of
training programs for more professional career counselors in carrying out tasks; d ). Formulation of the
assistance program to strengthen independence, leading perpetrator of self-supporting and entrepreneurship and
business doers that tougher facing global market; e). Programs established monitoring and evaluation in the
fields of agricultural information, fishery and forestry.
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To support the activities in the field of funding both for the distribution of government fund and to
meet the needs of the farmer's needs by the government involves some financial institutions such as Bank
Rakyat Indonesia (BRI), Bank Mandiri and BNI 46 Banks.
Based on the above description it can be concluded that in terms of the policy theory that the process of
agricultural development corn agropolitan program in terms of planning have been appropriate because it has
been supported by rational consideration of the available land area data, cultural communities and economically
transformed maize more profitable due to the time it takes to achieve at the final result of about 100 days.
The development of corn agropolitan in gorontalo a period of 2006 - 2009 as follows: production of
corn of 2006 at 416,222 tons with a broad harvest 109,792. In 2007, production increased to 572,784 tons with
broad harvest 119,027 hectares. Then in 2008,production increased to 752,727 tons and in 2009 is 569.110 tons
dry corn, decline 24.48 % compared with production of corn in 2008.
The decline caused by decreasing harvest area of 31.638 hectares (20.22%) and productivity of 2.57 a
quintal/hectares. Production of corn in 2010 is 582 tons dry corn, increased 2.43 % compared 2009. Increase
production is caused by an increase in harvest area 5.707 hectares (4.57% ). But productivity decreased by 0.93
a quintal/ha (2.04%). (Official news statistics no.169 / 07 / 75 / 2010 ).
The results of the realization of corn agropolitaan program in 2009 is target 569.110 tons from 812.000
tons with the achievement of the performance of 70,09%. Productivity corn per hectare is 45,60 quintal (4,56
ton/ha ), while target productivity of corn in 2009 is 55,20 quintal/ha so that the achievement of performance
was 82,61%. Not achieve the production target caused by declining of harvest area and long dry season.
According to farmers, on the other side, the decline is more caused by growing season which is not
appropriate because scarcity of seeds, fertilizer and medicinal on growing season.
To protect farmers from the game of the price of a merchant as well as providing a big profit to
farmers, then the governor to make a decision no. 119 / 2006 about the selling price of corn in the gorontalo.
Associated with it, farmers following statement:
It seems to me as chairman of the respect by the presence of the Governor of Gorontalo Decree No.
119 of 2006 which is a refinement of the previous regulation is a very rational decision because it is in favour of
the farmers and I support it because the policy issued a decision very profitable farmers in general and can
increase our revenue, but in reality the price level, the farmer does not comply with published rates the
Government through electronic media (Interview with Chairman Of Dulupi Village Farmers Group, 15 Maret
2012 )
By the analysis of secondary data and the results of an interview as described above, it is concluded
that act no 32 / 2004 has been used as the basis of government management in creating good governance,
involving the government the private sector and social norms and was a confirmation strategic bureaucracy in
the arrangement of government toward a system of management of public services more flexible, accountable
and more oriented in the interests of the public
The farmers is the main target in corn agropolitan program to raise revenue and welfare and reducing
poverty rate. In 2005 poverty 29.15 % (255.000), increased to 29.13 % ( 273.800) in 2006, increasing by 0,08
%, in 2007 poverty decreased to 27.35 % ( 241.900), in 2008 poverty declining more be 24.88 % ( 221,617), in
2009 poverty rising again into being 25.01 % ( 224.652 ) raise about 0.13 digits, and in 2010 descend again be
23,19 ( 209,886) (BPMD-PK of gorontalo province 2011).
Of the data and some of the farmers' statement can be explained that the program has improved the
corn agropolitan production and farmers' income. The increase in revenue has made the farmers were able to
meet the necessities of life such as finance his son's education. But it still can not be a guarantee for farmers to
live in sufficiency, because climate disruptions and rising prices of necessities of life (inflation) is a threat to
return is unlikely to meet the necessities of life (poor) especially for those farmers who have narrow land.
What was presented above indicating that the principle of good governance which includes:
Partisipation, Role of law, Tranparancy, Responsiviness, Consensus, Equity, Effectiveness and efficiency,
Accontability, Stategic Vision, should be addressed in the policy of Interrelated agricultural development corn
agropolitan program but in reality it has not been able to increase farmers' income and the reduction of poverty.
This caused coordination among stekholders not running as expected because it is still egosectoral.
Ideally, the public policy is a continuous process, therefore it's the most important thing is the policy
cycle. The cycle includes policy formulation, implementation and evaluation of policies (Nakamura &
Smallwood, 1980; Parsons, 1997; Mohammad, 2008). The policy that has been formulated to accomplish a
particular objective. In this context is understandable if Lineberry (1978) argue that the policy will not succeed
if in the implementation has no relationship with its intended purpose.
The formulation of a policy that is created will not be mean or just be a series of beautiful words and
raw stored neatly in a document if it is not implemented. Therefore, the implementation of policies need to be
situational, honest, is referring to the spirit of empowerment and insightful competence (Solichin, 1999). In
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order to implement the policy really is a process of interaction between setting goals with action to achieve the
desired impact(Pressman dan Wildavsky in Parsons, 1997).
3.3 Implementation and evaluation of agricultural development policy for corn agropolitan program.
The implementation of the policy according to lineberry in nawawi ( 2009 ) that policy implementation
encompasses those actions by public and private individuals ( and groups ) that are directed at theachievement
of goals and objectives set forth in prior policy decisions.This statements assign a meaning that the
implementation of the policy is the actions carried out by the individuals rather than And groups, the
government and private that is directed at accomplishment of an objective and target's priority in the resolution
policy.
Policy implementation behold are being considered since this policy in formulating and implementing
process. Implementation policy is a stage cycle in public policy. This stage draws implementation process of a
policy itself. All government policy that no meaning, if the implementation of policies is done through road
appropriate and as is on public interests ( soenarko, 2005).Palumboin islamy( 2003 ) said that stage of
implementation phase policy is very important to see if a policy that could go well or not. Of both opinion, good
palumbo and seonarko see that phase implementation policy very important to be implemented.
The implementation of such a policy are not confined to the ranks of the bureaucracy, but also involves
actors outside government bureaucracies, such as community organizations, and even individuals as well as
policy implementation. To avoid any conflict or difference of perception in the execution of an implementer
(unit and non bureaucratic), the administrative process should always be based on a standard operational
procedure (SOP) as a reference implementation.
Mazmaniansabatier ( 1983 ) and said that discusses implementation problems policy means trying to
understand what happened actually when program enacted, expressed or formulated the activities and events
occurring after ratification process policy good concerning efforts to engender mengadministrasikannya and real
impact on events in society or particular.
3.4 Corn agropolitangorontalo program.
Agropolitan derived from the word agro which means agriculture and politan which means city that can
be defined as the city of a farm or city in the agriculture or farming in the area of city (friedman and douglas,
1975). Completely, agropolitan is a city of a farm that is grown and developed as a function of the system and,
agribusiness capable of serving business push, exciting, and took the activities of agricultural development
(agribusiness) the surrounding region (suwandi, 2005).
Wibowo (2004) explains that the concept agropolitanwas first introduced by Mc. Douglass and
Friedmann in 1975 as a strategy for rural development. Basically, this concept provide services in urban or rural
area with other terms used by Friedmann is lea in town. Thus farmers or villagers do not need to go into town
to get the service, both in the service that deals with the problem of production and marketing as well as with
issues related to social and cultural needs in daily life for farmers.
The management of the institutional bureaucracy in improving the performance of the public
bureaucracy policy become the strategic issue. It is caused that improving performances bureaucracy have a
broad implication in life economic and political (Dwiyanto, 2006 ). In the economic, repair the performance
of the bureaucracy could improve investment climate which is very required in economic development to get
out of a prolonged crisis.
The bad bureaucracy performance public in indonesia often the most important factor of lower interest
invest for entrepreneurs. Unfortunately, performance of public bureaucracy in indonesia based on the study and
the observation not widely undergo a change, even cederung growing worse, so government difficult attract
investors to invest, plus the legal uncertainty and security nasionalyang certainly would hinder efforts this
people for immediate out of economic crisis and poverty of its people.
Agricultural development policy for corn agropolitan program as the government's leading program in
Gorontalo, so institutional strengthening (both in terms of the norms as well as the improvement of the
organizational structure) as one form of bureaucratic reform should be done in an effort to setting up
bureaucracy and bureaucratic performance improvements to public services. Bureaucratic reform essentially
rests on the performance improvement efforts in order to increase the productivity of both the Central
Government and organizations in the region (Turner &Hulme, 1997).
Agricultural development policy is one of the ways taken by Central and local governments in the
provision of employment, increased social welfare, elimination of poverty, the provision of food production,
export earnings in foreign exchange. Given the enormous role in economic development and improvement of
welfare community, the government gave spirit and motivation to all local governments to make this sector as
the leading sector.
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The public bureaucracy at the level of local governance that works to provide the best service to the
community is currently largely co-opted by attitudes and behaviors that respect vested interest. As a result, is the
low level of aksebilitas and quality of public services that reflected through the performance accountability of
public bureaucracies in a variety of public service management.
The low level of performance had led to a variety of resistance and poor actions like demonstrations
and this will lower the legitimacy of Government. The inability of the public in using bureaucratic tasks and
functions optimally with respect to public services among other things caused by factors such as a lack of
capability, competency, professionalism and mostly bureaucratic officials (Tjokrowinoto, 2001).
3.5 Performance of bureaucracy of corn agropolitan program.
To encourage the performance of local government bureaucracy has imposed a system of performancebased incentives. It is one of the efforts made by local governments in encouraging better performance in the
public service. Performance-based incentive system, there was in the form of regional performance allowances
(TKD) and is an effective instrument for improving the performance of employees in practice known as
performance-based payroll system (SPBK).
However, the most popular applied is the provision of bonuses and the determination of the amount of
salary based on assessment who compares the performance of employees in an individual manner and kolompok
met the target has been set up by an organization. That means that one of the elements of good governance been
implemented in program agropolitan and doctrine is very concerned with another(Mahmudi, 2007 ).
Dwiyanto (2006) states that improving the performance of public bureaucracies into a strategic policy
issues because of bureaucratic performance improvement has implications in the economic and political life. To
improve the performance of the bureaucracy, particularly for employees as government officials, if seen in terms
of the principle of public administration in fact cannot be separated from the question of human beings who live
in the organization. As for the bureaucratic organization of human resources have features that address the
dynamics, properties and behaviors and motivations of different work. Therefore, when the public administarsi
is not dynamic nor push towards progress, then people will quickly turn and less respect for him (Puluhulawa,
2011).
Observe the elements of good governancepresented by the experts mentioned above, then the incentive
system to enhance the performance of the bureaucracy as well as businessmen as farmers is one form of
government gorontalo innovation. Forms of incentives that are applied in the private is adopted by local
authorities to apply to the public sector especially in the Government bureaucracy in the agricultural
development policy program agropolitan corn. In an effort to do that is energizing a movement to build
employee motivation to perform well in the success of the program is to increase production of maize
agropolitan, farmers ' income and their families to escape poverty.
To empower the bureaucracy of local government, the private sector advances have inspired the public
sector to apply the techniques used in the private sector through New Public Management (NPM) movement to
public sector bureaucracy is more powerful. So this system of incentives given to employees who perform well
will get additional income in form of regional performance allowances (TKD) according to the results of the
relevant achievements and paid each month along with new monthly salary payments (Muhammad, 2008).
Improving performances bureaucracy with incentives have motivate employees to work in accordance
with the main task of and functions (Tupoksi) so that it has given a positive impact in policy on agricultural
development for corn agropolitan program as seen from a program that is executed has reached its target ( about
97 % ) in accordance with the purpose of this policy, as an increase in productivity, an increase in GDP,
increasing farmers' income, work force absorption and decrease in poverty rate of society.
Tiebout (1957), Isard (1966), and Nuses (1968) in Rusastra et al., (2002,23) states that that at least
three conditions necessary in optimizing agropolitan program implementation. The third requirement is:
1). Must be kept to the local autonomy and authority for natural resource management to make gone
development sustainable globalization; 2). Alarger part of the profits derived from activities agropolitan must be
invested in order to improve its results and push subsequent economic growth; and, 3). Minimum and maximum
limits for the land area belongs to be determined, so that natural resources can be managed in a rational and
productive.
The target of agropolitan development area is to develop agricultural area is potentially agropolitan
area, (1). Communityempowerment of an offender agribusiness; (2).Institution strengthening institutional
system farmers and development of agribusiness; (3).The development of institutional counseling integrated
development; (4). The development of conducive climate for investment and business (Wibowo, 2004).
The success of the program agropolitan area development indicators are adapted to local conditions can
be seen from an impact and output produced as follows; (1). Society wage increased 5 %, productivity increase
at least 5 %, public saving rose by at least 10 %. (2). Output: the long term projects 70 % may be conducted, 80
% of the institutional peasantry could extrude business oriented market and the environment, participative
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planning and agreed upon with implementation, business network husbandman formed and active, multi
discipline and professional team formed and operational, 80 % of contact peasantry / husbandman maju
capable of being place learn to farmers surrounding it.
Innovation policy of gorontalo government is known with 9 basic of agropolitan, namely;(1). Provision
of tools and machinery agriculture. (2). Provision of fundfor guarantees husbandman. (3). Provision of seed
preminent; fertilizer and control pests/disease. (4). Streamlineof marketing and price guarantee. (5). The
development or providing of irrigation and road of access agropolitan. (6). Pilot/show window in every region
of agropolitanand agropolitanposts (7). An increase of agriculture resources, (8). Increase the effectiveness or
the role of maize center, and (9). Planning and coordination(GorontaloThe Agropolitan,2006).
To support of corn agropolitan program then the government pursue the facilities to support safeguard
agricultural development is;1). Access roads (farm roads); 2.)agricultural machine tools; 3), Quarry; 4). Institute
of technology experts and extension workers; 5). Means of production outlet; and 6 Marketing (Mohammad,
2007).
V.
Conclusion and suggestion
5.1 Conclusion.
1. A policy of agricultural development for corn agropolitanprogram as priority programs have received
support from the government gorontalo through regulation the formation of dept. of agriculture and food
security as the executor of work programs, improving the performance of the bureaucracy by providing
incentives keputusan performance allowance (TKD), as the motivation for the employees the provision of
agricultural technology (Alsintan, preminent seeds; fertilizer, drugs and the task force agropolitan as a
companion to farmers both in planning and after harvest.
2. Improving performance employees have been able to motivate farmers to receive agricultural technology
and thus hope to increase productivity of corn to reality every year
3. Increased productivity of corn and farmers' income has pushed economic growth, reduction of
unemployment and reducing poverty
4. Theutilization of agricultural technology has not been fully enjoyed by farmers is mainly farmers whose
land is narrow (one hectare to the bottom).
5. Lackof farmer access to financial institutions
6. The utilization of institutional husbandman still limited function of coordination to get help from the
government, as a fertilizer, preminent seeds and medicines though yet a good run while in the activities of
capital unable
7. Partiesmore enjoys the profits was the government, traders, merchant and exporters
5.2. Suggestion
1. Theneed for a policy review is being undertaken now to improve alignments to smallholder farmers
especially those away from government services such as the provision of land to farmers at least twoacres
each farmer, the provision of working capital and take advantage of farmers ' agricultural extension workers
and respect for an active season in addition to accompany farmers or post-harvest.
2. Anisolated area for transportation must immediately be addressed.
3. Improve the function of supervision and coordination between related services department.
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e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
The Improbability of God In the Perspective of E. V.

Ramasamy
S. Gunasekar
Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, National College, Tiruchirapalli 620001 (Affiliated to
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli) Tamilnadu, India.
I.
Introduction
E.V.Ramasamy, popularly known as Periyar (the great man), was born at Erode town in Tamil Nadu,
India, on 17th September 1879. He started the Self-Respect Movement in 1925. The principles of Self-Respect
Movement are against the irrational unscientific beliefs of the people. He insisted that the beliefs and practices
of human beings should be subjected to justification. The thoughts that are incompatible to reason should be
shelved. E.V.Ramasamy was bold enough to speak out explicitly and freely, without mincing words. He was
not hesitant to tell the people that they were suffering, their lives were miserable only because of the unfair and
unreasonable oppression to which they were being subjected to. To him, belief in god, religious faith, caste
feelings, meaningless rituals and customs are irrational. On the contrary his views are based on legitimacy. He
dislikes anything that is against reasoning.
E.V.Ramasamy rejected all superfluous and fallacious fact-claims no matter how prestigious the
authority who holds them or how deeply one would personally like to believe them. E.V.Ramasamy without
any fear vociferously expressed his views on the concepts of god, soul, the nature of man, religion, ethics, and
education. To him, the ancient people conceived the idea of god to explain the meaning of wind, rain, sun and
other phenomena. In India, the earth, mountains, air, fire, rivers, the sun the moon, rain, thunder, lightning and
even certain diseases are deemed to be gods. They understood them as creations of god. Faith in the existence
of god provided easy explanations for all phenomena and silenced the restless inquisitiveness of ignorant
people. The belief in god remained because the codes of morals were based on it.
II.
The Significance Of The Study
Superstition, religious fanaticism, irrational beliefs, supremacy of upper castes, untouchability and
upholding of widowhood were all extensive in those days. There were most horrible forms of social
hierarchical structure throughout the state in the name of god and religion. People were divided into number of
castes. Almost all the members of working society were exploited. They were treated as untouchables. People
belonging to the lowest caste amongst the Hindus of India, have continued to be uncared and unloved. These
people were not only despised, ostracized and looked down upon, but also humiliated by the caste Hindus, and
were being treated by them as untouchables. E.V.Ramasamys mind was filled with annoyance and passion on
seeing the discriminations in the name of god and religion. He considered all the prohibited activities such as
aggression, denial of entry into the temples based on birth were a great injustice done to human beings. . He
wanted that each one should have equal rights. This motivation of egalitarianism developed in his mind,
embedded greater enormity and became a tireless commitment in him. His ardent desire was to bring equality,
freedom and fraternity in the society by instilling rational thoughts. His untainted atheistic principles are
objective and rational. The aim of this study is to propagate his atheism.
III.
The Concept of God Is Untenable
Growth of scientific knowledge enabled to understand phenomena such as birth, consciousness, dream
and death in a different way, which on the other hand needed no belief in god. After the advent of astronomy,
we are aware of the rotation of earth, the journey of the sun and its reaching equinox, etc. When we were unable
to find out the reason for solar and lunar eclipses we concocted a story of rahu and ketu, the snakes swallowing
the sun and the moon respectively. Considering it to be a ceremonial contamination, people also took ritual bath
and offered oblations. These notions were understandable when we had no knowledge of astronomy. Now we
do not believe the story of a snake swallowing the sun or moon. Research in human anatomy and social hygiene
has dispelled our notions of diseases. Those events that are unexplainable with cause and effect are said to be
the actions of god. As mans knowledge grows in course of time, these notions are bound to disappear. It is
45 | Page
The Improbability Of God In The Perspective Of E.V.Ramasamy

true that what appears to be of divine power to one man does not seem to be so to another man. It is because of
the difference in understanding and awareness that exists between one another.
E.V.Ramasamy emphasized that it is only man who uses the term god. The term god is not innate or
impulsive. Parents introduced the term god to their children. There is a difference between the term god and
other terms that taught by the parents to the children. Other terms denotes something. If we say this is a tree,
we can show it to the child. But the term god has no denotation. It is only a habitual term. No one can show
god to his child. It can be showed through imaginary photography or idols. The children heard the words very
often from their parents or family members. If any child asked their parents immediately they replied that in
this age you cannot understand it and when you grow you can understand it. 1
IV.
God Cannot Be Proved
He vociferously declared that no single reasonable argument to believe the existence of god is there,
but we have many reasons to disbelieve it. The cosmological proof also, like other proofs, can be disproved.
According to this proof, whatever exists must have a cause or reason. This premise implies that god is the
uncaused cause of the universe. It is obvious that the premise of the argument is contradicted by its conclusion.2
Therefore, god is the creation of mankind with their superstition. Most of the people believe god not
because they have any valid reason but only because they have been trained to do so from their childhood. The
arguments against the existence of god aim at showing that some particular conception of a god either is
inherently meaningless, contradictory, or contradicts known scientific or historical facts, and that therefore a god
thus described does not exist. Another argument held that the presence of evil in the world disproves the
existence of any god, because any benevolent god would want to eliminate evil, and any omnipotent god would
be able to do so. And, since there are unbelievers, either god does not exist or god does not influence mankind.
Anyway, the existence of god is not proved. 3
In his article published in the Journal Pakutharivu4, E.V.Ramasamy clearly mentioned that no
theologian could convincingly explain what is meant by god. It is presumed therefore that every theologian
clings dogmatically to what he calls god which is neither understandable to him nor explainable by him in detail.
Most of the people including theologians regret that they themselves are responsible for all their faults,
bad qualities, poverty and sufferings and praying to god to get rid of those impediments. The Hindus fictitiously
personates god and attribute a wife, children, a concubine, dress, food, a vehicle and a mansion to him as they
attribute to human beings. Even Christians and Muslims do attribute good, bad, likes, dislikes and happiness to
god. They have also imputed to him a quality of doing harm to those who do not pray and bless those who
worship him and act according to his command.
He held that many theologians preached that god administers his providential rule only through human
beings. Perhaps that is the reason why a beggar says that he got alms with the blessings of god. One who has
secured a job says that he too got it because of the blessings of god. One who obtained some assistance from
others too says the same thing. Even a man who gets himself relieved from a throng of people says that it is god
who rescued him. If it is true, we cannot attribute responsibility to a man for all the good and bad occurrences.
When god himself is omnipresent, keenly observing human thoughts and deeds, it is needless to pray to him. If
god himself is solely responsible for both good and bad, we can see to it that there is no evil at all in the world.
An inherently benevolent god should not create poisonous insects, germs and viruses, deadly diseases,
poverty, homicide, pillage, robbery, plunder cunningness, prostitution, serfdom, tyranny, felony and such evils.
As different kinds of evil are always present in the world, we cannot accept the existence of a benevolent god.
The theist says that everything is done or actuated by god and without his knowledge nothing could
take place. But in reality, man himself does everything. If a man falls sick, he goes to the doctor; but does not
keep quiet thinking that his sickness is the act of god and it will be against gods wish if he seeks remedy. The
theist says that god is omnipresent i.e., existing everywhere. But he goes to the temple to worship god. It is a
repudiation of his own assertion of gods omnipresence. It is said that god is omnipresent, omnipotent and
omniscient and he created the universe and controls the activities of mankind. E.V.Ramasamy replied that if we
accept that there should be a creator for this universe, the question arises as to who created god. Further he
questioned why god should create thieves, murderers, rogues, the sickly and some people rich and the vast
majority as poor. He is responsible for all the miseries of the people. If it is so he could not be merciful.5
V.
The Concept Of God Is Only Introduced Not Inherited
In his life time, E.V.Ramasamy for more than sixty years consistently expressed his opinion that there
is no god and god is only a mere imagination of idiots. He opined that roughly three to five thousand years ago,
reference about god must have been prevalent. Though man is keeping himself ready for further advancement
and changes, the miserable fact is that in respect of god only, he keeps himself in a cocoon and proves to be a
fool and an ignorant. Theists explain god as he is non-understandable, it goes far beyond ones thoughts and
expressions, a mere belief that there is a god is itself a definition and none should ask definition about god and
46 | Page

so on. No rationalist can accept this definition. An omnipotent god cannot be incomprehensible. There is no
use of god either to this world or to the man. The very concept of god is a means of livelihood for the vested
interest people.
When explaining the origin of the concept of god, E.V.Ramasamy uttered that the belief of god does
not arise spontaneously in everybody at the time of ones own birth. It is not inherited. It is only introduced. In
other words, it is taught. That is why we see the many number of gods with varied characteristics. Moreover,
the believers do not have uniformity in their way of worship, nor is the god in one shape, one form, one name
and so on. The belief in god is governed by the tenets of various religions, customs and manners. That is why
god is different from one another. Christians hold one god, which is variant of the one prayed by Muslims. In
Hinduism, Saivaites have a god which is different from that of Vaisnavaites. Apart from what they think of
gods, even in their belief there are innumerable divisions. Those who are socially and financially advanced have
got one god which is different from that of what the poor and illiterates pray. The reason for this difference is
the very matter of god is circumstantial, seasonal, artificial and gradually inducted into the society at various
stages.
E.V.Ramasamy opined that those who have taught about god must have been parents, teachers,
religions and spiritual hymns. Whatever it is, belief in god was thrusted into society with a sole motive of
obtaining or achieving blessings, benefits and comforts. Also a belief that ones own follies would be
condoned or pardoned and also a greediness or ambition to get more than what one deserves. So belief in god is
based on desires, ambitions and aspirations. The very concept is fallacious and a figment of imagination. It has
no definite meaning at all. Because of this fact there arise innumerable interpretations on god. The god is not
either preyed or wanted by any of the irrational creatures. If god himself has created in man, a love towards
him, then he should create a similar love among other creatures that are irrational. In fact, had he been there, he
should have done more for irrational creatures. That is why the rationalists say that the concept of god is only a
characteristic shaped and made as places, languages and religions but not genuine, spontaneous and natural.
E.V.Ramasamy wanted that the innocent public must understand that the very concept of god is crafty
device, fraudulent trickery and contemptible deceit. E.V.Ramasamy desired that the people themselves away
from these and lead a plain rationalistic life. 6 E.V.Ramasamy declared that destroy the god that calls you a
sudra (the untouchable). Destroy the puranas (mythologies) and the ithihasas (epics) which give strength to
Hindu god. Pray the god that is really kind, good, and intelligible, if any. 7 But in Hinduism there is no god
without the basis of mythologies and epics.
VI.
There Is No God At All
E.V.Ramasamy asserted that nobody has so far given any clear-cut meaning to god nor has anybody
perceived it. It has been used to terrify the people and also to keep them in permanent obedience. On a close
analysis of the belief of god, it is found that its definition not only vary but also contradictory and controversial. 8
To drive away the imagery snags, he declared and made his followers pronounce boldly that,
There is no god, there is no god, and there is no god at all.
He who invented god is a fool,
He who propagates god is a scoundrel,
He who worships god is a barbarian. 9
E.V.Ramasamy held that the people who believed in the existence of god are considered to be
irrational. God is not a necessity for an intelligent man. God is not like food that is indispensable. It is only
just like dress worn to suit the surroundings. That is the truth about god. If anyone is to say that the belief in
god is absolutely necessary for life, such a person is merely a distilled dud or a log of wood. Moreover, such a
person would not come forward to prove the existence of god to us. He will leave it to god himself to prove his
existence. So, there is no denying the fact that god is the creation of fools. 10
E.V.Ramasamy proclaimed that he who preaches god is a scoundrel. For, he has given a definite
nature to god and attributed high qualities to him. Those who define god go on saying that god is omnipotent,
omniscient and so on. They say that god has no shape and he is kind. Ignorant people could not say so. We can
say that a person is ignorant, if he is unable to know a particular thing. But these people come forward to define
and explain god. They intentionally dupe the people. When we ask a person how god looks like, he says that he
is shapeless. One could not see a thing that has no shape. There are certain things which we can feel even
though they have no definite shape. Senses of taste, smell, touch, sight and sound make us feel and infer from
their impact. Similarly, though we cannot see the electricity we feel its functions. We realize it when we find
its light or heat. It is absurd to believe a thing that we can neither see nor feel. He who wants us to believe must
be a rogue. He who indulges in dishonest means can never be considered as honest. People are intentionally
47 | Page

made idiots. By such roguish and dishonest means they want to defraud the people. So, he who propagates god
is a scoundrel.
E.V.Ramasamy said that one who worships god is a barbarian. A barbarian does not think rationally.
A barbarian has no reason, does not think, despite possessing thought and reason. One who worships god gives
the go-by to his sense of reasoning and clings to blind faith. The conception about god was made in the age of
barbarians. But the people continue to worship god even now without applying the test to what, why and how
and by shutting their eyes and ears to the ever-growing scientific achievements of the present times which
expose nature and its potentialities. Hence he declared that he who worships god is a barbarian.11
VII.
Conclusion
He expressed that the cause for caste discrimination, inequality, untouchability, superstition is religion.
The causes for religion are puranas, sastras, smrtis, etc. The cause for puranas, sastras, smrtis, etc., is god.
Therefore, the root cause for the deteriorated conditions of the depressed is god. Hence, god must be
abolished.12
The philosophical outlook of E.V.Ramasamy on the concept of god reveals that his ideas arose out of
his keen intellect and compassionate heart in the light of practical affairs. His thought process was the evolution
of what he experienced with men and matters in day-to-day life, what he observed keenly around and what he
came to know about the happenings in the world. The standpoints of E.V.Ramasamy on the concept of god
instilled changes in the minds of the people by making them reflect introspectively.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
Singaravelu, Ma, Kadavulum Prapancamum, (Tamil Version), Periyar Suyamariyadhai Prachara Niruvana Veliyeedu, Chennai,
1997, p.15
Vetriyalagan, N., 100 Kealvigalukku Thanthai Periyarin Bathilgal, (Tamil version), Navamani Pathippagam, Pullambadi, 1996,
p.30.
Paguttharivaalar Kazhaga Kaiyedu, (Tamil version), Paguttharivaalar Kazhagam, Thanjavur, 1976, p.67.
Palany Arangasamy (trans.), Periyar Is There A God?, Emerald Publishers, 1996, p.5.
Periyar An Anthology, The Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution, Madras, 1992, p.130.
Palany Arangasamy (trans.), Periyar Is There A God?, Emerald Publishers, 1996, p.13.
Veeramani, K. Dr., (compiled by), Collected Works of Periyar E.V.R., The Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution, Chennai,
2005, p.487.
Thanthai Periyar, Thatthuva Vilakkam, (Tamil Version), Periyar Suyamariathai Prachara Niruvana Veliyeedu, Chennai, 1987,
pp.16-20.
Thavamani, M., Gods of Ingersoll, Shaw, Periyar, Russell, Emerald Publishers Rationalists Forum, Chennai, 1997, p.65.
Vetriyalagan, N., 100 Kealvigalukku Thanthai Periyarin Bathilgal, (Tamil version), Navamani Pathippagam, Pullambadi, 1996,
p.31.
Periyar An Anthology, The Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution, Madras, 1992, p.131.
Vetriyalagan, N., 100 Kealvigalukku Thanthai Periyarin Bathilgal, (Tamil Version), Namani Pathippagam, Pullambadi, 1996, p.16.
48 | Page

e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Analysis of Employee Performance on Education Department of

Makassar
Mochtar Luthfi Masiming
Universitas Islam Makassar, Indonesia
Abstract: The aims of this research is to analyze (1). The description the officers performance at Departement
of Makassar, (2). Factors determinant that influence the officers performance at Department of Education of
Makassar. The population of research is the whole officers at Department of Education of Makassar. The
research respondents were 68 officers taken by using Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling. The
hypothetical influence between variable tested and multiple regression analysis. Data processing used software
SPSS 15.0 version.The result of research shows that variable of working motivation, income, education, age,
working period, officers attitude and working environment influence significantly the officers working
variable simultaneously either partially. The result of the research as well determines the strong relationship
between working motivation, income, education, age, working, period, officers attitude and working
environment with the officers education at department of education of Makassar.
I.
Introduction
Ideally Public administration is truly able to use the expertise and skills in the areas of policy,
organization, management, applying the principles of ethics, and is able to recognize and adapt to the dynamics
of the environment, as well as delivering tangible results and can be accounted for in terms of performance
(Keban, 2004). According to Keban (2004) dimensions of performance is an important element of the public
adimnistrasi. It is a vital part of the effectiveness of public services.
Public service from government officials, especially in the city of Makassar today, many units which
weakness so hasnt met the excellent service expected society. It is characterized by still be found or found
various society complaints is conveyed through mass media who inflicts image less good against government
officials. Considering the main function of government serve people is then the government need to improve
service quality.
The low level of performance of employees in carrying out the public service becomes a problem which
must be resolved in order for the employees of Makassar Education Department can carry out their duties
properly in providing excellent service to the community. It is caused by the rapid development and progress in
education department. The focus activity, both the quantity and quality of the facilities and infrastructure of
education ranging from pre-school education, primary education, out-of-school education, secondary education,
to higher education.
Based on empirical observations, interviews, and supported by information from various parties, the
issues relating to low employee performance in carrying out public services can be identified;
1. Lack of leaders attention and motivation
2. The lack of facilities of work
3. The weakness income distribution additional allowance
4. Government regulation about extension pension age for employees were excellent for pimpinan would
undermine systems develop the career staff according to work performance.
5. The low chance to implement of public service activities.
6. Attitude employees in providing services are lacking.
7. A work environment lacking support
Based on description, mentioned above the question research is whether the work motivation, employee
income, education, age, length of service, attitude of employees, and the work environment affects employee
performance?
II.
Theoritical framework
1. Perspective of Public administration theory

Basically, the public administration is not a goal but a means to achieve a goal. Tjokroamidjoyo (1985)
explained that the admnistration district of the public as a means to meet the criteria of efficiency, effectiveness
and rationality in the achievement of the purposes for which it is expected that operational engineering tasks in
49 | Page
Analysis of Employee Performance on Education Department of Makassar

the framework of the implementation of basic tasks are also expected to be efficient, effective, and rational, and
should not be problematic technical tasks which do not smoothly solved, there was wastage of resources and
objectives not achieved as expected
2.
Employees Performance
Vroom (1964) explained that the performance affected by the interaction of ability and motivation.
Blumberg and pringle in muhammad (2008) to improve the theory with mention that performance not only
affected by the capacity and willingness, but also by the opportunity afforded by a situation or environment with
identifies factors chance as the missing dimension in the theory of performance. Thus, performance is a function
of the interaction of a factor that is an opportunity, capacity and willingness (Karatepe et al., 2006; Sadikoglu
and Zehir, 2010).
Gaspersz (2004) explained that the dimensions of the overall performance should be associated with
the mission, goals, and objectives, relying on the ability to measure (measurability), valid and reliable, giving it
a clear responsibility, attention to priorities and is useful for internal and external customers, stakeholders, and
policy makers.
3. Motivation
McClelland in Robbins (2002) propose three main motives or the relevant needs of the workplace. The
results of his research mentioned that there are three basic human needs that motivated;
1. Needs for achievement (nAch): The drive to excellence, to achieve a series of standards to achieve
success;
2. The need for power (nPow): the need to make people behave in ways that expected manner;
3. The need for afiliasi (nAff): affiliates (nAff): Craving closeness and friendship relationship interpersonal.
Improving performance employees within an organization can be done through the provision of
motivation (Steers et al., 2004).
4. Income/rewards
The kinds of income to be received someone employees that is, (1). Financial reward, (2). Non
financial reward that is salaries and/or wages, bonus, premium and others decent accepted by trade and
accomplishment rise (Siagian, 1995). There are significant relation between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards and
employee performance (Aktar et al., 2012)
5.
Education
Davis & Newstrom in Anwaruddin (2000) explains that the ability of employees consists of the ability
of potential (intelegent quotient-IQ) and the ability of reality (knowledge skills) with the appropriate educational
background with his post moves and skilled in their work on a daily basis easily reach the expected
performance. The better and the right one's educational background and the better its performance (Bowman and
Stephen, 1999)
6. Age
Waldman and Avolio in gomes (2003) explained that only a slight tendency that pass judgment low
against the clerk who is older. These symptoms does not occur in a professional organizations. In environments
that are full of rivalry, clashes between generations could affect the judgment and a perception of justice. Ng
and Feldman (2008) explained that Education will be able to improve skills and expertise so that it can improve
the performance of the organization
7. Time of work
Time of work an employee is an employee experience of the work since appointed officers with terms
that have been defined and assigned duties in a State Office or other assignments as well as wages in accordance
with the legislation in force until corresponding entered retirement. Martoyo in Subawa (2005) argues that the
work experience or an employee is a person that is considered more capable in performing his duties, which will
be awarded in addition to the intelegensinya capability as well as the basis for further considerations.
8. Attitude
Rosemberg in Gibson (1997) explained that people seek conformity between trust and feelings towards
an object and suggested that a change in attitude hanging from one change (feeling) or of trust (beliefs) to be
leveraging performance someone (Ostroff. 1992)
50 | Page

9. Work environment
Hawthorne study conducted by Mayo in Ranupandojo (2002) concluded that there was great influence
work environment on the performance of a clerk. The employee performance not only affected by the magnitude
of wages or incentives of but also including work environment (Imran et al., 2012).
Figure 1: Theoritical framework

10.
Hypothesis
Motivation, reward, education, age, time of work, attitude, work environment influence employee
performance of Makassar education department
III.
Research methods
3.1 Type and Location of research

This research is research explanatory that explain the link between the independent variable with the
dependent variable. Data for analysis in research obtained from the education department Makassar through an
interview with using questionnaries.
3.2 Population and sample
Population in this research is all civil servants on Makassar education department by 209 employees.
As for the sheer size of the sample set with using formulas Slovin in Gani (2005) with a method of stratified
random sampling
N
n=
1 + N ()2
Its proportions below;
No
Description
number of employees
sample
1
Eselon II
1
0
2
Eselon III
4
1
3
Eselon IIV
21
7
4
Non Eselon
183
60
Total
209
68
Proportion of sample
Number of
0,30
1,30
6,83
59,54
3.3 Technic analysis

Technical analysis of data using in research;
1. Statistic descriptive
2. Inferential statistic;
Y = 0 + 1X1 + 2X2 + 3X3 + 4X4 + 5X5 + 6X6 + 7X7 +
51 | Page

IV.
Discussion
4.1 Description of employee performance

Table 1; Desription of variable
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
6
Variable
Performance
Motivation
Income
Education
Age
Time of work
Attitude
Work environmet
Mean
70,24
53,13
2.622.198,5
16,47
44,10
16,56
59,35
73,97
Description
Score
58-71
44-55
IDR2.500.100 - 2.725.000
16-17
45-48
16-18
49-60
61-75
Frequency
46
43
20
33
19
25
48
44
%
67,65
63,24
29,41
48,53
27,94
36,76
70,59
76,47
Remark
High
High
Moderate
High
High
Moderate
Positive
High
4.1.1 Employee performance

The result of this research was mentioned that the employee performance is high on Makassar education
and determined by its ability that is propelled by stronger capability that was on him and get a chance to fulfill
his duties in the service of the public.
The results of observations indicated that procedures very easy to understand and easily carried out by
employees of Makassar dept. of education so that people served with clear requirements already knew about
technical and administrative services.
4.1.2 Motivation
The result of this research was mentioned that motivation work employees at Makassar dept. of
education is high because its mean value the results of statistics 53,13 be in the value of 44 to score with a score
of 55
The results of research concludes that motivation work employees at makassr dept. of education is high
where its mean value found by 53,13 located in the score of 44 up to 55. It showed that motivation work
employees to improve the performance of employees in carrying out a public service
4.1.3 Rewards
Employee income is obtained by mean value of IDR 2.600.000. Nevertheless, it is still the image of
public servants who earn below IDR 2,000,000,- where the employee has a work period of about 10 years old or
relatively new employees. Results of the study also showed that the income of employees in the Makassar
Education dept. vary greatly in improving public services.
4.1.4 Education
The result of this research was mentioned that the length of completing education employees to the higher
educational with its mean value by 16 years, and a frequency distribution of the most widely is undergraduate
(S1). It showed that the level of education formal employees have a very good influence on improving
performance
4.1.5 Age
This research found that the age of employees in general 49 - 51 years, namely 19,12 % that was sitting
on the average ( mean ) is 44,10, it show that the value of the attainment of those ages considered less good for
melaksanaan routine tasks directly connected by a public service.
4.1.6 Time of work
The results of this study illustrate that enough employees working period with sufficient experience are
able to improve their performance in carrying out its tasks and its responsibility for providing public services in
the Makassar education dept. But the work is enough for an employee will not be able to prove his
accomplishments if not given the opportunity to carry out the activities in the work programme of the unit it
works.
4.1.7 Attitude
The results of this study found that the average value of employee attitudes are at 59,35 and employees
attitudes who are positive on the range 49-60. This presupposes that the attitude of the employees of the
Department of education of the city of Makassar may contribute to increased employee performance in order to
carry out the best service to the community.
52 | Page

4.1.8 Work environment
The results of this study found that the average value of employee attitudes and attitudes are at 59,35
employees who are positive on the range 49-60. This presupposes that the attitude of the employees of the
Department of education of the city of Makassar may contribute to increased employee performance in order to
carry out the best service to the community.
4.2 Correlation of motivation, income, age, time of work, attitude, and work environment through
employee performance at Makassar education department
Correlation coefficient (R) on the model summary table of figures found 0,964. This shows that there is
a very strong relationship of work motivation, income, education, age, time of work, attitude of employees and
the environment to employee performance on Makassar education department.
Tabel 2; Cofficient correlation (R) summary
Notation
Multiple R
Ry.x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7
0,964
Remark
0,80 1,000 = Very strong
0,60 0,799 = Strong
0,40 0,599 = average
0,20 0,399 = Low
0,00 0,199 = Very low
Sources: Processed data. 2013

4.2.1
The effect of motivation, income, age, time of work, attitude, and work environment through
employee performance at Makassar education department
Tabel 3; ANOVA(b)
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of Squares
1936,743
145,493
2082,235
Df
7
60
67
Mean Square
276,678
2,425
F
114,100
Sig.
,000

The results of analysis from the above table shows that a significant value of 0,000 is smaller than
0,005. Based on these two criteria it can be inferred that the free variables taken together affect the performance
of employee performance of Makassar education dept. As for knowing the magnitude of the influence of
independend variables with depedend variables, then the following regression correlation analysis results are
presented in the following table in the model summary.
Tabel 4; Model Summary(b)
Model
R Square
Adjusted R Square
,964(a)
,930
,922

Based on tables above seemed that adjusted RSquare of 0,922 (coefficient of determination). This result
indicates that ability variable motivation work (x1), variable income (x2), education variable (x3), variable age
(x4), variable working time (x5), variable attitude of employees (x6), and variable work environment (x7)
explained variable the employee performance (Y) by 92,20 %. The rest of 7,80 % described by another variable
not included in model this research as interest, gender, rank and category, discipline of work, job training, and
others
Tabel 5; Coefficients(a)
Model
1
(Constant)
Motivation
Income
Education
Age
Time of work
Attitude
Work environment
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std.
17,725
3,736
,359
,065
1,132
,414
,301
,149
-,184
,085
,287
,104
,242
,073
,247
,066
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
,315
,137
,113
-,135
,183
,245
,258
T
B
4,745
5,535
2,731
2,028
-2,178
2,763
3,293
3,749
Sig.
,000
,000
,008
,047
,033
,008
,002
,000

53 | Page

1. The effect of motivation on employee performance
Based on the analysis also found that the coefissien coefficient of regression is 0,315. This means that
employees work motivation variables (X1) contributed a real 0,315. Any improvement work motivating
employee performance will increase by 32%. If seen as a whole independend variables studied, motivation
variable thus greatest employees contribute to affect the performance of an Makassar employee of education
department.
2. The effect of income on employee performance
Based on the result analysis found that regression coefficient of 0,137. It means that employees income
(x2) leveraging performance by 0,137. That means any income increased employee will increase performance
by employees of 14 %. Considered as a whole variable, variable income is fifth major after motivation
employees work contributing to affect employees performance education dept. the city of Makassar
3. The effect of education on employee performance
Based on the result of analysis found that regression coefficient of 0,113 which means income employees
( x3 ) influences the performance of 0,113. This means that every education improvement of employees will be
improving the performance of employees from 11 %. If viewed as a whole independend variable and education
variable sixth major in contributes to improving the performance of employees at Makassar dept. of education
4. The effect of age on employee performance
Based on analysis conducted found that regression coefficient of the effect of age on employee
performance is -0,135. It means that the age of employees (x4) influences the performance is about -0,135. The
interesting thing of the regression coefficient this is that every increase in the age of employees approaching
retirement age and it would lower the employee performance as much as by 14 %. If viewed as a whole and free
to be researched variable variable whose age is in the seventh position in influencing the employee performance
on education for the city of Makassar
5. The effect of time of work on employee performance
Based on the results of the regression analysis found that coefficient's of the influence of time of work
on performance is 0,183. This means that the employee's work period (X 5) affect the performance of 18%. If
seen as a whole, it appears that time of work are at the fourth stage in contributing to affect the performance of
an employee on duty education city of Makassar
6. The effect of attitude on employee performance
Based on the result analysis of the coefficients against the influence of attitude toward the performance
of obtained regression coefficient of 0,245 which means that variable attitude employees (x6) to exert an
influence real worth 0,245. It means that every increase in motivation of the verb be improving the performance
of employees by 25 %. If viewed as a whole, so it can be said that a variable attitude employees are variable
most second big who contributes to improving the performance of employees at education for the city of
Makassar
7. The effect of work environment on employee performance
Based on the results of the analysis of the influence of work environment on performance obtained
regression coefficient of 0,254. This means that the employee work environment variables (X 7) gives the real
influence of 0,254. The regression coefficient means that any improvements in workplace conditions will
improve the performance of employees by 25%. If seen as a whole free variables examined employee work
environment variables so that both contribute to affect the performance of an employee at the Education Office
in the city of Makassar.
V.
Conclusion, Suggestion and Limitation
5.1 Conclusions
1. The high performance employees at Makassar dept. of education in giving the public services, due to the
encouragement motivation work tinggi, an income adequate, formal education, high after the civil
servants who established, working time enough, a positive attitude employees and work environment
conducive as well as civil servants who are comfortable in carrying out a public service
2. There is a very strong relationship between the motivation, income, employee's age, duration of
employees work, employee attitudes, and work environment with employees performance on Makassar
Education Department.
54 | Page

5.2 Suggestion
1. Significant influence between the motivation of work, income, education, age, time of work, attitude of
employees, and the environment to employee performance on Makassar education department. Then
presumably it is no exaggeration if the variables need scrutiny and become the focus of attention in the
efforts for human resource development that is higher quality.
2. Removal of employees to a certain tenure should age limit is at least 40 and also age 51 up approaching
retirement not provide burden routine tasks directly connected with the duty of the public service.
3. Training employees need to have regard or giving a push motivation work employees employees, raising
income fix or adjust the education level of employees presented awards based on age and working time, as
well as improving environmental conditions of employment.
5.3 Limitation
Variables this research is motivation, income education, age, working time, the attitude of employees work
environment, and performance of Makassar education department employee. By because it was necessary to
analyze rexamined model the regression equation is variable research, by taking into account development
regions samples plus the analysis sharper for the development of human resources
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55 | Page

e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Parental Rejection, Personality Maladjustment and Depressive

Symptoms in Female Adolescents in Pakistan
1
Fauzia Naz, 2Rukhsana Kausar

1
Assistant Professor, Visiting Faculty*,

Chairperson, *Department of Applied Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
Abstract: Depressive symptoms in adolescents are matter of concern because of its high prevalence and
impairment of functioning in the affected individual. Present research was conducted to examine parental
rejection effect on personality maladjustment and depressive symptoms in female adolescents in Pakistan. 100
female adolescents (M = 16.03, SD = 1.74) with minor medical conditions were recruited from thee different
hospitals. Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (Rohner 2005), Personality Assessment Questionnaire
(Rohner, 2005) and Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) were used to
assess parental rejection, personality maladjustment and depressive symptoms respectively. Results revealed
that parental rejection had significant positive correlation with personality maladjustment and depressive
symptoms. Significant positive relationship was found between parental rejection, personality maladjustment
and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Personality Maladjustment and parental rejection emerged as
significant predictors of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Implications of the findings for parents, health
professionals and policy makers are discussed in the context of Pakistani culture.
Keywords: Parental rejection, personality maladjustment, depressive symptoms, adolescents
I.
Introduction
Parental rejection is considered an important factor for psychological, behavioral and developmental
problems of children, adolescents, and adults. Research findings proved that perceived parental rejection has
been correlated with development of several psychopathologies including personality maladjustment and
depression in adolescents (Rohner, 1986). Researches has well established the relationship and association of
parental rejection and depressive symptoms in adolescents (Lefkowitz & Tesiny, 1984; Puig-Antich, Lukens,
Davies, Goetz, Quattrock, & Todak, 1985) and in children. Puig-Antich et al. found higher rejection from
mothers of six to twelve years old depressed children in comparison with the non-depressed children.
Researchers (Lefkowitz & Tesiny, 1984) found positive correlation between maternal rejection and
depression as assessed by mother, peer and self. The researchers also argued that paternal rejection predicted
depression in daughters in future but not sons. Using the similar constructs like rejection and depression,
Wichstrom, Anderson, Holte, and Wynne (1996) investigated harmful interpersonal relations concerning
perceived rejection of childrens thoughts, emotions and perceptions and its relation with depression and
deterioration in general functioning of these children. These researchers found higher level of psychological
distress and impaired global functioning in children who were subjected to negative interpersonal
communications. Negative interpersonal communication between parents and children is widely studied by
Rohner, Khaleque & Cournoyer (2007) who presented parental acceptance-rejection theory (PARTheory).
PARTheory argues that parental rejection in childs life bring to bear significant impact on the
development of childs personality. Children are disapproved by rejecting parents as these parents are likely to
impart emotional rejection and give hard punishment which are significant risk factors for developing
psychopathology in adolescents (Barnow, Lucht, & Freyberger, 2001). Parents are important in shaping and
maintenance of interpersonal communication with children which exert controlling and molding influences on
each other. For long, researches have been reported the relationship between parental behavior and deviation in
adolescents (Simons, Robertson, & Downs, 1989). Scott, W. A., Scott, R., and McCobe (1991) describes that
parental aggression, hostility, neglect and rejection were the major variables in the history of adolescents with
behavioral problems.
Rohners theory is supported by Baron and MacGillivray (1989) who investigated relationship between
perceived rejection from parents and depressive symptoms in adolescents. They found father's rejection as the
most powerful predictors of depressive symptoms in these adolescents. Similarly, Hammen (2005) reported
childhood parental rejection as the strongest predictor of depression in adults and adolescents. Some researchers
noted relationship between parental rejection and depression as well as with maladjusted behavior in
adolescents. Najam and Kausar (2012) found that fathers rejection had significant positive relationship with
hostility, depression and conduct problems in adolescents. The researchers also found that fathers involvement
56 | Page
Parental Rejection, Personality Maladjustment

had inverse correlation with the depression, hostility, dependency, negative self esteem, negative self adequacy,
emotional unresponsiveness and negative world view in adolescents in Pakistan.
In the same directions, Lefkowitz and Tesiny (1984) found the relation of childhood parental rejection
and depression in childhood and in young adulthood in a series of three studies. They found that death of single
or both parents, parental rejection and interparental disharmony were the major etiological risk factors in
developing depression in adulthood.
Agnew (2003) describes adolescence as a phase of stress, conflict and detachment between parents and
a child. During adolescence period, the child wants autonomy and shows rebellious behavior. If they feel
rejection from their parents, they develop different maladjusted behaviors resulting in hostility, aggression,
negative worldview and depression (Khaleque & Rohner, 2002; Sentse, Lindenberg, Omvlee, Ormel, &
Veenstra, 2009). Researches show high associations between adolescents emotional, behavioral internalizing
problems, depression, maladjustment and rejection from parents (Fotti, Katz, Afifi, & Cox, 2006). Greenberger,
Chen, Tally and Dong (2000) also suggested that parental rejection has been associated and implicated in the
development of depression and psychological problems. Some researchers (Greenberger & Chen, 1996) suggest
that depression as a result of parental rejection is more common in female adolescents in comparison with the
male adolescents. It is also to be noted that parental rejection is associated with the depression in the individuals
of any age.
These results are also supported and confirmed by some longitudinal researches which show that
parental rejection especially during childhood is associated with depression in adolescents (Robertson &
Simons, 1989). Ge, Lorenz, Conger, Elder, and Simons (1994) argue that perceived rejection from parents is the
significant factor in developing depression in both children and adolescents. Depressive symptoms are
intertwined with different behavior related abnormalities. These views are supported by Rothbaum and Weiz
(1994) in meta analysis of forty-seven researches. The researchers found robust association between parental
rejection and childrens externalizing behavior i.e., hostility, aggression and non-compliance behavior.
Rejection from parents is found to be negatively associated with the behavioral problems of children.
The researchers also found aggression, anger and impaired self-esteem as significant risk factor as a
result of parental rejection (Robertson & Simons, 1989). These researchers suggested that parental rejection
exert greater influence in determining children and adolescents behavior. Negative parenting and rejection are
major variables that influence the development of children and their mental and psychological health during
adolescence and adulthood (Yoshizumi, Murase, Murakami, & Takai, 2007). Shedler and Block (1990; as cited
in Rohner et al., 2007) argued that parental rejection has an association and predict personality problems and
behavioral problems in children. These problems include poor interpersonal communication with peer,
emotional distress, depression and insecurity feelings in children.
Pakistan is a developing country in which boys are given preferences to girls in almost every aspect of
life especially in lower socio-economic class in the society. Parents consider girls as a burden for family. They
prefer having boys as contributor in the income of family, to handle family affairs and to carry forward the name
of the family. They feel pressure by raising girls, to educate them and to manage dowry for their marriage. So,
may be in the context of this scenario, they develop, hostility, aggression and rejection towards their daughters.
As reported by Hanif (1994), children belonging to low socio-economic status were more abused as
compared to the children from middle and upper socio-economic status in Pakistan. Malik (2012) found typical
Pakistani familial context in her research and found high authoritarian attitude of fathers towards children. She
found that severely abused children perceived their parents to be rejecting. She also found
psychological/emotional abuse more than physical abuse. Najam and Kausar (2012) explored relationship of
father acceptance-rejection and involvement with socio-emotional adjustment of adolescents in Pakistan. They
found significant negative relationship of paternal warmth with adolescent hostility, dependency, negative selfesteem, negative world-view and depressive symptoms. Fathers hostility and rejection had significant positive
relationship with hostility, depression and conduct problems in adolescents. Father involvement had significant
negative relationship with adolescent hostility, dependency, negative self esteem, negative self adequacy,
emotional unresponsiveness, negative world view and depression in adolescents. The researchers found that
rejection from father, adolescent dependency and emotional instability emerged as significant predictors of
depression in adolescents. Fathers hostility and lack of involvement emerged as significant predictors of
conduct problems in adolescents.
It is concluded that parental rejection is a major factor in development of maladjusted personality as
well as psychopathology i. e., depressive symptoms in adolescents. The query of association between parenting
style and personality maladjustment combined with depressive symptoms has not received much attention yet
by researchers in Pakistan. The main objective of our research was to explore relationships between parental
rejection, personality maladjustment and depressive symptoms. Further, the research also aimed to explore
different dimensions of parental rejection as a predictor of personality maladjustment. Finally, the research
57 | Page

explored different dimensions of parental rejection and different dimensions of personality maladjustment as
predictors of depressive symptoms in adolescents.
Hypotheses: The following hypotheses were made
a) Parental rejection, personality maladjustment and depressive symptoms are likely to be positively correlated
in adolescents.
b) Parental rejection is likely to predict personality maladjustment in adolescents.
c) Different dimensions of parental rejection i.e., coldness/lack of affection, hostility/aggression,
indifference/neglect, undifferentiated/rejection and control and different dimensions of personality
maladjustment i.e., hostility/aggression, dependency, negative self-esteem, negative self-adequacy,
emotional unresponsiveness, emotional instability and negative worldview are likely to predict depressive
symptoms in adolescents.
II.
Method
Sample: One-hundred female adolescents with minor medical conditions were recruited from the
departments of general outdoor patients of three different hospitals of Lahore, Pakistan. Minor medical
conditions mean the adolescents were suffering from fever, cough, throat infection and flue. In Pakistan, the
medical treatment in hospitals is totally free for people. Most of the people who benefit from free treatment in
these hospitals belong to lower-socio-economic class or lower middle socio-economic class. The girls were
recruited from these outdoor departments after making sure that they belong to homogenous family and socioeconomic background. The age range of the adolescents was between 13 to 18 years (Mean age = 16.00 years).
Demographic characteristics of the sample are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Sample (N=100).
Variables
Age
Fathers age
Mothers age
Monthly family income (Pakistani Rupees)
Education Grade 6-8
Education Grade9-10
Education Grade 11-12
Education Continued
Education Discontinued
Joint Family System
Nuclear Family System
Birth Order
1st
2nd
3rd
4th 7th
M
16.00
45.03
42.82
13525
F
31
34
28
72
28
73
27
SD
8.63
4.18
4.37
5608
%
31
34
28
72
28
73
27
25
39
27
9
25
39
27
9
Ethical Considerations
Permission from the authors of assessment tools was obtained to use and translate the assessment
measures for the present research. For data collection, permission was gained from the respective heads of
General Outdoor Patients Departments of the hospitals. Participants and their parents/guardians informed
consent was obtained to take part in the study. Participants were assured about the confidentiality of the
information provided by them.
Procedure
The assessment measures were translated into Urdu language (National language of Pakistan) after
taking permission from authors. After taking approval from IRB, we recruited the female adolescent with minor
medical conditions from the General outdoor Departments of three public sector hospitals from Lahore,
Pakistan. The adolescents and their parents/guardians were given detailed information about the aims of
research and they were provided with informed consent forms. After taking informed consent from the
participants/parents, the process of assessment was carried out. The assessment procedure was carried out in a
separate room. Parents were not allowed to accompany the adolescents where the assessment procedure was
taken place. Total 130 girls were approached in which twenty girls refused to take part in study. Ten girls left
much information blank while filling the assessment measures so these ten girls were also excluded. After the
completion of assessment measures from sample, data of 100 girls were analyzed and results were calculated.
58 | Page

Assessment Measures
Demographic Information Questionnaire: A demographic questionnaire was used to take the sociodemographic information from participants. This questionnaire included all relevant demographic variables such
as age, education status (continued or discontinued), education, parental education, age and occupation, family
type and family system.
Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire; child (PARQ: Child) PARQ child (mother; father) is a
self-report scale and consisted in 29 items. This scale measures childs perception of paternal and maternal
acceptance-rejection separately. The scale consists of five sub-scales which measure paternal or maternal
coldness/lack of affection, indifferent/neglect, undifferentiated/rejection and control. The questionnaire is
developed and revised by Rohner and Khaleaque (2005). Rohner described sufficient alpha reliability of the
scale that is .82. The four options for the rating are almost never true (1), rarely true (2), sometimes true (3),
almost always true (4). Item number 1, 4, 11, 15, 16, 20, 21, 23, 27 and 29 requires reverse scoring. Scores on
these items after reverse scoring create a measure of perceived coldness and lack of affection. The overall
measure of perceive rejection score ranges from a low of 29 to a high of 116 (perceived rejection from mother
and father). In the present research the sub-scale control was not computed because we were only interested to
measure rejection from parents. The scale has separate scores for mothers and fathers acceptance and rejection.
Before starting the research, permission to use and translate the scale into the Urdu language was taken
from the author via e-mail. PARQ child was translated into Urdu language, the Pakistani National Language.
Internal consistency for the present research was .89 for the mother version and .90 for the father version.
Personality Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ; Rohner & Khaleaque, 2005). It is a self-report measure
consisted in 42 items. PAQ assesses individual perception about themselves. It comprises of seven sub-scales
i.e., hostility and aggression, dependency, negative self-esteem, negative self-adequacy, emotional
unresponsiveness, emotional instability and negative worldview. Collectively, the seven PAQ sub-scales
represent a measure of respondents overall psychological maladjustment. The higher a total-test score (168),
the more impaired an individuals psychological adjustment is regarded to be (Rohner, 2005). Four options for
the rating are almost never true (1), rarely true (2), sometimes true (3), almost always true (4). Item numbers 3,
4, 7, 10, 12, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 31, 34, 39, 40 and 42 requires reverse scoring. The scale was translated into Urdu
language for using in the present research. Cronbachs alpha computed for the current sample of the study for
PAQ was highly significant ( = .94).
Centre for Epidemiological Studies for Depression Scale (CES-D). This scale consists of 20
statements with four options that are rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day), some or a little of the time (for
1-2 days), occasionally or a moderate amount of time (for 3-4 days) and all of the time (for 5-7 days). Item No.
4, 8, 12 and 16 are reverse items. The statements describe the way one have felt or behaved during the past
week. A cut-off score of 16 or greater is considered depression. Internal consistency reliability is .90 (Radloff,
1977). In this research, CES-D was used after getting it translated into Urdu language. Internal consistency of
the scale for the present study was very good that is .93.
III.
Results
Results were calculated by using (a) Pearson Product-Moment Correlation to see the relationship
between parental rejection, personality maladjustment and depressive symptoms, (b) regression analyses to see
the parental rejection as a predictor of personality maladjustment, (c) regression analyses to see the parental
rejection and personality maladjustment in combination as predictors of depressive symptoms. The results
related to correlation are presented in table 2.
Table 2 Relationship between Parental Rejection, Personality Maladjustment and Depressive Symptoms
(N=100).
Variables
PARQ Mother
Coldness
Hostility/Aggression
Indifferent/Neglect
Undiff/Rejection
Total
PARQ Father
Coldness
Indifferent/Neglect
Undiff/Rejection
Total
H/A
(PAQ)
Dep
(PAQ)
NSE
(PAQ)
NSA
(PAQ)
EU
(PAQ)
.61**
.57**
.57**
.57**
.63**
.23**
.16*
.16**
.09
.23**
.62**
.51**
.56**
.49**
.61**
.70**
.57**
.64**
.58**
.69**
.71**
.57**
.64**
.59**
.70**
.60**
.58**
.54**
.67**
.67**
.21**
.21**
.21**
.20**
.26**
.58**
.48**
.51**
.49**
.58**
.70**
.60**
.63**
.67**
.73**
.74**
.59**
.62**
.66**
.75**
EI
(PAQ)
NWV
(PAQ)
Total
PAQ
Depressive
Symptoms
.67**
.63**
.73**
.53**
.54**
.68**
.57**
.70**
.49**
.55**
.52**
.61**
.61**
.67**
.61**
.73**
.34**
.60**
.29**
.62**
.68**
.55**
.63**
.61**
.70**
.62**
.55**
.54**
.55**
.63**
.73**
.64**
.65**
.69**
.77**
.56**
.27**
.54**
.32**
.55**
59 | Page

**P<0.01, * P<0.05
Note H/A, Hostility/Aggression PAQ: Dep: Dependency, NSE: Negative Self-Esteem, NSA: Negative SelfAdequacy, EU: Emotional Unresponsiveness, EI: Emotional Instability, NWV: Negative Worldview
Results show significant positive relationship between different sub-scales of parental rejection and
different dispositions of personality i.e., coldness, hostility/aggression, indifferent/neglect and
undifferentiated/rejection and total rejection (PARQ; father, mother) showed significant positive relationship
with hostility/aggression (PAQ), dependency (PAQ), negative self-esteem (PAQ), negative self-adequacy
(PAQ), emotional unresponsiveness (PAQ), emotional instability (PAQ), negative worldview (PAQ) and total
PAQ. Results also revealed significant positive relationship between parental rejection, personality
maladjustment and depressive symptoms in adolescents.
The results related to regression analyses to see the parental rejection as a predictor of personality
maladjustment are presented in table 3.
Table 3
Multiple Regression Analyses (forward entry) for Parental Rejection as predictors of Maladjusted Personality
(N=100)
Outcome Variables
Dependency
1
2
1
2
3
Negative
Esteem
Self-
1
2
Negative
Adequacy
Self-
1
2
3
Emotional
Unresponsiveness
1
2
3
Emotional Instability
1
2
3
Negative worldview
1
2
3
Personality
Maladjustment (PAQ
total)
1
2
3
Predictors
R2
Undifferentiated/Rejection (father)
Coldness/lack of affection (mother)
Undifferentiated/Rejection (mother)
Undifferentiated/Rejection (mother)
Hostility/Aggression (father)
Coldness/lack of affection(mother)
.45
.50
Coldness/lack of affection (father)
.42
R2
Chang
e
165.00**
102.38**
.67
.30
12.84**
4.70**
11.12**
8.31**
.23
.26
3.33**
2.29*
7.37**
.19
2.26*
126.61**
.62
11.25**
73.81**
.28
3.36**
.49
194.45**
.70
13.94**

.56
131.08**
.40
5.88**
100.54**
.27
4.18**
.55
252.91**
.74
15.90**

Indifferent/neglect (mother)
Indifferent/neglect (mother)
.61
161.57**
.31
5.60**
.63
115.60**
.17
3.09**
.46
.55
172. 29**
122.72**
.68
.40
13.12**
6.29**
Indifferent/neglect
mother
Coldness/lack of affection(father)
Hostility/aggression (father)
Coldness/lack of (mother)
.56
86.09**
.17
2.50**
130.22**
82.94**
.63
.35
11.41**
4.68**
60.18**
.19
2.90**
236.91**
166.71**
.73
.42
15.39**
6.67**
126.54**
.25
4.21**
.05
.04
.06
.08
.02
.38
.60
.03
.03
.01
.39
.45
.47
.02
.54
.62
.65
.03
*p<0.05, **p<0.01
Note. PARQ: Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire, PAQ: Personality Assessment Questionnaire.
60 | Page

Regression analyses show that undifferentiated rejection (father) and coldness/lack of affection
(mother) emerged as significant predictors of hostility/aggression (PAQ) in adolescents. These variables
accounted fifty percent of the variance. For dependency (PAQ), coldness/lack of affection (mother),
undifferentiated rejection (mother) and hostility/aggression (father) emerged as significant predictors. These
variables accounted for eight percent of the variance. For the third dimension of PAQ i.e., negative self-esteem,
the significant predictors were coldness/lack of affection (mother, father) emerged as significant predictors of
negative self-esteem. These variables accounted for forty-two percent of the variance. Coldness/lack of affection
(father, mother) and undifferentiated rejection (father) emerged as significant predictors of negative selfadequacy accounting for sixty percent of the variance. For emotionally unresponsiveness, coldness/lack of
affection (father, mother) and undifferentiated rejection (father) emerged as significant predictors accounting
sixty-three percent of the variance. Indifferent/neglect (mother) and coldness/lack of affection (father) emerged
as significant predictors of emotional instability. These variables accounted for fifty-six percent of the variance.
For the dimension of negative worldview, coldness/lack of affection (mother, father) and
undifferentiated/rejection (father) emerged as significant predictors accounting forty-seven percent of the
variance. For PAQ total, regression analyses worked out in three steps. Coldness/lack of affection (father,
mother) and undifferentiated rejection (father) emerged as significant predictors accounting sixty-five percent of
the variance.
Table 4 shows the results of regression analyses which was performed to see the parental rejection and
personality maladjustment in combination as predictors of depressive symptoms.
Table 4Multiple Regression Analyses (forward entry) for Parental Rejection and Personality Maladjustment as
Predictors of Depressive Symptoms (N=100)
Outcome
Variables
Depressive
Symptoms
Predictor
R2
Negative self-adequacy (PAQ)

Negative self-esteem (PAQ)
Dependency (PAQ)
Dependency (PAQ)
Indifference/neglect (father)
Dependency (PAQ)
Dependency (PAQ)
Negative Worldview (PAQ)
3
4
R2
Change
.62
335.09**
.79
18.30**
.68
221.32**
.35
6.37**
.71
163.18**
.23
3.89**
.72
128.83**
.11
2.84**
.72
107.49**
.13
2.60**
.73
93.44**
.18
2.62**
81.87**
.13
1.98**
.74
.00
*p<0.05, **p<0.01
Regression analyses show that negative self-adequacy (PAQ), coldness/lack of affection (father),
negative self-esteem (PAQ), dependency (PAQ), indifference/neglect (father) and coldness/lack of affection
(father) and negative worldview (PAQ) emerged as significant predictors of depressive symptoms in
adolescents. These variables accounted seventy-four percent of the variance.
61 | Page

Figure: 1 Model Emerged after Regression Analyses
IV.
Discussion
Present study examined the relationship between rejection from parents, personality maladjustment and
depressive symptoms in female adolescents in general population in Pakistan. In addition, parental rejection and
personality maladjustment were also explored as predictors of depressive symptoms in female adolescents.
In our research, results show significant positive relationship between parental rejection (both father &
mother), personality maladjustment and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Results also showed that different
sub-scales of parental rejection emerged as significant predictors of different sub-scales of personality. These
sub-scales included hostility/aggression, dependency, negative self-esteem, negative self-adequacy, emotional
unresponsiveness, emotional instability and negative worldview. We explain the results through personality subtheory of PARTheory which describes that environment and subjective factors influence behavior. These factors
lead to the personality outcomes that include hostility, aggression, emotional unresponsiveness, immature
dependence, impaired self-esteem, impaired self-adequacy, emotional instability and negative worldview.
According to this theory, if adolescents experience negative life events especially interpersonal trauma
(rejection from parents), this will lead to develop personality maladjustment as well as psychopathology in
future (Rohner et al., 2007). Thus, perceived rejection by a child postulates high effects on adolescents
psychological and personality adjustment. Parental rejection leads to develop negative personality outcomes.
These negative personality outcomes tend to reduce rejected children's capacity to handle successfully with
stresses. Consequently, these children develop depressive symptoms and other behavior problems. Our results
are in agreement with those of Sassaroli and Ruggieros (2005) research who reported that low self-esteem,
tension and critical attitude of parents were significantly associated with the development of adult
psychopathology.
In our research, rejection from father and coldness from mother emerged as significant predictors of
hostility/aggression (PAQ) in adolescents. Results have shown that coldness/lack of affection from mother,
rejection from mother and hostility and aggression from father rejection from father emerged as significant
predictor of dependency in adolescents. Dependency as Rohner and Khaleque (2005) describes, refers to
feelings of psychological wish for emotional support from parents. Dependent children have intense desire for
positive response. Rejected children are likely to develop feelings of insecurity which make them more
dependent. These results are supported by a research by Najam and Kausar (2012) in which the researchers
found significant negative relationship of paternal warmth with adolescents dependency and depressive
symptoms. They also found fathers rejection had significant positive relationship with hostility, depression and
conduct problems in adolescents. Father involvement had negative relationship with adolescent hostility,
dependency, negative self esteem, negative self adequacy, emotional unresponsiveness, negative world view and
depression in adolescents.
Next, rejection from father, adolescent dependency and emotional instability emerged as significant
predictors of depressive symptoms in adolescents. These results are in line with the research by Barnow and
colleagues (2001) who reported that negative interpersonal communication, abusive behavior of parents and
family circumstances was highly correlated with the aggression in children and in adolescents.
These results are consistent with PARTheory (Rohner & Khaleque, 2005) which describes that
rejection by parents has a decisive impact on childs personality development. The rejecting parents dislike and
disapprove their children. These negative attitudes from parents like rejection and severe punishment are risky
in creating violence and aggression in adolescents (Barnow et al., 2001). Rohner in a sub-section of PARTheory
that is personality sub-theory, describes that childs awareness of emotional health and security is correlated
62 | Page

with perceived rejection from parents. So, parental rejection postulates to contribute negative effects on
childrens psychological adjustment.
Results from the present research are also in line with the research done in Pakistan by the researchers
(Riaz & Qasmi, 2012) who explored the impact of parental rejection on the psychological adjustment of
children. The researchers also explores these variables in youth with physical, hearing and visual disabilities.
The results show severe psychological maladjustment in children as well as in youth. Likewise, the
results show that coldness from father as well as mother emerged as significant predictors of negative selfesteem in adolescents. Self-esteem is described as the individuals feelings about self-value or self-worth
(Rohner and Khaleque. 2005). These findings are in agreement with those of Barnow et al., (2001) who in their
research found family circumstances and highly negative and abusive behavior had strong correlation with
aggression, negative self-concept, impaired self-esteem, unhappiness and impaired capacity to trust others and
difficulties in communication with peer and other persons (Ounsted, Oppenheimer, & Lindsey, 1974).
Additionally, the findings show that coldness and lack of affection from both parents and rejection
from father were significant predictors of negative self-adequacy in adolescents. Self-inadequacy contains as
developing incompetence to complete daily tasks properly and failure to satisfy ones own requirements. Results
from the present research are confirm PARTheory which states that negative self-adequacy emerges as a result
of chronic psychological pain produced by perceived parental rejection, aggression and childhood physical
abuse (Rohner et al., 2007). Gurarino, Guttman, and Seeley (1986; as cited in Rohner et al., 2007) agree with
Rohner and colleagues that rejecting attitude on the part of parents can create maladjusted personality of the
child.
Fergusson and Mullen (1999) reported that negligence from fathers in the form of absence create
aggression, hostility and rejection. These fathers fail to give the necessary care that would buffer against longterm health effects. In a research study, Fuyi and Ningjian (2008) examined the influence of early experiences
on adolescents' self-esteem. The results indicated that adolescents from divorced families had lower implicit
self-esteem than those from intact families. They found significant positive correlation between adolescents'
implicit self-esteem and their parents' "emotional warmth and understanding" and their mothers' "favoritism".
This suggests positive parenting styles could enhance adolescents' implicit self-esteem. The results
from their research also revealed that parents' rejection and negating and mothers' punishment were significantly
related to the discrepancy between adolescents' s covert self-esteem and overt self-esteem. They concluded that
that negative parenting styles affected the consistency of adolescents' covert self-esteem and overt self-esteem.
These results are in line with the research in which Anne (1998) examined the impact of the quality of
attachment in female adolescents to parents and its after-effect on shaping self-esteem and developing
psychopathology. The researcher demonstrated high significant differences on self-esteem, depression, anxiety
and emotional autonomy between female adolescents who had high parental security and those with low
parental security. Findings from this research demonstrate that girls adolescents who had high parental security
feelings had low emotional autonomy, low depression and anxiety, and higher levels of self-esteem. These
results proved that girls with high parental security had less depressive symptoms and higher self-esteem. These
findings suggest that female adolescents' secure attachment with parents promote more adaptive psychosocial
functioning and provided a buffer against negative affect.
In our research, results show that rejection from father, coldness mother and coldness father were
significant predictors of emotional unresponsiveness and rejection from father, indifferent/neglect mother,
coldness mother were significant predictors of emotional instability in adolescents. Whereas coldness and
hostility from father and coldness from mother appeared the significant predictors of negative world view and
coldness from father, mother and rejection from father emerged as significant predictors of personality
maladjustment (total) in adolescents. These results are in line with the study in which Zhe, Li, Yong-mei, Rong,
and Shi-jie (2011) explored relationship between parenting styles and antisocial personality disorder. Findings
from their study explained that compared with normal adolescents, those with antisocial personality disorders
had experienced less care form their parents, and did not encourage their behavioral freedom, most time
controlled during their childhood. Physical abuse, angry to father, motherhood inverse, emotional abuse,
mother's coldness and lack of love, and mother's control were predictors of antisocial personality disorder.
Childhood abuse and parenting styles have effect on shaping the antisocial personality disorder.
Robertson and Simons (1989) noted that perceived rejection from parents was the strongest risk factor
associated with depression and low self-esteem in adolescents. Perceived parental rejection showed effects
through low self-esteem. Low self-esteem found to be strongly associated with depressive symptoms. A
propensity to blame one self for negative elements was perceived as the cause of vulnerable self-esteem. This
self-blaming attributional style may develop in response to a perceived family environment of excessive
parental criticism, shaming, and belittling.
Then the model containing different dimensions of parental rejection and personality maladjustment was
tested as predictors of depressive symptoms in girls adolescents, it showed that negative self-adequacy (PAQ),
63 | Page

coldness/lack of affection(mother), Negative self-esteem (PAQ), dependency (PAQ), indifference/neglect
(father), coldness/lack of affection(father) and negative worldview (PAQ) appeared as significant predictors.
These results are supported by many of the other researches. Previous research shows that perceived
rejection from parents causes psychopathology in adolescents. Rita and Oksana, (2008) found that differences in
parental rearing attitude and personality traits (e.g., neuroticism) were stronger predictors of behavioral and
emotional problems for girls in comparison to boys. Davidson, Inslicht, and Baum (2000) comment that
childrens exposure to traumatic events has profound effects on development and well-being. Evidence suggests
that children are exposed and react similarly to threatening events and experience mild and severe symptoms of
stress. Precipitating events and mediating variables are considered common symptoms of distress along a
developmental continuum. The dependent nature of children may put them at greater risk for exposure to some
traumatic stressors and may exacerbate the impact of others. General effects of extreme stressors are negative,
and many children are resilient in the face of such stress. However, some experience stress and develop poststressor syndromes. Of particular concern among young children is the possibility that trauma can have broader,
systemic effects, sensitizing them to stressors, altering belief systems and worldview and affecting their
maturational progress in critical development phases.
Savin-Williams (1990) argued that early adolescence is a period when the child is undergoing diverse
forms of new behavioral, physical, academic, social and interpersonal challenges and changes. The study of
interpersonal relationships within family are important variables to be studied in adolescents. Especially, when
adolescents are self conscious and have high concern about the others attitude about them (Elkind, 1978).
Abramson, Metalsky and Alloy (1989) argue that the experience of perceived rejection from others
especially parents is likely to develop bad feelings about oneself and create depression. Thus, a sense of
rejection during this time of increasing normative demands could contribute to the increases in depressive
symptoms observed during adolescence (e.g., Hankin, Abramson, Moffitt, Silva, McGee, and Harter, 1999).
V.
Conclusion
In summary, we found that rejection in combination with personality maladjustment significantly

predicted adolescents depressive symptoms over time. The observed prospective relation between rejection and
depressive symptoms parallels findings suggesting the importance of interpersonal relationships among
adolescents.
Limitations and suggestions for future research
A limitation was that participants were taken only from low-socio-economic class and from
government hospitals. It is suggested that the future research should include participants from other socioeconomic groups and comparison should be made. Future researchers should also recruit sample from private
hospitals and clinics. Another limitation was that sample was comprised of girls only. It is suggested that boys
should also be included in the sample and gender differences should also be explored regarding these variables.
Implications of research findings
Present research will be helpful for clinicians and parents with the special reference to Pakistani
cultural context to understand the possible links of parental behavior and development of maladjusted
personality and depression in girls so that we can see better generation in future.
Acknowledgement
Note: This research manuscript is a part of first authors Ph. D research.
Acknowledgements: We acknowledge the participants and their parents for their participation in this research
work. We also acknowledge Higher Education Commission, Pakistan for funding this research project.
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e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Treatment of Love in Khushwant Singhs I Shall Not Hear the

Nightngale
Namita Panda
Asst. Professor, Dept. of English, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India
Abstract: Much scholarly work has been done on Khushwant Singh but it is fair to say, little work has been
done on his treatment of love in his novels. The present paper seeks to provide a modest study of the novels of
Khushwant Singh, the most popular Indian writer in English. It attempts to make comprehensive critical
comments on his fiction I Shall Not Hear The Nightingale with an emphasis on his treatment of love in the above
said novel. His second novel I shall not hear the Nightingale basically deals with the maternal love. It is
Sabhrai, whose matriarchal strength sustains the family in its time of crisis. On one side, where the novel is
replete with sexual, amorous activities, practiced by different characters, Khushwant on the other side portrays
a pious, religious character, which is without a stain. She is a source of inspiration not only for her husband but
also for her son and daughter. It is through Sabhrais Character, we come across another illusive kind of love
i.e. divine love. A religious woman like Sabharai believes that this love is the greatest of all. While for
Champak, Beena, Shunno love is skin communicated thing.
Key words: divine love, I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale, Khushwant Singh, Maternal love, Treatment of Love
I shall not hear the Nightingale centres on a middle class Sikh extended family in the days before
Indias independence. The story is set at the backdrop of 1942. The novel reveals events very realistically.
Although the novel deals with the political situations, it cannot, however, be termed as a political novel. It is
because he does not make any significant reference to an elaboration of the Quit India movement. More over,
none of the characters is seen to be involved in political philosophy seriously. But it gives us a peep into the life
and atmosphere during that period. It does give some details about the countrymens longing for freedom and
attempts by some enthusiastic young men preparing for terrorist activities to free the nation from foreign
oppression. J.W.Bryant aptly says, This short novel by a cosmopolitan Indian scholar presents a drama of
family loyalties which can be enjoyed by the Western reader with little or no knowledge of Eastern
affairs. (qtd. in Singh P.K. p.57)1
The opening scene is highly significant and carries a symbolic meaning. Sher Singh and Madan, like
many other misguided young men wanted to bring Indias freedom through violence. They participate in a target
practice as they all want to be terrorists and are with firm resolution to kill as many English men as they like.
So, in order to baptize their weapons Sher Singh shoots a crane. Its mate followed and tried to
attack them because If one of a pair is killed, the other dies of grief (Singh P-06) .The Sarus crane has been
presented here as a symbol of the motif of love, mating and sacrifice. On the contrary the cry of the crane
symbolizes the present era of violence and venom and bloodshed. This symbolic representation is well
expressed in the following lines:
The anguished cry of the flying crane was almost human. If he did not silence it, it would continue to
haunt him for a long time. If both of the pair were dead; perhaps they would be together wherever cranes went
after death. Sher Singh took out the magazine of his rifle and pressed six bullets in it. He followed the cranes
flight with his barrel and fired when the bird was almost above him. The bullets went through one of the wings.
The bird wavered badly in its flight and some feathers came floating down. (Singh p.6)
Love in its pure form can be seen among the animals also. It is really heart warming to see cranes love
for its dead mate in the following lines
Before they got clear of the Swamp the other crane flew back and started circling over them. They saw
it high above in the deep blue sky catch the light of the setting sun then heard its cries piercing the stillness of
the dusk. Sher Singh ignored requests to have another go at the flying bird, in any case it was too high and the
light was failing fast. When got to the canal bank, it became dark. The cranes flew lower and lower till they
could see its grey form with its long legs almost above their heads. They shood it off. The bird disappeared in
the dark only to come back again and again. Its crying told them it was there all the time, trying to reclaim its
dead mate. (Singh 7)
Khushwant Singh, by presenting the scene of Sarus killing, has indirectly pointed out that neither Sher
Singh nor Madan Lal understood as to what love is and what mans feelings for woman are. Due to Sher Singhs
66 | Page
Treatment Of Love In Khushwant Singhs I Shall Not Hear The Nightngale

over ambitions, he ignores the sexual urge of his wife, Champak while Madan Lal behaves like a sex maniac
who indulges himself simultaneously with many women.
On their way, the village headman stopped him and asked him to show his license. Sher Singh showed
his fathers shotgun license from his pocket. When Sher Singh was introduced as senior most magistrates Sardar
Buta Singhs son, the headman withdrew his demand and on the contrary started flattering him. Thus situation is
ironical satire on the duplicity of character of Lambardar and inequality on the application of law by them,
treating powerful persons above the law. Lambardar as suspected by Sher Singh and his friends was a paid
police informer. It is his crave from money, his love for power, that eventually in the course of time; he was
killed by the misguided Sher Singh.
In their excitement, Madan Lal, friend of Sher Singh introduced his friends with false names. Sher
Singh also forgot to pick up six empty cases of bullets at the place of target practice. There opening scene
indicates the progress of situation and character of Sher Singh.
As Sher Singh and his friends discovered that the village headman was a paid police informer. The
headman was the one, who had been informing every activity of Sher Singh to the Deputy Commissioner. More
over, this village headman tried to blackmail and extract money from Sher Singh as well as his friends. So, one
particular evening, Sher Singh along with his friends killed the village head master. The Deputy Commissioner
suspected the hand of Sher Singh in the murder of Jhimma Singh, the village head master.
As a modern novelist, being influenced by Western civilizations, Khushwant Singh has employed
unusual sexual culture in the novel through champak. Champak is a sex hungry woman. She is a unique lady in
the whole range of Indian fiction in English. We find a glimpse of Champak through Sher Singh in the
following lines:He woke with a cry of terror and looked round for his wife. His cry had not wakened her. She lay like a
nude model posing for an artist. On hand between her thigh covering her nakedness and the other stretched away
to expose her bust. (Singh p.18)
Champak is an unusual lady, who always indulges herself in sexual activities. Champak, the name of a
beautiful flower is very much appropriate for her. She also openly exhibits her beauty. Even on Baishakhi Day,
the New Year Day, while her mother-in-law Sabhrai was seen going out or engaged in religious activities,
Champak was seen indulged in highly sensuous and sensual activities. She took off her entire clothing and stood
in front of her mirror of her dressing table to admire the contours of her chocolate body. Khushwant Singh very
rightly puts the scene as below.
She loosened her hair and turned round to see how she looked from behind. Her hair fell to the point at
which her buttocks rose like softly rounded water melons. There are dimples on either side of rear waist. She
turned round once more, inhaled deeply and lifted her breast with the palms of her hand and then ran her figures
round her nipples till they became round like berries. She clasped her arms above her hand and wriggled her
hips is he manner of hula-hula dancers. She drew her belly in as much as she could and stroked it with her hand
down on either side to her knees. She studied her face and figure in all the postures she had seen in all the
postures she had seen in photograph of nude models. She found the reflection in the mirror to her satisfaction.
(Singh pp.49-50)
The novelist sketches Champak as a sex-maniac who in her exhibitionism does not spare her minor
teen-aged servant Mundoo who saw:
Champak hid her nakedness with her hands between her knees. Her raven black hair fell on either side
of her neck. Her breasts looked out from between her arms. Mundoo stared stupidly at her without replying and
then started to back out of the door. (Singh p.51) Sher Singh loves his wife but it seems as if he doesnt
understand his wife. He doesnt care for her personal feelings, hobbies and likings. His conversation with his
wife contains frequent references to his political routines. He takes it for granted that Champak loves this. These
lines describe this. I must tell you what happened today. My God! I nearly died of shame the
embarrassment had nearly killed me. (Singh p.51) 7.But Sher Singh paid little attention to these and started
recalling what had happened that day. He Says,
What a turn out at my meeting. I firs we had a march past of the student volunteer corps. No one had
seen such smartness from civilians before. The S.V.C. has come to mean something. Then, I addressed the
meeting. There was absolute pin-drop silence. (Singh p.52)
Sher Singh is no match for her in sex. He is the picture of an incomplete man, who fails to act
physically to satisfy the sex urge of his wife and is also unable to act on his own political ideals of nationalism.
Ironically the writer has given his name as Sher Singh, but in reality he acts just opposite to the
meaning of his name. As depicted in the beginning of the novel, on one hand he wishes to kill as many English
men as possible, but even the killing of a Saru disturbs his peace of mind. Through this opening scene
Khushwant Singh introduces Sher Singh, the son of Buta Singh, a senior Magistrate in the British Raj as a
young man initially caught in a conflict between nonviolence and violence, between a comfortable life provided
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by his father in the British Raj and his own individual pressure to form a group of terrorists working against the
British Raj.
Sher Singh has prematurely married Champak and Champak is hyperactive in sex. Sher Singhs
inadequacy, in satisfying her wife in sex is aptly presented in the following lines:
Champak had taken off her Kimono and lay stark naked on her belly she had the pillow between her arms, her
legs were stretched apart. Sher Singh knew what this meant My God I feel flagged out, he said wearily and
switched off the light (Singh p.48)
So, though they live together physically, they do not come together psychologically and spiritually.
Champak is not satisfied in her conjugal relationship with Sher Singh. She tries to draw attention of Sher Singh
towards sex, while Sher Singh keeps on talking about his political meetings or war. There are numerous comical
instances of Sher Singh trying in vain to avoid his amorous wife .Champak at times pretends to be in the throbs
of a nightmare and so maneuver herself into Shrer Singhs arms. At other times, she brings up the subject of
either Mundoo coming on to him while she was bathing in the nude, or Madan staring at her breasts or some
other man gazing at her. Khushwant Singh believes that this incompatibility leads to infidelity. She pretends to
be very loyal to Sher Singh but behind him she passionately loves Madan.
Khushwant is a keen observant. A frank discussion about sex is not a taboo to him. It is his openness
which is liked by his readers. Santha Rama Rao says, Khushwant is direct to the point of brutality,
unsentimentally observant, and in his bold characterization he is ready to explore the least appealing aspects of
human nature and relationships (qtd.in Singh P.K p.57)
Writer P.K.Singh says:
By exposing the unfulfilled sexual desires of Champak, he wants to draw peoples attention towards
certain drawbacks of Indian Joint family, where married couple cannot meet openly to appease their carnal
desire. (Singh P.K p. 66)
Khushwant Singh Ironically says that though India is the land of the Kama Sutra and phallus worship,
sex is practiced in conditions which provide neither the time nor the opportunity for a man to arouse the passion
of his women which makes her yearn for lusty fulfillment. He believes that India, the land of Kama Sutra, is
really unfortunate to have such as unpleasant and unfavorable socio-Sexual situation for young married couples.
According to him, it is highly ironical that Kama Sutra, a historical book on eroticism (sexual activities), are
adopted and being translated by Greek and people of other countries to learn methods of getting carnal pleasures
prescribed in it. But in India, married couple hardly gets opportunity and privacy to practice its devices.
This unfulfilled of sexual desire leads many of them to lean towards other alternatives. Khushwant
candidly depicts such man-woman relationship in this piece of work. He clearly portrays the picture of a trapped
married woman, who when gets opportunity easily indulges herself in extra marital relation through the
character of Champak. Like D.H.Lawrence, Khushwant Singh also believes that suppression of sex has always
negative consequences. He writes:
Unfulfilled sexual impulses result in an obsession with sex and in many perversions which result from
frustration, sadism, masochism and most common of all exhibitionism. (Singh p.48)
By her manipulative skill, Champak manages to enjoy sex by being involved in a flirtation with Madan
in Shimla. Champaks husband Sher Singh has no time to satisfy her physical needs and hence she gets sexual
fulfillment from Madan whenever she finds privacy. She is more frank and open with him than with her husband
who is not much interested in such things because of his mission of a revolutionary. Like Lawrence Khushwant
Singh thinks there is no relation between sexual fulfillment and morality or fidelity. In this context, comparing
Champak with D.H.Lawrences Lady Chatterley, Ranjan Kumar says:
In Lawrences Lady Chatterleys Lover the wife is very much loyal to her handicapped husband but for
the fulfillment of her sexual urge she goes to another person. (Kumar Ranjan 60)
The following erotic lines, sensuous, passionate and vulgar loving scenes of Madan and Champak
rightly support the above said point.
He undid the top buttons of her shirt and let his hand slip on to her warm, rounded breast. She turned
her face up to him, their mouths met with hungry passion. Madan gently pushed her against the wall on the side
and kissed her on her eyes and glued his lips on hers. The breath in his nostrils became heavy. (Singh p.127)
As a writer, Khushwant Singh is gifted with extra-ordinary ability to discuss very sensitive aspects of
human relationship is really very wonderful. He believes in frank narration of incidents and situation with a
touch of open heartedness. In this context, Khushwant portrays beautifully another character, Beena, who is the
daughter of Buta Singh. She is found to be studying in a college. She seems to be in her adolescence She was
also seen to be tempted for a while by Madan. The circumstance of her studying together with Seeta, Sister of
Madan Lal, led her to visit the movie theatre in the company of Madan, who was a cricket star of the college and
who possess a good figure. So it did not take much to seduce Beena. It can be clearly observed in the following
lines.
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As soon as the lights went out, Madan put his hand in the arm of Beenas Chairs. This time she knew
that it was not an accident. She could hardly believe that anyone, let alone Madan, wants to make a passionate
plain and simple girl like her. It was unbelievably flattering. But he was married and it was obviously wrong.
Beena had no doubt about Madans intentions as his fingers closed round her elbow..Madan began to
caress her arm .Beena did not move. Then his hand brushed against her breast .she shrank away into the farther
corner of her chair. (Singh p.41)
Khushwant Singh believes that girls at sixteen are easy to seduce. Through the character of Beena, the
novelist wants to give a warning to the adolescent youth not to indulge themselves in sex affair. It is again
through the character of Beena, he wants to show that premature love leads to agony and suffering.
Beena was accompanied by Champak to go to Shimla, where Madan and his sister Seeta had also turned up. On
a particular day when Madan and Beena had decided to meet at night, Beena even though she knew that what
she is going to do is socially not accepted, but she should not resist her temptation. She decided to go to
Madans room. As she switched on the light she could see the letter sent by her mother. Khushwant Singh very
cleverly warns the entire adolescent youth to be very careful, who dont know the difference between right and
wrong.
The following passage, which is a part of Sabhrais letter, clearly depicts the novelists intention.
O, Black back, why lovest thou.
The pleasure of fenced-in fields?
Forbidden fruit is sweet but for a few days,
It entices and ensnares.
Then leaves one sorrowing . (Singh 129)
Khushwant Singh believes that sex is a physical manifestation of God and it is a not a sin. But when
sex is practiced by a prematured person who hardly understands the difference between love and lust, the
consequence can be very dangerous. This is one of the ideas explicit in the novel, which bears social
significance.
Knowing that sexual involvement with a married man like Madan will never be accepted, still the
desire to go into Madans room brought a feverish longing in her body. She was found to be on the horns of a
dilemma. This can rightly be observed in the following lines.
The desire to go into Madans room brought a feverish longing in her body. It was followed by visions
of Madans wife and child and the hot perspirations turned cold and froze on her, Then came the figure of
Madan, in his cream coloured, hand knitted sports sweater and flannel trousers tall, handsome overpowering
stripping her and taking her as a man should take a woman. Once more the implications of what would follow
her mothers cold censorious eyes, the words in the letter burning through the thickness of the pillow..
Forbidden fruit is sweet but for a few days. It entices and ensnares, then leaves one sorrowing .The image
followed each other in quick succession, alternatively rousing hot passion and immersing her in cold water.
(Singh p.130)
But eventually her mind became possessed by the memory of Madan and decided to go to Madans
room. But to her utter surprise, she found Madans door to be shut. It was bolted from inside. She stood rooted
to the ground like a statue as she came to know that Madan, whom she thought to be her lover, was sexually
involved with Champak. The novelist has portrayed its effect on Beena thus: She stood rooted to the ground
like a statue. All longing turned to cold, sickening hate. (Singh p.116)
Beena, couldnt take the psychological stress easily and fell sick, When Sabhrai came to meet her
daughter. Beena clutched her mother by the waist and burst into tears. Khushwant Singh aptly describes the
suffering of young girl, Beena in a very realistic manner in these lines The girl cried, sobbed, sighed and then
fill silent. (Singh 145)
A strangely written character is of Madan Lal, Sher Singhs friend and comrade against the British.
Madan Lal is the cricket star who has both Champak and Sher Singhs Sister Beena lusting for him. Khushwant,
by portraying the character of Madan, wants to give a message to the society that of all human emotions, the
most basic, beautiful and controversial one is love. Our entire lives are dominated by this and everything else is
measured by love. Sexuality is first and foremost way that God chooses for us to be here on earth, to enjoy this
energy of love in the physical place. But unfortunately people, like Madan forgets this very concept of love.
Through the character of Madan, Khushwant portrays the wickedness and wrongs of man. The Sexmaniac counter part of Champak is Madan, who enjoys sex simultaneously with Beena and Champak. Madan
and Sher Singhs families maintain cordial relationships. This very fact gives Madan Lal easy accessibility to
Sher Singhs wife Champak and his sister Beena. While they all were in Shimla, Madan could easily convince
Beena to come to his room at night and at the same time he managed to call Champak, who was already
enamoured of him for his manly qualities and handsome personality to his room. But Madan became a victim of
his own plans. He had invited Beena and when his arrangement with Champak finalized he could not tell Beena
not to come, apologizing to her for making an illegitimate proposal in a very weak emotional state.
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Other characters which draw our attention are the characters of Shunno and Peer Sahib. Shunno is a
middle aged widow, who happens to be a domestic servant in Buta Singhs household. As she has been serving
Buta Singhs household since a long time and she could run the house single handed, she has the habit of
bullying her fellow servant like her personal slaves. Mundoo, a thirteen year old servant was also annoyed with
Shunno for her bossing over. So, to give her a piece of mind, he decided to add red ink into her drinking water
vessel. So, Shunno was very much scared seeing the red stain in her finger when she was rinsing her hands. She
decided to visit peer sahib, a Muslim saint to cure her mysterious ailment.
Peer sahib, a Muslim saint was young man at thirty, was a shrewd tall and wiry young man. He had a
strong and mellifluous voice. He has inherited the tomb of Hazrat Sahib. He spends most of his time in praying
and giving spiritual guidance to the people who flocked to the tomb. He is a person whose conception of
celibacy is very light.
Through the characters of Peer Sahib and Shunno the novelist has shown the intensity of sex-hunger being as
powerful as it knows no bounds and breaks to pieces the restraints of all social, moral, ethical and religious
virtues and even the fear of God does not dissuade either the Hindu window or the Muslim Peer Sahib from sex.
On one particular day when Shunno approached him to get rid of the strange disease, he attempts to
seduce her by calling daughter and slowly, step by step he was found to be enjoying sensual pleasure with
her.Khushwant Singhs art of characterization is very much realistic. He has dealt very nicely with the
complexities of human behaviour. Here readers are surprised to see how Peer Sahib, a pious person in selfdefense rationalizes his discreditable act by making himself believe that he is not violating the rules of celibacy
by indulging himself sexually with Shunno because she might be brought on the right path by doing so. He has
vividly described the discreditable act in the following lines:Here was a man twenty year younger, strong and virile with an untamed last savagely tearing off the padding of
respectability with which she had covered herself. He stirred up the fires of a volcano which had all but become
extinct. It was all wrong, but it was deliciously irresistible. It was like an itch which begs to be scratched till it
draws blood.
The two lay on the hard brick floor of the starlit court yard till the early hours of
mornings Not a word of affection or explanation passed between them. (Singh p159)
Khushwant Singh is one of the most powerful contemporary Indian novelists in English. He is more
concerned with thoughts, emotions and sensation than with action, experiences and achievement. Khushwant
Singhs portrayal of men women relationship has been influenced and conditioned by the existing intricate
social situation. Man-woman relationship seems of particular interest to him in most of his novels. In this
context Mr. P.K. Singh aptly says,
The illicit sexual encounter with peer Sahib and Shunno run counter with the illicit affairs of Champak
and Madan. Madan and Champak belong to the upper stratum of Indian hierarchical society and Shunno and
Peer Sahib are from lower section of society. But their repressed carnal desires are universal and same. Their
tendencies oftearing off the padding of respectabilityare the similar. (Singh P.K p.70)
Lust is incredibly strong feeling that can prove to be almost uncontrollable. Man-woman whether they
wear rich clothes or tattered clothes, their inner urge for sex are almost same. Lust is incredibly strong feeling
that can prove to be almost uncontrollable. Khushwant Singh attempts to depict and expose the tearing off the
padding of respectability must not be termed as pornographic as they encompass a realistic picture of society.
Santha Rama Rao says,
Khushwant is direct to the point of brutality, unsentimental observant, and in his bold characterization
he is ready to explore the least appealing aspects of human nature and relationships. His humour expertly
integrated with an essentially sad and cynical story is wild, broad, unsparing. (Singh P.K p.57)
Rosanne Archer commenting on the novel says:
It is sometimes interesting in spite of one dimensional characters heavy handed plotting, a flattened
climax and dollops of sex pile on irrelevantly.( Dubey p.97)
Here another thing is worth noticing, there are so many bonds formed in life that show great love and
guidance. One such bond can be seen in I shall not hear the Nightingale in the light of father-son relationship.
The father-son relationship in I shall not hear the Nightingale is little awkward because the ideologies of son
and father are way apart. They do not understand each other. There is a communication gap between them and
all the communication is carried through Sabhrai.
Buta Singhs ancestors had served the British and his own son was on the side of the revolutionaries.
Similarly Sher Singh was also sailing in two boats. Sher Singh is a queer combination of youthful recklessness
and self-interest. He thought that he would take the undue advantage of his fathers official position and would
also become the heroic leader of a band of terrorists. But unfortunately he could not make it as he could not put
his legs in two boats. This is clear from the following lines which is full of self realization.
He had somehow believed that he would not muddle through, getting the better of the two worlds: the
one of security provided to his father who was a senior magistrate and the other full of applause that would
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come to him as the heroic leader of a band of terrorists. Now for the first time he realized how utterly
incompatible the two were and he simply had to make a choice. (Singh p.14)
But in reality he could never make a choice between two worlds. The conflict in Sher Singhs mind is
between his dream to be the leader of the terrorist group and his love, attachment and respect for his father.
From many instances it is proved that Sher Singh knows that his father who is trusted by Mr.Taylor,
the Deputy Commissioner, will be defamed and there would be a crack in his loyalty and integrity. Sher Singhs
concern for his father is reflected in the following lines:
Mr. Taylor had been particularly good to his father whom he trusted more than any other officer in the
district, that trust would be lost forever. His fathers career in service and hopes of recognition for what he was
doing for the war would be dashed. (Singh p.14)
Similarly Buta Singh has a split personality and practically like his son, he was sailing in two boats.
The clash in Buta Singhs mind is between his loyalty to the British Raj and his love and care for his
son. Though fathers and sons ideologies were wide apart yet they care for each others well being. Buta Singh,
like any other parents also keeps on telling his son the right and wrong paths of life .on one occasion Buta Singh
advises his son as follows
Dont say anything which may cause trouble. Remember my position. I do not mind your hobnobbing
with these nationalists..as a matter of fact, it is good to keep in with both sides-but one ought to be cautious
(Singh p.25)
Sher Singh also in spite of their difference of their ideologies; display a lot of love for his father.
When Sher Singh was released from the jail, he was brought back to home by his friends and followers.
Initially Buta Singh could not make any guesses for his sons release. But when he found his son with garlands
around his neck, his joys knew no bound. He forgot all the differences of opinion which had poisoned their
relationship over the past months. All the spitefulness submerged in the applause of triumph.
Following lines are replete with filial tenderness and affections of Buta Singh for his son She Singh.
A dozen young men rushed forward to congratulate the magistrate. It was then he noticed his son loaded with
garlands. Father and son fell into each others arms, all differences of opinion; all ran court which had poisoned
their relationship over the part months were submerged in the applause of triumph. (Singh 252)
Further critical analysis of Buta Singhs character gives a glimpse of his love for power. It is through
the character of Buta Singh the novelist gave a chance to his readers to mock at the obsequiousness of the
servile Indian Civil servants of that time, who were at British officers beck and call.
He has been portrayed as such a character who thinks that his life and job depend on the whims of his
British masters is apt to be cringing and fawning. He is often excessively, sickeningly and insincerely polite. It
is not that John Taylor Buta Singhs officer is altogether unaware of Buta Singhs intentions as he once said to
his wife: Poor Buta Singh is split between the past and the future; that is why he appears so muddled in the
present. He is not as much of a humbug as he appears to be. (Singh p.218)
There are many such instances where it can be observed how he bows to his British master and attend
on their slightest wish. One such incident is described below.
Buta Singh you mustnt misunderstand my temper. I am sorry if I sounded impolite. I did not mean to.
Buta Singhs face lit up with a broad smile. Sir, I have to work with you every day. If I start
misunderstanding your anger-which I must say is very rare-our work would stop. I have always said, and will
say again that it is a subordinates duty to understand his officers moods as well as his method of work. When
you tick me off, I consider it a privilege because then I know I have made a mistake and (Singh p.73)
The characters in the novels are realistic and life like. The central character in the novel is of Sabhrai,
the wife of Buta Singh. She has three dimensional characters. She is Saviour of lost souls, having the
instinctive understanding of life. She becomes the central character of the novel by virtue of her moral values
and instinctive wisdom .Sabhrai is the epitome of love, goodness. She becomes the central character of the novel
by Virtue of her moral values and instinctive wisdom.. Sabhrai, the devoted wife of Buta Singh is presented in
the novel as a replica of common Indian housewives, who are generally devoted to the services of family
members and also religious activities. She is a pious, religious lady, for whom Granth Sahib was the source of
all knowledge and inspiration. She, like all mothers blindly loves her son and daughter.
On one side, where the novel is replete with sexual amorous activities, practiced by different
characters. Khushwant on the other side portrays a pious, religious character, which is without a stain. She is a
source of inspiration not only for her husband but also for her son and daughter.
It is through Sabhrais Character, we come across another illusive kind of love i.e. divine love. A
religious woman like Sabharai believes that this love is the greatest love of all. She is essentially a spiritualist;
so often she quotes lines from Guru Granth Sahib which shows her unflinching faith on Guru. She finds her own
comfort in her worship of her Guru and reading of Guru Granth, the holy book every day.
On one side readers denounce love as that is lust. On other side readers appreciate it when it comes in
the form of maternal love in its tender form .While for Champak, Beena, Shunno, love becomes skin
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communicated thing, for Sabhrai, it is very much celestial. When her son was in jail she went to the extent of
spending a chilly night in Gurudwara in order to save her sons life. She did not hesitate to even sacrifice her life
for the release of her son. She sacrifices her life for her son, displaying a true mothers instinct by spending an
entire cold night in Gurudwara praying and praying. Her unflinching faith on God and his sacrifice gets a clear
picture in the following lines.
Not many people stay in temple after the evening service is overOnly those stricken with sorrow
spend the midnight hours in different corners crying and praying for peace..Sabhrai washed her hands and
feet in the cistern and went down the marble stairs gripping the silver railing on the sideshe sat down
on the hard marble floor. An icy wind blew over the water, through the trellised fence, into her
bones.Sabhrai did not know what prayer one recited during the night; so she went through all she knew
by heart. When she had finished the clock had struck two. But the tumult in her mind was not stilled. They were
going to hang her son if he did not mention the names of the other conspirators..She felt he sons presence
between her arms and more tears flooded down..so the tumult continued and the tears continued and the
tears continued and the tears continued to course down her cheeks. Her grey head was full of few and her limbs
stiff with cold and dampby the time the prayer ended, the grey light of dawn had dimmed the lesser starsonly the morning star shone a pure, silvery white. At last there was peace in her soul. The water was bitter cold
and she shuddered as she went down the steps. (Singh p.226-227)
Sabhrais life is simplicity itself. Hers life is devoted to her family, looking after the needs and
comforts of every family member. On many instances; we observe that her world seems to be confined within
the lives of her husband and children. Although she does not fully understand the implications of her sons
activities, on one occasion when Sher Singh was in the jail and Sabhrai went to meet him, we observe the love,
caring of Sabhrai for his son. The novelist vividly describes the heart touching scene as follows:Mother and son clasped each other in a tight embrace Sher Sings pent up emotions burst their bounds and he
began to cry loudly in his mothers arms Sabhrai his unmanly tears by holding him to her bosom. She kissed her
forehead again and again. (Singh p.231) 31
Sabhrai further says How pale you are! Do they give you enough to eat?
As told by author spiritual persons like Sabhrai are gifted with sixth sense. She could predict that
although Beena, her daughter was not alone but she was not protected. So she realized that she could be the
victim of Madans wiles. Her caring for her daughter is clear in the following lines:
Madans wife had probably had not turned up in Shimla. Even if she had, she was not likely to be able to keep
her husband straightshe dreamt that her daughter was being pursued by a band of hooligans wanting to
ravish her and was fanatically calling for help. As the pursuers gained ground, Sabhrais agitation changed from
dream to reality. When they bore upon her child, she yelled at them and opened her arms to protect her daughter.
(Singh p.143)
So, she thought of going to Shimla to protect Beena and to her utter surprise, she found Beena to be
very sick. The tenderness of her filial love is best expressed in the following lines:
The mother pressed her daughters head as she chanted. The girl cried, sobbed, sighed and then fell silent.
You have no fever?
. when did you catch the cold?
The true, the true.
The Great Guru. (Singh p.145)
Mrs. Joyce Taylor was so much touched by the plight of a religious mother like Sabhrai that she
persuades her husband John Taylor to give a real Christmas gift to Buta Singhs family in the form of release of
Sher Singh on the Christmas Day. Joyce Taylor is European counterpart of Sabhrai and she is the embodiment
of benevolence and moral goodness.
After his son was released the miserable - Sabhrai recovers her health temporarily and spends some
happy moments with the members of her family. Though illiterate Sabhrai did not forget to thank Mrs.Taylor
who had persuaded her husband to release her son and writes letter to Mrs.Taylor wherein we her concern for
her son is reflected thoroughly.
Dear Taylor Memsahib, I am an uneducated Punjabi woman who cannot write nice words of thanks in English.
Ask one of your clerks to read this to you. God bless you for what you have done. You wanted to share the grief
of a mother whose child has been stricken .There is no greater act of kindness in the world. (Singh p.254)
But happiness of the family doesnt continue for long because Sabhrai after four days of cheerfulness begins to
sink suddenly.
She knows that she is going to die and says my time has come (Singh p.258) .Her motherly affection
for Sher Singh becomes very apparent in the following lines:
Sher Singh was last to arrive. Sabhrai woke up as soon as he came in - just as if she had been waiting
for him all the time. She whispered in his ear:I shall not hear the nightingale, my son. May the Guru give you
long life? (Singh p.261)
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She makes the family members recite Granth Sahib. The title of the novel is apt and precise and
indicates the importance attached to the character of Sabhrai. In this connection M.K. Naik aptly points out:
The Novel derives its title from her reply to her sons assurance that after Independence, once more the
Nightingale will sing. She says, I shall not hear the Nightingale -a sentiment in tune with the temper of the
novel. (qtd. in Milhoutra p.118)
It seems as if Sabhrai was waiting for her sons release. So, after that she can peacefully go to Gods
abode. This is a case where love seems to be the cure for pain and grief. Sabhrai and Sher singhs relationship
gives a message to the reader that even in the time of crisis it is love which gives the victims strength to face the
obstrucles.
A lingering sadness envelops the end of I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale which is not merely the
result of the death of the good woman, Sabhrai. With Sabhrais death, set of values will get eroded and will be
replaced by a "brave new world" (with a new connotation of 'brave') in which people like Sabhrai and all that
they uphold in the midst of annoying and demoralizing situations, will become either strangers, out of place or
extinct. Her death is marked by as much dignity as was her life.
The title of the novel clearly suggests the brooding, solemn vision of the author and can be interpreted
in two ways: i) as Sabhrai's lament that she will not be able to witness the Independence of the country, and ii)
as the death of beauty and goodness of the nightingale-symbolized by Sabhrai. Nightingale stands for happiness
and also independence. Sabhrai knows that India will soon get independence but she knows that she will not
there to enjoy the freedom.
The deceptively structured surface of the book contains underneath a heart rendering message.
Commenting on the ending of the novel the author writes Alls well that ends well.
This holds the key to the basic question of the novelists evaluation
of experience as presented in I Shall
Not Hear the Nightingale. This experience is multifaceted and multidimensional and comprises social,
political, moral and religious strands. (Dhawan P.108) 38
Khushwant Singhs treatment of sex in I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale is more artistic than what we
find in his novel The Company of Women. In The Company of Women almost all women are seen sexually
hungry where as in I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale, Sabhrai is an elderly and a spiritualist, Madans sister is
unconcerned with sex while Beena, Sher Singhs sister is once entrapped and is passionately hungry for sex, but
later on she retreats finding her sister in law Champak with Madan.
Khushwant Singh has presented the ideal and the real world in Juxtaposition in the novel. On the one
hand through the characters like Sabhrai and Mrs.Taylor, he tries to explore the ideal world as discussed and
advised by Indian philosophical schools and on the other hand he unfolds the real world of oddities and menace
through the characters like Champak or Madan.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Singh, P.K.The Novels of Khushwant Singh A Critical Evaluation,Jaipur:Book Enclave,2005

Singh, Khushwant.I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale, New Delhi: Ravi Dayal Publisher, 1997
Kumar, Ranjan.Khushwant Singh As a Novelists, New Delhi:R.D.Pandey Satyam Publishing Home,2010
Dubey,S.K.Khushwant Singh: A Critical Study of His Novels,Delhi:B.R.Publication Corportion,1999
Milhoutra, Dr.Ruby.Studies in Indian English Fiction and poetry (ed.), New Delhi:Sarup and Sons:2003
Dhawan, R.K. Three Contemporary Novelists. New Delhi: Classical Publishing Company, 1985. p. 36.
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e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Apllication of I.T.S. In India

3
Kalanidhi S., 2Kamini Gupta, 1Neelima Chakrabarty

3
Research Scholar, CSIR-CRRI, Mathura Road ,New-Delhi

Senior Technical Officer, CSIR-CRRI, Mathura Road ,New-Delhi4
1
Principal Scientist, CSIR-CRRI, Mathura Road ,New-Delhi
Abstract: This study deals with the estimation of impact of various Intelligent Transportation Modules such as
APMS, VMS and ATIS in New Delhi. Major findings of a survey of drivers or users conducted in New Delhi are
presented in this report. From this study, the demand for the particular types of traffic / traveler information
was also undertaken in order to understand the effectiveness of the system in the way they affect the users /
drivers transport choices. The personal and travel characteristics of the users / drivers which affect the users /
drivers desire for different types of information were found. And also it is found that many of those factors are
in direct relationship with the drivers awareness on Intelligent Transportation System.
I.
Introduction
Almost everyone in the world of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) agrees that Intelligent
Transportation System (ITS) advances are conceived to improve transport efficiency, enabling inter-modality
among different transport means, diminishing the environmental impact and enhancing the experience of
travelers. In order to achieve these objectives, it has been proven that new information and communication
technologies are key elements. Among the different transportation modes involved in Intelligent Transportation
System (ITS), it is probably the road sector the one that has focused most of the efforts during the past years.
There has been increasing awareness of the negative effects of road traffic, especially in terms of
accidents and environmental impairment. This awareness provides the public support for establishing modern
traffic system management using advanced traffic control strategies and technologies. Intelligent Transportation
System (ITS) is a broad range of diverse technologies applied to transportation to make systems safer, efficient,
reliable and environmentally friendly, without necessarily having to physically alter existing infrastructure. A
range of technologies includes sensor and control technologies, communications, and computer informatics and
cuts across disciplines such as transportation engineering, telecommunications, computer science, finance,
electronic commerce and automobile manufacturing. As the Intelligent Transportation systems (ITSs) are
information technology oriented devices, which offer drivers a wide range of information on the user behavior.
Therefore, it is important to investigate driver response to the existing Intelligent Transportation System (ITS)
modules since it is not clear what types of drivers are using them and how they are influencing.
II.
Current Scenario of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) in New Delhi
Delhi is the second largest metropolis in India, with a population of 16.7 million as per 2011 census. As
of 2008, Delhi had 5.5 million vehicles within its municipal limits, making most vehicle populous city of the
world. In order to ensure and monitor the safe movement of city traffic, the Intelligent Transportation Systems
(ITSs) technologies and facilities will be installed on major roads and areas of Delhi. This highly intelligent and
autonomous system shall enable all individual traffic systems to operate collaboratively and seamlessly to
manage major traffic incidents that have wider impact on the road network.
The NCT of Delhi is divided into 3 ranges, 10 districts and further sub-divided into 39 traffic circles for
administrative purposes. A Central traffic Control room is established and also a separate control room for
SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Optimization Technique) based ATC (Area traffic Control) system. The central
control room is a communication hub which uses conventional and trunked wireless and telephone facilities to
communicate with field officers. There is a dedicated computer centre coordinating all IT related activities of
Delhi Traffic Police. There are 701 signalized traffic junctions out of which 100 junctions are managed through
SCOOT based ATC system. The other signalized junctions are currently fixed time VTMS controller based or
vehicle actuated traffic blinkers, 100 signalized junctions are managed through real time on line the SCOOT
based area traffic control system. There are seven traffic signals which are vehicle actuated signals, 38 pelican
signals with a facility of VTMS and S-32 type of controllers, 15 intersections are covered by red light and speed
check cameras and nine junctions are fitted with 10 PTZ cameras and 26 fixed cameras. There are three fixed
variable message sign boards and six numbers road disaster management vehicles and five parking locations
working with APMS technology.
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Apllication Of I.T.S. In India

III.
Components of ITS
In 2000, the Faculty approved the formation of the multi-disciplinary Intelligent Transportation and
Vehicle Systems (ITVS) programme to be coordinated by the Centre for Transportation Research. This
programme draws on the expertise of academic staff from the Department of Civil Engineering, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Department of Industrial & Systems Engineering and Department of
Mechanical Engineering. Our Facultys initiative has a V added to the commonly used ITS acronym to
emphasize the fact that vehicles are an integral part of the entire transportation system.
The ITVS programme has three components:
Research Programme
Education Programme
Professional Activities
Majority of the research activities are hosted by the ITVS Laboratory in the Department of Civil
Engineering, with several other research projects hosted by the Vision and Image Processing Laboratory, and
Digital Systems & Applications Laboratory in the Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering. The
research activities at the ITVS laboratory are supported by three laboratory officers, two research fellows, one
research engineer and 18 research scholars. The research thrust, as reflected by the research projects conducted
by faculty members and full-time research staff, may be grouped under the following categories:
Real-time traffic detection and prediction
Traffic control and management
Traffic safety and human factors
Traveller and spatial information systems
Road network management systems
Transportation logistics
Image processing
Voice recognition for vehicle navigation and control
Vehicle dynamics
Figure shows the components
Figure 1: Various intelligent transportation systems components.

The need for intelligent transportation systems stems from the fact that traffic congestion has been
increasing all around the world because of increasing population, increasing amount of transportation vehicles
and increasing urbanization.
Wireless Technologies
Wireless communication technologies have been proposed, tested and used for intelligent transportation
systems. From the short-range communications systems like WAVE or IEEE 802.11 protocol to the range
extended by utilizing mesh networking or mobile ad hoc networks, many possibilities exist. Long-range
communications systems like GSM or WiMAX which are far more expensive and complicated have also
been proposed.
Computational Systems
The installation of operational systems and processors in transportation vehicles have also allowed software
applications and artificial intelligence systems to be installed. These systems include internal control of
75 | Page
model based processes, ubiquitous computing and other programs designed to be integrated into a greater
transportation system.
Floating Car Data or FCD
Floating car data on the other hand makes use of the availability of location data garnered from mobile
phones by the network carriers. Since this data is updated constantly throughout the day, they can be used
as traffic probes showing points where there is traffic congestion, the average traffic speed and traffic
direction. Moreover, since this system requires no costly infrastructures and equipment like cameras or
sensors and is not affected by adverse weather, it is one of the strongest contenders for intelligent
transportation systems.
Sensing Technologies
Sensing technologies involve embedding sensors along the road or the surrounding infrastructure like traffic
posts, signs and buildings. These sensors include inductive loops that can sense the vehicles speed, the
number of vehicles passing as well as the size of these vehicles. Video detection, on the other hand,
involves the installation of video cameras onto road structures such as poles or billboards to detect
occupancy information on the lanes, vehicle speeds, vehicles heading the wrong way, etc.
IV.
Literature Review
Russell et al, (1995) studied the understanding of parking guidance information systems in Shinkuju of
Japan and found that 61 percent drivers of the total interviewed noticed sign boards and 81 percent of drivers
understood information to total drivers who noticed the sign boards and out of total understood drivers around
34 percent drivers used or followed sign boards. Chatterjee, et al (2002) conducted interview surveys in London
revealed that 97 percent of drivers were aware of the existence of Variable Message Signs, 62 percent
completely understood the information presented on Variable Message Sign, 84 percent considered the
information presented to be useful, and 46 percent had at least on occasion diverted in response to the travel
time information. Marell et al (1996) studied the difficulty to the drivers to keep speed within the permissible
limits at a very short duration in the restricted areas like hospitals, primary schools, etc; where ESC functions as
an alerter in such situations. It was found that 43 percent of respondents perceived that they would be able to
keep speed limit with the help of an ESC. Richards et al (2007) focused on user acceptance of VMS located
Southampton in UK, and investigated publics perceived effectiveness and usefulness of these signs through the
use of revealed preference questionnaire surveys and travel diaries. The study showed that less than 1 percent of
the commuter sample stated that they had diverted to an alternative route during the travel diary week as a result
of VMS information, although this did correspond to 53 percent of drivers originally intending to travel past the
incident location. The results showed that the VMS messages were well understood and legible, and also
indicated that a default VMS message reporting no problems in the network can indirectly affect a drivers route
choice.
Benson, 1996 conducted a survey of more than 500 motorists in Washington D.C. area and assessed
motorists attitudes toward VMS and the effect of demographic characteristics on these attitudes. In response to
the survey question regarding how often VMS influenced their driving, half the respondents replied often, 40
percent answered occasionally, and others indicated not at all. It was also found that demographic variables,
such as age, income and gender, appeared to have little influence on motorists attitudes about VMS.S.S. Jain, et
al, 2011 conducted a study of about 200 users are surveyed and among them, about 50 percent of age group 40
to 50 years, 60 percent of the drivers who were educated up to 12 th class and 68 percent of occasional trip
frequency respondents have not understood the information of VMS. And it also states that around 45 percent of
the requested information of the drivers is for parking guidance while 31 percent is for parking location.
3.1. Advanced Public Transportation System using Information Techniques
Information from roadside surveillance and monitor equipment and other traffic organizations are
delivered to Traffic Control Center, where information is gathered, analyzed, processed, and distributed to allow
traffic control personnel to react, recognize, determine rapidly, and the public can also get the real-time traffic
information through the Internet, mobile phones, traffic signals, and other facilities. Such information is also
published to general public through all types of sign boards or related equipment on the roads. Below is an
illustration of Intelligent Transportation Systems as shown in figure 2and figure 3.
76 | Page
Figure 2: illustration of Intelligent Transportation Systems
Figure 3: Example of Technologies Associated with Real-Time Traffic data Information

Intelligent transportation systems represent such a critical emerging set of IT applications that it is
important to identify which countries lead in their development and deployment and to understand why these
countries are ahead and why others are lagging. This report seeks to ascertain what the leading countries are
doing differently than the lagging countries and to offer recommendations for countries that seek to be leaders in
intelligent transportation systems.
3.1.1. ITS in Japan
Japan leads the world in intelligent transportation systems based on the importance ascribed to ITS at
the highest levels of government, the number of citizens benefitting from use of an impressive range of operationally deployed ITS applications, and the maturity of those applications for optimal route guidance to avoid
accidents, congestion, weather, and/or roadway hazards. VICS thus provides drivers with in-vehicle, real-time
traffic information and can assist the driver in selecting (and plotting) an optimal route to get to his or her
destination.86
Initially, VICS collected traffic data through sensors embedded in or beside the roadway, traffic
cameras, or traffic reports (for example, from police or motorists). But since 2003, traffic and congestion
information in Japan has been generated increasingly through the use of probe vehicles, specifically by making
VICS-enabled vehicles the probe vehicles themselves. Japan views probe vehicles as a system for monitoring
and collecting data on the precise traffic flow, traffic behaviour, positions, vehicle behaviour, and weather and
natural states by using vehicles as moving traffic-monitoring devices.87
77 | Page
3.2. Arterial and Freeway Management System

Arterial and freeway management systems manage traffic by using traffic signal control systems,
system detectors, closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras, ramp meters; variable message signs (VMS) and
bus probes to improve the efficiency of arterial and freeway roadways. The purpose of these systems is to use
information to improve the flow of traffic, increase safety, reduce costs and improve traveller experience along
arterial and freeway corridors.
3.2.1. Monitoring and Traffic Surveillance
The primary goal of traffic surveillance systems is to supply information about conditions in the field
to other system components so that appropriate response and control actions can be taken. Monitoring and
traffic surveillance strategies include the use of closed-circuit television (CCTV), system detectors, and
communications networks. These tools can help improve incident management, inform control decision-making
and determine traffic conditions for information dissemination. Surveillance can enhance traffic operations and
planning by serving the following purposes:
Detection and verification of incidents that have an impact on traffic operations;
Monitoring of incident clearance;
Monitoring traffic for emergencies and special events;
Monitoring of traffic operations and supporting the implementation of control strategies, such as
adaptive ramp metering and automated traffic signal coordination systems (ATCS);
Monitoring pavement and environmental conditions;
Monitoring of traffic operations to generate data for planning and research purposes.
These data can lead to information on space-time series on link travel time, link space mean speed,
traffic flow rate, space occupancy, and origin destination flows.
Data collection can be accomplished through a number of detector surveillance technologies that measure traffic
parameters including: (11)
Inductive loop detector and magnetometer, which are embedded in the roadway; Non-intrusive detector
including microwave/radar, laser, infrared, ultrasonic, acoustic, digital video imaging; and
Vehicle probes using automatic vehicle identification (AVI) and automatic
vehicle location (AVL).
Detection and surveillance systems can reduce the time lapsed between the occurrence of an incident
and its reporting to the traffic management centers or emergency services (detection time). To verify incidents
CCTV is commonly used with the automated detection systems. CCTV can help to determine the location of the
incident and its severity. In addition, CCTV can supply digital video images to video image processing
algorithms, which can be used to automatically detect the occurrence of an incident.
Using CCTV can also reduce verification time, since all incidents must be verified prior to the
dispatching of response vehicles and personnel. A computer simulation model comparing the situation before
detection and surveillance systems deployment to after deployment found the following quantifiable benefits of
detection and surveillance:
78 | Page

Reduction of non-recurrent delay along the corridor;
Reduction of secondary crashes along the corridor;
Reduction of primary crashes along the corridor;
Reduction of vehicle emissions associated with delay reduction; and
Reduction of fuel consumption associated with delay reduction.
The Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) is currently operating the Advanced Transportation
Management System (ATMS) in the Portland Metro region.
V.
Methodology
The following section describes the approach adopted in this study and the surveys carried out for
accomplishing each of the envisaged tasks. The study approach adopted includes the review of earlier study
reports, research papers and existing proposed development in ITS both in India and abroad, design and conduct
of primary surveys, secondary data collection from Opinion survey conducted at Palika Bazar.
The primary data collection will help to determine actual response of the users to the new system
installed in Delhi. Systematic planning of the survey will generate empirical data and analyzing these data will
help to identify and quantify the characteristic of users. The questionnaire sheet is designed for conducting field
surveys keeping in view local conditions to cover all important and relevant aspects in order to achieve
objectives of the study.
In order to test the suitability of questions framed in Performa for their correctness, sequence and the
time taken for filling them, pilot surveys were carried out for parking at Connaught Place. Field study forms the
basis for a majority of traffic and transportation works as better planned and an accurate collection of data will
work as a sound foundation for building up the final recommendations of the study.
This survey is useful in understanding responses of users to information presented by the VMS boards. They can
also give an indication of the level of improvement that can be expected.
VI.
Data collection
A Questionnaire has been prepared which consists of two sections, one presenting the
personal information of the users, and the other presenting users responses to the system. Opinion
Questionnaire survey has been conducted at Palika Bazar, New Delhi as well as from the Scientists of CRRI,
New Delhi. Data collected from users included demographic characteristics like age, experience, etc; as well as
vehicle type; information regarding purpose of visit or trip; about the system awareness, understand and usage
by a user; and information requested by the users in order to make the system effective.
With the questionnaire, the drivers are interviewed about the notice, understanding and usage or follow
up of the parking. Nearly 50 drivers gave responses. Totally 72 responses has been collected including the
responses of the scientists. This sample size was achieved in 4 days. Drivers were asked information system as
well as their desire for various other types of parking related information. Data about numerous personal and
trip characteristics are also collected.
VII.
Analysis
6.1. Sample Characteristics:

Based on the age profile of respondents, it was found that parkers are mainly in the age group of 18 to
25 (53 Percent).The responses were obtained from the users of Male population of 72 percent and Female
population of 28 percent. About 22 percent of the users are of Government sector, 28 percent are of Private
sector and 19 percent of the users are Business people. Primary purposes of trips were shopping (47 Percent)
and work (46 percent). Majority of the respondents (58 percent) earn Rs. 10000 to 25000 per month and 32
percent of people earn above Rs.25000 per month.74 percent of the respondents were married and 26 percent of
the respondents were unmarried. Most of the people have completed Under Graduate (50 percent) and nearly 22
percent of the respondents have completed Post graduation. About 67 percent of the users were having 1 to 10
years of driving experience.
6.2. Type of vehicle used for the current trip:
82 percent of the respondents were come by car and 15 percent of the respondents were using twowheelers.
79 | Page
Modal Share
3%
15%
82%
Car
Two wheeler
Others
6.3. Frequency of trips:

74 Percent of the respondents were regular travelers.
6.4. ITS applications:
All the respondents are responding that ITS applications are proving Time saving. Majority of the
respondents (75 percent) claim that the fare structure is modest.
Fare Structure of ITS

9% 19%
72%
Cheap
Modest
Costly
6.5. Understandability of Variable Message Sign (VMS) information:

The survey results say that 90 percent of the people can understand the Variable Message Sign (VMS)
information.
Ability to understand ITS information

10%
90%
Yes
No
6.6. Ability to follow the VMS information:

83 percent of the respondents can follow the information disseminated by Variable Message Sign
Boards.
Ability to follow ITS information

17%
83%
Yes No
6.7. Visibility of the Variable Message Sign Boards:
It is clear that, more than 50 percent of the respondents can see the Variable Message Sign Boards
during driving.
80 | Page

Visibility of Digital signs
12%
31%
Always
Often
VIII.
8%
49%
Sometimes
Never
Conclusion
Most of the frequent users are more likely aware, understood and followed the parking information at
the Connaught Place parking in New Delhi. About 53 percent of age group 18 to 25 years, 50 percent of drivers
were educated up to Under Graduation and 72 percent of the regular frequency respondents have not understood
the parking information presented on the sign boards. This shows that personal variables (age and education)
and trip frequency of the drivers have prominent influence in understanding the parking information presented
on the VMS boards in New Delhi. Around 74 percent of the requested information of the drivers is for parking
location while 22 percent is for Parking guidance. This shows that proper Parking guidance information should
be provided and also proper Parking map should be provided.
Nearly 75 percent of the occasional trip respondents are not aware of the traveler information presented
on the boards. This shows that the trip frequency influences awareness about the traveler information. About
half of the respondents who are educated up to 12th class and more than 70 percent of occasional trip
respondents have not understood the information. Therefore the attributes education and trip frequency of the
users are affecting them in understanding information provided on the message boards.This study shows that
personal variables such as age and education have significant effect on driver in understanding the information
presented on the VMS boards. Due to traffic congestion problem in Delhi, most of the respondents requested
traffic congestion
7.1. Applications of Intelligent Transportation Systems
Automatic Toll Collection
Intelligent transport systems are used for automatic toll collection where the vehicles can pass through
without slowing down. This eliminates choke points along routes having toll booths and enforces cordon
zones in some cities. Automatic toll collection systems make use of radio devices, infrared systems,
RFIDs, license plate recognition systems and barcode stickers.
Vehicle Notification Systems
Intelligent transport systems particularly the FCD model can also be used to provide advance warning to
motorists of traffic jams, accidents and other emergency situations. This system can then provide
alternative routes or recommendations to motorists so as to avoid congestion and travel delays.
Cordon Zones
With the intelligent transportation system, cordon zones can also be enforced where mass transportation
systems are available and their use encouraged. Cordon systems make it possible to collect taxes from
those entering city areas with high traffic while encouraging the use of mass transit.
information.
7.2. Benefits From ITS Deployments In Urban Areas
These have the potential to offer the following benefits:
Arterial management systems can potentially reduce delays between 5% and 40%with the implementation of
advanced control systems and traveller information dissemination.
Freeway management systems can reduce the occurrence of crashes by up to 40%, increase capacity, and
decrease overall travel times by up to 60%.
Freight management systems reduce costs to motor carriers by 35% with the implementation of the
commercial vehicle information systems and networks.
Transit management systems may reduce travel times by up to 50% and increased reliability by 35% with
automatic vehicle location and transit signal priority implementation.
Incident management systems potentially reduce incident duration by 40% and offer numerous other benefits,
such as increased public support for DOT activities and goodwill.
Many areas of the urban transportation system can be effectively improved through ITS deployments.
These areas include arterial, freeway, freight, transit, incident, emergency, regional multimodal traveller
81 | Page

information, and archived information management systems. The benefits include improved safety, efficiency,
mobility, accessibility, and intermodal connections. ITS deployment improvements also include the promotion
of environmental responsibility, energy use, and economic development. These benefits can be increased
through regional cooperation and partnerships. Oregons transportation infrastructure is being asked to serve a
growing demand while financial resources are becoming increasingly limited. New methods should be explored
in order to meet the needs of today and into the future. ITS technologies are a way to cost effectively increase
efficiency and safety needs in Oregons transportation system. The investigation shows that ITS eployments can
be effectively implemented to address a vast range ofissues and conditions across vastly different
regions.(Christopher M. Monsere, Ph.D., P.E. Thareth YinPortland State University Civil and Environmental
Engineering PO Box 751 Portland, OR 97207-0751 April 2005)
References
[1].
[2].
[3].
[4].
[5].
[6].
Benson, B.G. (1996) Motorist attitude about content of variable message signs, Transportation Research Record, Vol. 1550, pp. 4857.
Chatterjee, K., Hounsell, N.B., Firmin, P.E. and Bonsall, P.W. (2002) Driver response to Variable Message Sign Information in
London, Transportation Research Part C, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 49-169.
Greene, W. H. (1993) Econometric Analysis, Macmillan, New York.
Marell, A., Westin, K. (1996) IT system and traffic safety drivers perception and acceptance of electronic speed checkers, Transport
Research Part C, Vol.7, pp. 131-147.
Mendenhall, W. and Scheafer R.L (1973) Mathematical Statistics with Applications, Duxbury Press, North Scituate Massachusetts.
Richards, A. and McDonald. M. (2007) Questionnaire surveys to evaluate user response to variable message signs in an urban
network, IET Intelligent Transport System, Vol. 1, No. 3.
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e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
Making a Green World

Rajnish Sharma
(Department of Strategic and Regional Studies, University Of Jammu, India)
Abstract: Collective-action problems occur when it takes the inputs and efforts of multiple individuals in order
to achieve joint outcomes and it is difficult to exclude beneficiaries of these actions from benefiting even if they
do not contribute. Collective-action problems vary in scale from very small problems involving only a few
individuals to extremely large problems involving global resources, such as the atmosphere and the oceans.
Solving collective-action problems requires opening public and private spheres of activities ranging from the
small to the very large so as to encourage effective problem solving.
Environmental problems and challenges require a multidisciplinary and serious study. It needs an
integrated approach on economy, politics, ecology, social stability, sustainability and spatial planning.
Environmental policies are the principal means by which societies attempt to adapt to ecological constraints,
and to mediate between competing demands and values. various strategies can be adopted to make a green
world like Sustainable development, Resource Conservation, Green Economy, Bio-regionalism, Ecological
Citizenship, Green Democracy, Changing Lifestyles, Enegy Policies, Legislature, Voluntary Control and Green
Values.
Sustainable development is a huge and complex challenge at least in ethical terms. The nature of this
ethical challenge may be summarized in terms of the three types of obligation to which sustainable development
relates: towards people who are already living, towards people who are not yet born and towards species other
than humans..
The basic thrust of the Resource Conservation standpoint was to restrain the reckless exploitation of
forests, soils, etc., characteristic of the pioneer stage of modern social development by imposing ethical and
legal requirements that natural resources be used wisely, meaning (in Gifford Pinchot's words)that they should
be used "for the greatest good of the greatest number" (of humans), as distinct from being used to profit a few,
and that the good should be considered in "the long run," that is, in terms of a sustainable society.
Most Green economists have tackled the problem of scale (i.e., the protection of ecological carrying capacity)
by advocating (i) a range of new fiscal measures (such as resource depletion quotas and higher resource taxes
and pollution charges) designed to control resource depletion and reduce material-energy throughput (ii) more
comprehensive, and longer-range, environmental impact assessment and technology assessment and (iii) the
replacement of indiscriminate GDP statistics with an alternative index of economic progress designed to
provide a more meaningful yardstick by which to measure economic well-being.
Bioregionalism represents a specifically ecological rendition of the contemporary movement toward the break
up of nation-states. It differs from the separatists on the ground that they demand the ecological preconditions
of nationhood.
Environmental citizenship borrows the idea of transnational citizenship from the cosmopolitan
tradition. Thus environmental citizenship speaks the language of obligation, of the common good and of the
global reach of citizenship relations. In these respects it takes a rather different view of human motivation to the
fiscal incentive strategy. It recognizes (or assumes) that people sometimes act in order to do good as well as to
try to ensure some gain for themselves.
Keywords: Adaptation, Anthroppogenic, Bioregionalism, Climate change, Collective action,Ecological
citizenship, Eco-system, Emission, Greenhouse gases, Green economy, Kyoto Protocol, Resource conservation,
Spritiual approach, Sustainable development, Values, Voluntarnism.
I.
Introduction
The environmental crisis and popular environmental concern have prompted a considerable
transformation in Western politics over the last three decades. This transformation has culminated in the
development of new political cleavages, the formation of Green political parties, and the revision of old political
platforms by the existing parties. Three major ecopolitical preoccupations are: participation, survival, and
emancipation .The emergence of a general Green philosophy and Green political parties in the late 1970s and
1980s may be seen as representing this third emancipatory moment.
The 1960s marked the beginning of widespread public concern over environmental degradation in the
developed countries of the West. However, it took roughly a decade of persistent political agitation over such
83 | Page
Making A Green World

matters as pesticides, nuclear power plants, toxic waste dumps, large scale industrial developments, and
pollution before an environmental crisis was officially recognized as a matter of local, national, and
international concern. The mounting evidence of environmental degradation stemming from the exponential
growth in resource consumption and human population was shown to pose very real threats to the earths
biological support systems. That is, the environmental crisis amounted to much more than a crisis of
participation: what was at stake was the very survival of humanity. Degradation of Environment is also a
cultural problem. Human beings are now endowed with the dominance of instrumental rationality. The cause of
environmental degradation lies in western culture. It demands for re-evaluating the values.1
The three main objectives stated in the World Conservation Strategy (1980) are: the maintenance of
essential ecological processes, the preservation of genetic diversity, and the sustainable utilization of natural
resources. To achieve these objectives clearly requires social and economic interventions. The type of
intervention open to environmental planners in developed countries varies according to the type of conflict over
the environment. There are broadly three types of conflict: in the sphere of production, in the sphere of
consumption and in the sphere of nature. In the sphere of production, intervention has been necessary to
overcome market failure in the regulation of externality effects. Within industrial society capitalist firms seek to
avoid the externalities of other producers, and to secure their access to essential natural resources.
Since the late nineteenth century the establishment of government resource agencies has sought to
mediate conflicts within this area. Another type of intervention is in the sphere of natural conservation, where
conflicts have been generated over the effects of modern agriculture on flora and fauna and their habitat. The
situation in most developing countries is even less conducive to effective environmental interventions. This is
partly because of the emphasis placed on project planning. Hosier and his colleagues argues that the methods
employed in project planning, particularly cost-benefit analysis, are essentially means to minimize the risk to
capital.2
Environmental problems and challenges require a multidisciplinary and serious study. It needs an
integrated approach on economy, politics, ecology, social stability, sustainability and spatial planning.
Environmental policies are the principal means by which societies attempt to adapt to ecological constraints, and
to mediate between competing demands and values. The strategies formulated by The National Environmental
Assessment Agency are: a. Design and Implementation of ecological networks (green corridors and ecological
zones). The establishment of green corridors and ecological zones are very important to support adaptation of
species especially those with low migration capabilities. Ecological networks are a set of ecosystems, linked
through robust corridors, providing space for species and allowing them to easily shift their habitat. b. Protected
Areas should be screened on their suitability under changing climatic conditions. New protected areas can be
developed through acquisition of land and change in land use. c. Adjustment of mix of tree species. The
dispersal rates of trees is very slow compared to the expected speed of climatic changes and corridors may not
be able to counteract the negative effects on some tree species, calling for active afforestation measures.
Afforestation can contribute to create new green areas and increase the robustness of existing forest ecosystems.
d. Artificial translocation of plants and animals is proposed as a way of preserving species under climate change.
They also emphasize the importance of using various management approaches according to species climatic
tolerances and dispersal abilities.
Like many other social problems, climate change is closely tied to the burning of oil, coal and gas.
Fossil carbon is being taken out of the ground, run through combustion chambers, and transferred to a more
active and rapidly circulating carbon pool in the air, oceans, vegetation and soil. Some of this active carbon
builds up in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide, trapping more of the suns heat, warming the earth
and destabilizing the climate. The difficulty is that fossil carbon is a lot easier to burn than it is to make. Among
the likely manifestations of climate change in this century will be: less agricultural productivity, especially in
hotter places, more frequent heat waves and less frequent cold spells, bigger storms, higher winds and more
weather-related damage, more intense floods and, in mid-latitude continental interiors, droughts. Water crises
associated with disappearing glaciers and snowpacks and other events, movement of farming to other regions,
especially higher latitudes, faster disease transmission and other health impacts. Combined with the thermal
expansion of the warmed oceans, this would ultimately cause a sea-level rise in excess of meters, flooding
coastal cities and prime agricultural areas, species extinction and biodiversity loss, increased numbers of
environmental refugees3.
The method of climate mitigation or adaptation can be adopted. Climate mitigation is any action taken to
permanently eliminate or reduce the long term risk and hazards of climate change to human life, property. The
international panel on Climate Change defines mitigation as: an anthropogenic intervention to reduce the
1.
2.
3.
Robyn Eckersley, Environmentalism and political Theory- towards an ecocentric approach (London: UCL Press, 1992).
Redcliff Michael, Sustainable development- exploring the contradictions (London and New York: Rutledge,1987).
Olle Nordberg, Carbon trading- a critical conversation on climate change, privatization and power, Development Dialogue ,48,
2006, 5-12.
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sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Climate adaptation refers to the ability of a system to adjust
to climate change to moderate potential damage. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change( IPCC)
defines adaptation as the adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changing environment. Adaptation
also is considered an important response option or strategy, along with mitigation. Even with the reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions, global temperature continued to rise. Article-2 of the United Nation Framework on
Climate Change Conference (UNFCCC) commits parties to formulating, cooperating on, and implementing
measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change. The Kyoto Protocol (Article10) also commits
parties to promote and facilitate adaptation deploy adaptation technologies to address climate change. 4
The objective of preventing average global temperature from rising by more than two degree Celsius
requires that constructive action be taken in the near-term to begin reducing emissions in key emitting countries,
including those such as the United States and Australia, which have not ratified Kyoto, and large developing
economies that are not required by Kyoto to reduce emissions. These actions would involve voluntary
partnerships designed to find win-win solutions. The overall strategy should be focused on developing lowcarbon or no-carbon energy sources, including renewable energy, and increasing energy efficiency. As part of
that strategy, agreements at the sub-global level among significant emitters can address specific emissions and
technology development challenges that complement existing climate change regimes.
Reforms at the national level would include: Leveling the playing field between renewable and fossil
fuels, and internalizing the latters costs by phasing out fossil fuel subsidies and adopting cap and trade systems
as well as encouraging ecological tax reform and performance based efficiency incentives. Use of innovative
government-supported financial mechanisms, such as clean energy funds and government-guaranteed
investment securities (global development bonds) that would promote investment in sustainable low- or nocarbon technology deployment. Providing new support for low or no-carbon technology transfer to developing
countries in addition to existing bilateral and multilateral programmes, including by increasing the provision of
concessional finance.
Reforms at the international level would include: Reviewing and significantly increasing the World
Bank target to increase its investment in renewable energy, arising from the extractive Industries Review.
Reforming the OECD Arrangement for ECAs to improve the terms offered by ECAs for renewable energy and
energy efficiency projects so that they are at least as favorable as those for fossil fuel and nuclear energy.
Requiring multilateral banks to take the climate impact of their project financing into account by conducting
energy audits on energy-intensive projects and financing energy-saving measures, following the lead of the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and to adopt minimum efficiency standards for the
5
projects they support or portfolio-wide carbon intensity standards.
II.
Possible Position
1. Sustainable Development
Development is usually defined principally in terms of economic growth. The familiar indicator is
gross national product. Limitations of the Gross National Product (GNP) are: not inclusive. It does not include
household activities and Informal sectors. There are many ways to define sustainable development. As
Ecological systems and agricultural development: the world conservation strategy argued that the maintenance
of ecological processes could only be brought about if urgent consideration were given to three specific
conservation objectives: the utilsation of good cropland, the ecologically sound management of crops and the
protection of watershed forests. As Energy efficiency and agriculture development: the search for more
sustainable development necessarily involves two interrelated dimensions. First we need to consider to what
extent we use energy efficiently within agriculture at the present time. Second, we need to consider population,
together with ecological sustainability and energy efficiency. As Population growth and carrying capacity: rapid
population growth in poor countries.
The term sustainable development was used at the time of Cocoyoc declaration on environment and
development in the early 1970s. The term has catalyzed the debate over the relationship between economic
change and the natural resource. The term suggests that the lessons of ecology should be applied to economic
processes. It encompasses the idea in the world conservation strategy, providing an environmental rationale
through which the claims of development to improve the quality of life can be challenged and tested. 6
Sustainable development is an ambiguous concept. It covers government policy, business strategy and lifestyle
decision. The phrase has been continually refined to cover wider issues. It has become a complex
4.
5.
6.
A.N. Sarkar , Global climate change: beyond copenhagen, (New York: Pentagon Earth, 2008).
Stephen Byers and Olympia Snowe, Meeting the Climate Change: Recommendation of International Climate Change Task Force
(London. Public Policy Research, 2005).
Redcliff Michael, Sustainable development- exploring the contradictions(London and New York: Rutledge,1987).
85 | Page

interdisciplinary subject providing an interesting case of the constraints and pitfalls in modern living.
Brundtland (1987) report define it as a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. National Strategies for sustainable development (2000)
define it is economic and social development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. World Wildlife Fund defines it as improving the quality of
life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting systems. What is sustainable business practice?
World Business council for sustainable Development (2001) Sustainable Development practices requires
business leadership as a catalyst for change toward sustainable development and to promote the role of ecoefficiency, innovation, and corporate social responsibility toward sustainable development. What is sustainable
city? A sustainable city is organized so as to enable its citizens to meet their own needs and to enhance their
well- being without damaging the natural world growth and the future.7
Sustainable development is a huge and complex challenge at least in ethical terms. The nature of this
ethical challenge may be summarized in terms of the three types of obligation to which sustainable development
relates: towards people who are already living, towards people who are not yet born and towards species other
than humans. Given three such different types of obligations, individuals and groups are often faced with a
serious moral dilemma. The central idea of a moral gradient is that the extent of ones moral obligations to
others is not absolute but instead varies according to what can be considered ones mora1 distance from others.
The further away the other is perceived to be, the less is the extent of ones obligation to them. Moral distance
refers to three different dimensions of distance; three different ways in which other beings may differ from
oneself in ways that are morally significant. First, there is the distance between one person and other people
alive at the same time what might be called social distance. Second, there is the distance between one person
and others who do not yet exist what might be called temporal distance. Third is the distance between a human
being and other species that inhabit the globe: animals, plants, etc. This might be called species distance. It
seems to be widely held that the extent of ones moral obligation declines with moral distance along each of
these dimensions. Thus, for example, a persons obligation to another human being may be considered greater
than his/her obligation to a dog. The moral gradient is by no means a smooth gradient, varying uniformly with
each of the three moral distances. 8
Collective-action problems occur when it takes the inputs and efforts of multiple individuals in order to
achieve joint outcomes and it is difficult to exclude beneficiaries of these actions from benefiting even if they
do not contribute. Collective-action problems vary in scale from very small problems involving only a few
individuals to extremely large problems involving global resources, such as the atmosphere and the oceans.
Solving collective-action problems requires opening public and private spheres of activities ranging from the
small to the very large so as to encourage effective problem solving. If we are to solve collective-action
problems effectively, we must rethink the way we approach market and governmental institutions. Analytical
approaches that are consistent with a public sector encourage human development at local, regional, national
and international levels are required. Diverse interests motivate public entrepreneurs including improving
services to their own communities, sharing the burden for increasing benefits, the stimulus of innovation, the
respect they receive from others, as well as the income they derive from their positions in public service for
those who are not entirely volunteer workers.9
There are three areas of debate in the Sustainable development- the equality- inequality theories, the
techno-centered theories and theories of balance. The fundamental belief across first area of debate is that
humanity is the centre of the debate. The debate probably includes positions across transformation, reform and
status quo. Much of the debate is primarily concerned with the human side of sustainable development, with one
view being that happy thoughtful humans look after their environment. The reformer sees the current system as
fundamentally flawed and promoting more rather than less inequality. They see the manifestation of problems
arising from the inequality, and many would argue that poverty and most environmental problems arise from
poorly managed capitalism. Income inequality has led to the link between left- leaning politics and green
politics. NGOs have become an important element of the sustainable development debate and it is believed that
there are atleast 30,000 international NGOs in existence. Greenpeace is an example of this. Originally a body
that probably sat close to the deep green claiming devotion to nature above materialism or greed, it has now
been described as a corporation. Many environmentalists see social issue as equally important in the debate.
Many would see a link between environmental crisis and social one. One belief is that people having control
over their lives, resources and environment reduces inequality and environmental degradation.
7.
8.
9.
Mark Mawhinney, Sustainable development: understanding the green debates (UK: Blackwell, 2002).
Mcneill Desmond , Ethics, politics, economics and global environment, in Karen O Brien (Ed), Climate change, ethics and
human security, ( U.K: Cambridge,2010).
Ostrom Elinor, Polycentric systems as one approach to solving collective action problem , in M.A Mohammed Salih (Ed.),
Climate change and sustainable development- new challenges for poverty reduction ,(U.K: Edward Elgar,2009).
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Ecofeminists proposed a link between the subordination of women and degradation of the environment.
Ecosocialist see the cause of environment degradation in the economic structure of capitalism. Many bodies
such as the world bank, the EU and national government now encourage a belief in the concepts of social and
environmental capital along with the economic capital. Puttnam points that a decline in the communal behavior
in the USA as being a strong marker of the loss of social capital. Technocentric arguments is the domain of
scientists and technologists. This school of thought deals with Factor 4 and Factor 10 types of arguments. The
factor 4 theories concentrated on resource efficiency but acknowledge the need for new tools for measuring
business efficiency, innovations in business practice and some changes to public policy. The factor 10 theory
added cultural facto and address the restoration of natural capital. A factor 4 theory promotes a market- led
approach adapting and setting new markets to improve the situation but maintaining the status quo. Facto 10
introduces the reform school, where reform beyond markets is more identified. The theories of balance demands
balance between economic, environmental and social needs. It includes Brundtland Commission, Green
Consumerism and the European Commission.10
2.Resource Conservation
Although the idea of conservation, in the sense of the prudent husbanding of natures bounty, can be
traced back as far as Plato, Mencius, Cicero, and the Old and New Testaments, its twentieth-century scientific
and utilitarian manifestation is intricately bound up with the rise of modern science from the sixteenth century.
Those who have inquired into the historical roots of the modern conservation doctrine have generally traced its
popularization in North America to Gifford Pinchot, the first chief of the United States Forest Service, described
by Devall as the prototype figure in the conservation movement. Central to Pinchots notion of conservation was
the elimination of waste, an idea that the environmental historian Samuel P.Hays has dubbed the gospel of
efficiency, which he sees as lying at the heart of the doctrine of conservation.11
The basic thrust of the Resource Conservation standpoint was to restrain the reckless exploitation of
forests, soils, etc., characteristic of the pioneer stage of modern social development by imposing ethical and
legal requirements that natural resources be used wisely, meaning (in Gifford Pinchot's words)that they should
be used "for the greatest good of the greatest number" (of humans), as distinct from being used to profit a few,
and that the good should be considered in "the long run," that is, in terms of a sustainable society. Resource
conservation also includes Wilderness preservation, Moral extensionism, Ecological sensitivity. Wilderness
Preservation tradition, represented in part by Fohn Muir and the Sierra Club, was also emerging a social force.
Moral extensionism designates a wide range of positions whose common characteristic is that they contend that
humans have duties not only concerning but also directly to nonhuman natural entities and these duties derive
from rights possessed by the natural entities, and that these rights are grounded in the possession by the natural
entities of an intrinsically valuable quality such as intelligence, sentience, or consciousness. Ecological
sensitivity consists of three major components of it- a theory of value that recognizes intrinsic value in nature
without engaging in mere extensionism ; a metaphysics that takes account of the reality and importance of
relationships and systems as well as of individuals; and an ethics that includes such duties as noninterference
with natural processes, resistance to human acts and policies that violate the noninterference principle, limited
intervention to repair environmental damage in extreme circumstances, and a style of co-inhabitation that
involves the knowledgeable, respectful, and restrained use of nature.12
3. Green Economy
It represents the ecological wing of mainstream economics; it speaks with an authoritative and
technical voice to the entirety of economic relations with nature. Ecological economics are not interested in
social transformation and accept the potentials of the present system to absorb the crisis. It means ecological
economists employ a great variety of instrumental measures like incentive based regulations, ecological tariffs
and natural capital depletion taxes, penalties to the polluters. There are several schools of thought on the
relationship between the environment and economic growth. They range from what O Riordan has termed the
environmental moralists who deny that the environment is a commodity at all to those who argue that
environmental goods should be treated exactly like any other commodity. Economists like Pearce argue that it is
possible to consider the environment within the governing economic paradigm, and that the field of
bioeconomic has already made substantial progress13.
10.
Mark Mawhinney, Sustainable development- understanding the green debates, (U.K: Blackwell, 2002).
11.
12.
Robyn Eckersley, Environmentalism and political Theory- towards an ecocentric approach (London: UCL Press,1992).
John Rodman, Four forms of ecological consciousness reconsidered, in George Sessions (Ed), Deep Ecology for the TwentyFirst Century, (U.S.A: Shambhala Publication, 1995).
Redcliff Michael, Sustainable development- exploring the contradictions (London and New York: Rutledge, 1987).
13.
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Environmental economists start from the assumption that a good deal of economic activity today is
unecological which requires serious reforms. Environmental economists did not consider it necessary to
radically redefine the scope of economics. In both theory and practice it is managing the scarcity. Its prime
concern is the allocation of scarce resources to alternative ends. Thus what environmental economics aims to do
is to bring the economic conception more in line with the ecological values. The human values assumed by
modern economics are predominantly those of individualistic and materialistic hedonism. The good life amounts
to little more than the fulfillment of the immediate interests of those with something to buy or sell on the market.
These values sustain the quantitative assumption of economics but not the qualitative. Environmental economics
differs from conventional economics in that it does not uncritically accept the assumption that growth is an end
in itself. The radical approach attempt to redefine human development in primarily ecological, as opposed to
economic terms.14
The approach of the Ecosystem involves the restructuring of economy which demands Green market
economy. The ecological measures proposed by the Greens flow from their rejection of purely quantitative
growth. The Greens demand the dismantling of life-threatening industries, above all the nuclear and weapons
industries, and the reorientation of production towards ecologically benign and socially necessary products. One
of their slogans is 'No investments without a future! 'They propose a number of specific ecological investments
in the area of energy production, recycling, water management, agriculture, housing, and traffic. Economic
decentralization, utilization of existing local resources, and judicious use and recycling of raw materials are the
outstanding characteristics of these ecological investments. Another significant feature of Green economic
policy is its revaluation of North-South relations. The Greens demand an orientation towards a self-reliant
internal economy, rather than exploitation of the Third World, and they declare their solidarity with Third World
countries in their efforts to lessen their dependence on the northern hemisphere. A grassroots democratic
economy, finally, according to the Greens, is one that allows for self-managed, cooperative enterprises in which
those involved in the production process are able to decide themselves what is produced, as well as how and
where it is produced. The ecological economy envisaged demands the partnership between humans and nature.
The Green economic programme contains the following concrete proposals for ecologically meaningful
investments. Energy production: Conservation measures should be designed and encouraged; soft production
modes of energy should be developed; energy regulations, which now permit the establishment of monopolies,
have to be modified. Recycling: Production generating waste that is not safely disposable must be outlawed;
new recycling. techniques have to be developed. Water management: Biological water treatment processes
should be expanded; closed water systems for industrial production and cooling should be mandatory; the self
purification capacities of rivers must be supported by ecological means. Agriculture: Ecological agriculture
should be promoted and developed on decentralized self-reliant farms; rural areas must be revitalized and
regional administrative structures improved. Housing: A radical reorientation of housing policies and
restructuring of financial instruments to support housing construction will be necessary; the decisions about
financing have to be transferred from the federal to the community level; land prices have to be controlled and
financing has to be uncoupled from the real estate market by direct use of public money. Traffic: Public
transportation is to be increased together with a substantial reduction of fares; car traffic has to be restricted
while pedestrian and bicycle traffic is encouraged and facilitated; all further construction of freeways and
airports must stop. The Greens' deep ecological awareness is evident from their detailed and often very beautiful
formulations of these proposals. The restructuring of the economy envisaged by the greens involves not only a
redefinition of work but also of private property. 15
A more feasible alternative might be to draw back from the idea of a predominantly planned economy
in favor of the idea of a greater range of macroeconomic controls on market activity that are designed to ensure
that market activity remain subservient to social and ecological considerations. Here, the emphasis would be
more on managing, containing, and disciplining rather than largely replacing the market economy, although
some economic planning would still have a role to play. Although both ecosocialists and Green economists
enlist the values of participatory democracy, ecological responsibility, social justice, decentralization, and the
dispersal of economic and political power, they differ over how these values are to be interpreted and applied.
Whereas ecosocialists tend to emphasize the evils of the market economy and seek to democratize and ecologize
State and local economic planning institutions, Green economists tend to emphasize the evils of central planning
and seek to democratize and ecologize the institutions of the market economy. Although Green economists are
trenchant critics of corporate capitalism, they are equally critical of the concentration of economic power in the
hands of the State. Accordingly, Green economists have tended to place greater emphasis on the need to develop
14.
15.
Tim Hayward , Ecological thought- an introduction, (U.K: Polity Press, 1995).

Charlene Spretnak and, Fritjof Capra, Green politics- the gobal promise ( London: Paladin Graflon Books, 1985).
88 | Page

small business, local cooperatives, and local economic self-reliance. Nonetheless, they also advocate increasing
government economic management through transformed-market conforming planning, that is, new institutional,
fiscal, monetary, and pricing policies designed to ensure that the market has as intrinsic tendency to move in
directions that conform with the societys social and environmental goals. Rather than seeking a predominantly
planned economy (with a small private sector).
Green economists seek to bend and stretch the historically given conditions currently prevailing. In
other words, they envisage a market economy with a reasonably large private sector. Most Green economists
have tackled the problem of scale (i.e., the protection of ecological carrying capacity) by advocating (i) a range
of new fiscal measures (such as resource depletion quotas and higher resource taxes and pollution charges)
designed to control resource depletion and reduce material-energy throughput (ii) more comprehensive, and
longer-range, environmental impact assessment and technology assessment and (iii) the replacement of
indiscriminate GDP statistics with an alternative index of economic progress designed to provide a more
meaningful yardstick by which to measure economic well-being. 16Economics itself has almost become an
ideology; the ideology of unlimited material progress within a limited time perspective. This form of progress
involves increasing specialization in production and decision-making, based on a continuous drive towards
bettering material conditions. The ideology of economic growth guides decisions regarding the use of scarce
resources and the quality of our physical environment. Additionally aggregate economic expansion is still
supposed to offer solutions to a broad spectrum of social problems. Since it equates value with pecuniary market
price and progress with increasing material production and consumption, economics has come under attack from
environmentalists. Economic growth in the usual terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita simply
implies an increase in aggregate production. In calculating GDP, usually there is no price attached to nature.
This way of calculating progress affects our society in many ways. It dominates policies regarding production,
income and the use of resources. One resulting fallacy is the belief that in order to sustain the environment, a lot
of money must first come through economic growth. This is a modern macroeconomic paradox. For an
individual enterprise, it is true that the money needed for cleaning polluted air, water and soil has to come from
earnings (profit), which normally implies growth. However what is true at the micro level is not necessarily
valid at a (national or international) macro level. Aggregate growth of production at a macro level means more
depletion of resources, more waste and more pollution. Daly Opschoor argued that natural capital should be
maintained, but not necessarily in the sense that the ecosystem is not affected by human behavior. 17
Markets, no matter how well cleaned and informed, cannot adequately ensure environmental
protection. Besides market stimuli, this requires utilizing legal and institutional incentives in the form of
juridical and administrative regulations. This requires permits, licenses and bureaucratic procedures. A first
requirement for a successful institutional response is a strong state. A second condition for effective regulation
is that legal systems must function adequately. The review of the UN Conference on the Human development
recommended the creation of a World Commission on Environment and Development. The Commission
recognized that earlier global environmental initiatives had suffered for lack of funding. The idea of a green
financial instrument seems to have been promoted in the mid 1980s by a banker, Michael Sweatman. Global
environment facility was to provide additional, concessional grant finance to meet the incremental costs of
creating global environment benefits, support activities that benefit the global environment in four focal areas:
climate change, biodiversity, international waters and ozone depletion. It fund activities that are country-driven
and fit with national policies for sustainable development, operate through Implementing Agencies (World
Bank, UNDP and UNEP). 18
4. Trade and Travel
Trade is viewed with suspicion by greens on four grounds. In the first place it is a site of the exercise of
political and economic power and an easy way to exchange self-determination for dependence; second, it
encourages frippery and helps to turn wants into needs third, patterns of trade end up being notoriously wasteful
of resources and fourth, reliance on one or two products for export can render economies vulnerable to a drop in
prices or a general worsening of the terms of trade. As a result of these views on trade, green economic practice
would be built substantially around protectionism: its clear that selective protection of the domestic economy
will be needed to establish its sustainable basis, and to encourage the country to become far more self-sufficient
than it is at present. One of the characteristics of the radical green sustainable society is that people would travel
less. Arne Naess in his 1987 Schumacher Lecture referred to the principle of limited mobility, and William
Ophuls, too, believes that personal mobility would be limited in such a society. In the first place, this is because
16.
Robyn Eckersley, Environmentalism and political Theory- towards an ecocentric approach (London: UCL Press,1992).
17.
Elinor Ostrom, Polycentric systems as one approach to solving collective action problem, in M.A Mohammed Salih, (Ed.),
Climate Change and Sustainable Development- New Challenges for Poverty Reduction (UK: Edward Elgar, 2009).
Young Zoe, A new green order? the world bank and the politics of the global enviornmental facility, (London: Pluto Press,2002).
18.
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greens consider present travel practices to be wasteful of resources. The ecological footprint associated with air
travel is an increasing worry, even for mainstream politics, as the climate change emissions associated with air
travel increase at a faster rate than any other sector of the economy. Second, and more importantly, greens argue
for reduced mobility as a part of their hopes reliant communities. From this point of view travel involves
dislocation of the ties for generating supportive, satisfying relationships in their decentralized, self- that hold
such communities together, and so endangers the emergence of the sense of loyalty and involvement that, for
greens, will be one of the prime benefits of decentralized communitarian life. The sustainable society is
substantially about living in place and developing an intimacy with it and the people who live there; travel, on
this reading, is too expansive and too centrifugal an occupation.
5.Bioregionalism
This doctrine connects some of the principle of community economics. Bioregionalism represents a
specifically ecological rendition of the contemporary movement toward the break up of nation-states. It differs
from the separatists on the ground that they demand the ecological preconditions of nationhood. This is not
merely a location but the concrete ecological workings of a part of the earth: the flows of watersheds, kinds of
soils, the biota that inhabit a bioregion. From this perspective, the bioregion is essential ground within which the
principle of sustainability and its reliance on ecological technology and economics may be applied. The problem
is who is to decide who live where?19 Kirkpatrick Sale simply expressed the bioregional paradigm: We must
get to know the land around us, learn its lore and its potential, and live with it and not against it. We must see
that living with the land means living in, and according to the ways and rhythms of, its natural regions its
bioregions. Living bioregionally involves identifying bioregional boundaries and living (for the most part) with
what those territories provide in the way of, for example, given ores and minerals, woods and leathers, cloths
and yarns. The bioregional community would seek to minimize resource-use, emphasize conservation and
recycling and avoid pollution and waste (Sale, 1984, p. 230), and all of this would be aimed at achieving
sustainability through what Sale calls self-sufficiency. Bioregionalists will usually insist that land be
communally owned because the fruits of nature are fruits for everyone, and they will urge that polities follow
the natural worlds example and abhor systems of centralized control. Consequently, they advocate the
spreading of power to small and widely dispersed units (Sale, 1985, p. 91). Associated with this is the idea that
natures lesson as far as social relations are concerned is one of equality, or what Sale calls complementarity.
The guiding principle of bioregionalism, then, is that the natural world should determine the political, economic
and social life of communities.
6.Market Based Instruments
The aim of market based instrument (MBIs) is to prevent market failure by applying the polluter pays
principle. A market-based instrument internalizes into the price of a good or product the external costs to the
environment of producing and using it. Market based instruments involves : Eco-taxes- user charges, fees
payable for treatment, collection and disposal costs of wastes or other environmental administration , emission
charges, charges on the discharge of pollutants into air, water or soil (i.e. directly linked to quantity and quality
of pollutant), e.g. taxes on sulphur emissions and Product charges, charges on harmful products, e.g. fertilizers
and tradable permits.20
7.Energy Policy
If reduced consumption rather than more technological devices is the answer to the problems raised by
the absolute scarcity of resources, then greens will point out that the same must apply to the use of energy.
Energy is, of course, a resource, and, to the extent that current global energy policies rely principally on nonrenewable sources of energy, is also a limited resource. Nuclear power itself is produced from the limited
resource of uranium and so seems unlikely to solve the problems brought about by resource scarcity. At the
same time, while actual resource levels may be quite high, available non-renewable energy resource levels will
be somewhat lower. In the face of the perceived disadvantages of relying for energy on limited stocks of
polluting and dangerous non-renewable resources, greens usually base their energy strategy around renewable
sources of energy, the conservation of energy, and reduced consumption, of both energy and the durable objects
that it helps us produce. However green suspects technological solution and they assert that true solution lies in
reducing the consumption of energy.21
Sustainable energy strategies must address both the supply and demand sides of the energy equation:
electricity generation must shift away from a dependency on fossil fuels, notably coal and oil, towards
19.
20.
21.
Joel Kovel, The enemy of nature- the end of capitalism or the end of the world?( London: Zed Books, 2002).
Neil Carter, The Politics of the environment- ideas. activism. policy, (U.K: Cambridge,2007).
Andrew Dobson , Green political thoughts (London and New York: Rutledge,2007).
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renewable energy sources such as hydroelectric power (HEP), wind, solar, wave and biomass, which emit low
or zero carbon; energy consumption must be reduced in both industrial and domestic sectors through improved
energy efficiency and conservation measures. To date, little significant progress has been made towards
sustainability in either the generation or consumption of electricity. On the supply side, few countries boast a
large renewable energy sector. So the development of alternative renewable sources is essential. Yet several
serious obstacles make this a challenging policy goal, including powerful energy producers, competitive
liberalised energy markets, discriminatory fossil fuel subsidies and technological problems. Wind is the largest
renewable energy source after HEP. The total global capacity for generating electricity through wind power was
about 59.4 GW in 2005. It is unlikely that renewable energy will become a significant source of electricity
generation without the imposition of a carbon tax on fossil fuels that is set sufficiently high to make the
fledgling renewable sector more competitive. There are numerous ways of improving domestic and industrial
energy efficiency. Some governments have set high mandatory energy efficiency standards for buildings,
subsidized home conservation and low-energy light bulbs, and agreed energy efficiency classification systems
for consumer goods such as washing machines.
8.Transport Policy
Transport policies in most countries have traditionally adopted a predict and provide approach to the
expansion of road and air transport: predict the anticipated growth in each sector and provide the roads and
airports necessary to support it. Some governments, notably in the USA and Canada and the Thatcher
government in the UK adopted a pro-roads stance with particular ideological fervour, directly linking road
construction to economic growth and freedom of the individual. By 2000, global passenger car production
reached 40.9 million vehicles, contributing to a global total of around 532 million vehicles, with the annual
distance travelled by each driver rising steadily. Climate change prevention requires a fundamentally different
approach to transport policy. A sustainable transport policy has to address both supply and demand. On the
supply side, air and road transport need to produce fewer polluting emissions; on the demand side, traffic
volume must be reduced so that fewer journeys are made by car and plane. Policymakers have pinned their
hopes on the supply-side objective of developing greener motor vehicles. In recent years, several major vehicle
manufacturers have launched new models that use biomass products, such as ethanol and methanol, or liquefied
petroleum gas or run on electricity. They are also working with oil companies, such as BP, to develop
alternatives, such as hydrogen fuel-cell technology.22
The transport sector accounts for approximately one third of global greenhouse gas emissions. While
increased investment in public transportation systems is one important strategy to reduce emissions in this
sector, these emissions can also be greatly reduced through improvements in fuel efficiency. For example,
hybrid gasoline/electric cars can cut fuel use by one-third. Governments could also commit to providing tax
incentives for retooling manufacturing plants, and to replacing their own fleet vehicles with HEVs, thus
boosting demand and reducing the costs of production and the price gap between HEVs and conventional
vehicles. Transport-related emissions can also be reduced by switching away from fossil fuels and towards
renewable energy sources such as biofuels, especially those derived from cellulosic materials, which can be
blended with petroleum based fuels. Appropriate safeguards would need to be adopted to ensure that increased
subsidies for biofuels encourage sustainable farming methods, preserve culturally and ecologically sensitive
land, and protect biodiversity. 23
9.Live With Less
Most environmental problems are ultimately due to our voracious demand for new things. Making all
those new cars, gadgets, clothes and so on eats up raw materials and energy. Instead, learn to reduce, reuse,
recycle in that order. Reducing living with less is the best and simplest solution. Where you cant do without,
reuse things by repairing, adapting, swapping, borrowing, buying second-hand, etc. And if you cant reuse
something, recycle it that way, no new raw materials have to be grown or extracted. Dont forget to buy
recycled products to complete the recycling loop. Reduce energy, water, chemicals, waste. Being green means
using less fossil-fuel energy, water and chemicals and creating less waste. Green alternatives: something is
green if it is natural, reusable, renewable, locally produced, Energy/water-efficient and nonpolluting. Of course,
22.
Neil Carter, The Politics of the environment- ideas. activism. policy, (U.K: Cambridge,2007).
23.
Stephen Byers and Olympia Snowe, Meeting the Climate Change: Recommendation of International Climate Change Task Force
(London. Public Policy Research, 2005).
91 | Page

often you have to use your judgment to make choices (such as between imported organic and local nonorganic
food or perhaps you could find an alternative that is both local and organic.24
10.Voluntarism
A good intention, desire to recycle waste, or work in a community garden, connection to special
movements, conscious of ecological crisis. Thus voluntarism is an action taken by an individual on moral
ground. i.e work to control the environment. However admirable individual acts of charity or ecological sanity
may be, they tend either to be co-opted, or to remain merely local and lose the thread of effective collective
action.25Voluntary action involves individuals or organizations doing things to protect the environment that are
neither required by law nor encouraged by financial incentive. Voluntary action is the main way in which
individuals, by changing their lifestyles and acting as ecological citizens, can contribute to the achievement of a
more sustainable society. Individuals can engage in a wide range of voluntary activities, including green
consumerism, ethical investment, recycling and voluntary conservation work. The government can encourage
voluntary action through a range of communicative strategies such as information campaigns setting out the
environmental benefits of recycling drink containers or newspapers, extending citizen rights to environmental
information and making it easier for individuals and organizations to take polluters to court.
Businesses may also choose Eco-Management and Audit Schemes (EMAS), environmental
management standards such as ISO 14001 and eco-labeling. Voluntary agreements may generate constructive
co-operation between the state and industry along the lines of ecological modernization, leading to changes in
the environmental values and behavior of both state officials and producers. Nevertheless, voluntary agreements
have their weaknesses too. Their environmental effectiveness is questionable and their economic efficiency is
low. They are often unambitious, involving commitments at the level of the lowest common denominator
acceptable to the least enthusiastic signatories to the agreement. An industry will often only establish a
voluntary agreement as a means of forestalling the threat of a tougher regulation or eco-tax. Also there are
certain steps to make our home green like insulating your loft and wall cavities. Lag your boiler. Fit draft
excluders to doors/windows, fit thermostatic valves to each radiator so you can turn off those in rooms youre
not using, then shut doors and just heat rooms you are using. Turn heating down and wear warm clothes instead
it can cut heating bills by ten percent. Set central heating to go off at night, when you go to work and when
you go on holiday, take short showers (not baths). Fit a water-saving showerhead. Ensure electric boilers have a
timer to heat water only when needed, fit energy-saving light bulbs, Turn lights off when you leave the room,
Maximizing light output from each bulb means you can light your home using fewer lights so clean lampshades
and light bulbs, as dirt can cut light by fifty per cent. Silver reflector strips behind light bulbs will also help
increase effective light output, turn appliances off at the wall. Standby mode can use almost as much energy as
leaving things on and can account for 10 per cent of your electricity bill, use cold water or wash at 30400C.
Dry them on a line or airer instead of in a tumble dryer.26
11.Lifestyles
The general principle behind both lifestyle and community strategies is that changes of consciousness
and changes in behavior are mutually reinforcing. Lifestyle change concerns changes in the patterns of
individual behavior in daily life. Typical examples of this would be: care with the things you buy, the things you
say, where you invest your money, the way you treat people, the transport you use and so on. Recently there has
been a veritable explosion in the popularity of green lifestyle changes in Britain. Home ecology, among certain
sections of the community at least, is all the rage. Retailers have picked up and reinforced this trend, and the
major supermarket chains fall over themselves to stock their shelves -a few of them anyway -with
environmentally friendly goods. Products in green packets sell significantly better than similar products
packaged in any other colour. In this context, green has rapidly become the colour of capitalist energy and
enterprise. The theme is that personal transformation leads to altered behaviour; which in turn can be translated
into sustainable community living: The only possible building blocks of a Greener future are individuals moving
towards a Greener way of life themselves and joining together with others who are doing the same. The positive
aspect of this strategy is that some individuals do indeed end up living sounder, more ecological lives. More
bottles and newspapers are recycled, more lead-free petrol is bought, and fewer harmful detergents are washed
down the plughole. Greens often speak of change of consciousness is to bring about radical shifts in social and
political life.27
24.
25.
Mark Mann , Its easy being green, (U.K: Summersdale Publishers, 2007).
Joel Kovel, The enemy of nature- the end of capitalism or the end of the world?( London: Zed Books, 2002).
26.
27.
92 | Page

Avoid wastage- the best way to avoid waste is to buy less stuff, use those things which can be reused;
keep plastic bags away, use your recycling bins, drive less and use public transport, car pool with colleagues or
neighbours, use cycle or electric scooter, reduce car trips and make your car fuel efficient, learn fuel efficient
driving, support campaign for better public transport and cycle networks, buy fewer new clothes, learn to use
second and repair the clothes, use few cosmetics, support a green organization and work for it such as Friends of
the Earth, WWF or Greenpeace, vote for politicians you think will put the environment first, join a local green
group, project or campaign. As one of the reason of environmental degradation is population, one should adopt
family planning and support population control policy. Poverty is also one of the reason of environmental
28
degradation; thus one should focused on poor and work for uplifting them .
12.Fiscal Incentives and Ecological Citizenship
An increasingly popular way of trying to get people to behave in more sustainable ways is to arrange
taxes, charges and benefits in such a way as to encourage them to do so. One example of this is the congestion
charges that have sprung up in various cities in Europe and elsewhere. Car drivers in these cities are charged to
enter designated zones at certain times of the day, and the hope is that they will be deterred from doing so and
use alternative forms of transport instead. Another example is the tax on plastic shopping bags that the Irish
government instituted in 2002. Here the idea was to deter people from using new bags each time they went
shopping, and to encourage the reuse of bags.
Environmental citizenship borrows the idea of transnational citizenship from the cosmopolitan
tradition. Thus environmental citizenship speaks the language of obligation, of the common good and of the
global reach of citizenship relations. In these respects it takes a rather different view of human motivation to the
fiscal incentive strategy. It recognizes (or assumes) that people sometimes act in order to do good as well as to
try to ensure some gain for themselves. One of its central ideas is that of the equal right to environmental space
for all citizens that is to say, everyone in the world. Given that environmental space is currently very unevenly
shared out, environmental citizens will work towards the redistribution of environmental space reducing the
size of their environmental footprints where appropriate. Thus the environmental citizen is motivated to live
sustainably because it is just to do so, not because she or he is prompted to do so by fiscal incentives or
disincentives.29
13.Spiritual Approach
Spirituality is of greater importance to the green perspective than is probably publicly realized, and this
has made a significant impression on some activists in the movement with regard to how change might come
about. The general point behind the spiritual approach is that the changes which need to take place are too
profound to be dealt with solely in the political arena, and that the psyche is as important as the parliamentary
chamber. Jonathon Porritt writes that for sustainable development . . . a spiritually inspired work ethic will be
an important instrument of change. Marilyn Ferguson has recommended the use of psychotechnologies to
bring about calmer, gentler, more green states of consciousness. Rites as a mean for saving the planet from the
environmental destruction. Rituals has environmental significance.
Ecological restorationists such as Wlliam Jordan III attempted to show the pragmatic actions of rituals
such as prairie burnings that restore the degraded environments. Australian John Seed has developed an event
called the council of all beings. He and Ruth Rosenhek lead a series of re-earthing rituals and workshops, some
of which include a welcoming of species and an honouring of local indigenous people, as well as mourning and
bonding exercises. They believe that people will act morally and politically if they experience the depth of their
own planetary despair and cultivate a felt connection with the earth and its creatures. In a culminating phase of
one event, participants arrive masked as animal allies. When the event concludes, folk take off their animal
selves and assume their usual, human masks, thereby learning that human is just one among many masks that
animals wear. A few mainline religions too have begun constructing environmentally oriented rites. Buddhist
monks in Thailand, for instance, are ordaining trees, thereby making them into Buddha and forcing land clearer
to have conscience towards nature. Artists too are working in concert with some of these movements. Canadian
composer Murray Schafer has been engaged in what he calls theatre of confluence. In wooded rural areas, a
series of ritualized musical performance rites called Patria (homeland) began in 1966 and continues today. 30 In
the old testament we are given the injunction: thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadth out the corn. It
indicates minimal welfare to animals. in Gensis(2:15) we were instructed to dress the garden and keep it. George
Berkeley, eighteenth-century bishop and empiricist philosopher maintained that the world is not only organized
28.
29.
30.
Ronald Grimes, Ritual theory and environment, in Bronislaw Szerszynski, Wallace Heim and Claire Waterton (Ed), Nature
performed: environment, culture and performance (U.K: Blackwell, 2003).
93 | Page

for our benefit, but is an integrated system of signs for our instruction. According to such views the lion and Ox
is a resource for the ultimate benefit of humankind. Generally there is a despotic position of morality to human
31
beings.
14.Acton Through Legislature
Many countries have green parties that seek election to national legislatures. Green movements in all
countries that have them see it as at least part of their role to try to influence the legislative process, while policy
is being drawn up, while bills are being debated, or during their execution. The principal assumption behind
both kinds of activity is that the liberal-democratic decision-making process and the economic structures with
which it is engaged are sufficiently open to allow the green agenda to be fulfilled through them. It seems to be
accepted that even if a green party is not elected to government, then sufficient pressure may be brought to bear
on the incumbents to bring about a sustainable society. Until the early 1980s there were no Green Party
members of Parliament anywhere, and certainly no green parties anywhere near government. Now that has
changed. At the time of writing (June 2006), European green parties boast one hundred ninety two seats in
national parliaments, with two ministers in government (in Italy and Latvia). And until the last election changed
the panorama of German politics, the Green Party played a major role in government there, with Green Party
member Joschka Fischer holding the key portfolio of Foreign Minister. Thus greens have tasted electoral
success within the constraints of the liberal-democratic framework.32
There is no unified vision of green democracy. Nevertheless, we can set out two sorts of vision- the
authoritarian and communitarian direct democracy. The most outrageous authoritarianism comes from extremist
groups like the American Earth First. Beyond these extremes, the work of Ophuls who deals explicitly at length
with ecological political theory can be taken as a clear example of authoritarian tendencies. He has suggested
that with the return to scarcity we must question whether democracy as we know it can survive.He suggests a
return to competence, or what Dahl calls guardianship. Most visions of green democracy are, however, variants
on a model of direct democracy in small, often rural, face-to-face communities, characterized by labour
intensive production, self-reliance if not self-sufficiency, a related minimization of trade and travel between
communities, and decision-making by face-to-face assemblies along the lines of the Athenian assembly.
For Bookchin, the emphasis is on public talk and public spaces in the decentralized communities,
breaking down distinctions between politics and administration, and the need for empowerment of people
through participation, involvement, and a sense of citizenship that stresses activity, not on the delegation of
power and spectatorial politics.Sale gives priority to bioregional organization of communities over direct or
other forms of democracy. The elements of Green democracy are: stress on small decentralized communities,
face-to-face assemblies and proximate forms of participation and accountability, rotation of representatives and
a strong emphasis on equality of input from all community members. The alternative vision of direct Green
democracy is semi- direct democracy which enhances technologies for voting, consultation, conferencing, and
so on. Less sober accounts see direct voting via television referenda as completely cutting out intermediaries and
giving power back to the people: Tofflers view was that Public opinion will become the law of the land. More
sober accounts stress a variety of teledemocracy schemes and a number of problems, such as access, agendasetting and citizen apathy, associated differentially with each of them.
The second revision of the green vision of direct democracy would be to accept the ecological and
political advantages of urban living. The third suggested revision is that green theorist ought not to see direct
and representative democracy mutually exclusive. The fourth revision involves Greens accepting confederal and
perhaps supranational political structures. A prominent green slogan is think globally, act locally. The final,
and most important, revision is a philosophical one. If convincing, it suggests that Greens should not think in
terms of overriding principles or imperatives. 33
15. COMMUNITIES
Robyn Eckersley has argued that ecological community required revolutionary, the active, responsible
person-in-community called as homo communities. She suggests that the ultimate principle of eco-praxis is the
need to maintain consistency between means and ends. These foster the development of self-help, community
responsibility and free activity and are consistent with the ecotopian ideal of a loose federation of regions and
31.
32.
33.
Lawrence E. Johnson , A morally deep world- an essay on moral significance and environmental ethics (U.S.A: Cambridge
University Press, 1991).
Wouter Achterberg, Can liberal democracy survive the crisis? sustainability, liberal neutrality and overlapping consensus ,in
Andrew Dobson and Paul Lucardie (Ed), The Politics of nature- exploration in green political theory (London: Rutledge, 2003).
94 | Page

communes In this context, the kinds of communities that represent ecological lifestyles are rural self-sufficiency
farms, city farms.
15. DIRECT ACTION
Direct action to halt what protestors see as environmental degradation has become an increasingly
prominent feature of the political scene in recent years, and it is carried out by an apparently disparate collection
of people.
15.1 Democracy or Authoritarianism
North American writers such as Heilbroner (1974) and Ophuls (1977) appeared to argue that the
environmental crisis was so dire that only strong government or authoritarian government is required. More
recently, it has been suggested that there is a right way to live the green good life is incompatible with the value
pluralism normally associated with (liberal) democracy. There are, then, both pragmatic and ethical roots to the
palpable tension between radical green objectives and the democratic process. 34 ORiordan suggests that the
present system of the liberal democratc system cannot be sustained: special interest groups tend to undermine
resolute government which uses short term expediency to override long term commitments; political leaders
prevaricate in the face of conflicting proposals and contradictory evidence; the authority of legislatures is eroded
by the ability of special interest groups to evade regulation; citizens are weak when confronted with the power
of the neo-corporate state, and lack of formation necessary to counter that power; and pluralism is predicated
upon compromise, but fear of scarcity encourages confrontation and irresolution.
ORiordan advocated four resolutions: A new global order, in which the current state system is
dissolved and replaced by a single, global organization. Its proponents, according to an advanced communistic
or socialistic one built on the goal of increasing material welfare, whatever the nature of the state. Centralized
authoritarianism, in which all the problem of liberal democracy are replaced by a totalitarian state which sees
the promotion of global ecological equilibrium as its predominant mission. The authoritarian commune which
according to Heilbroner involves blending the religious orientation and military- style discipline characteristic of
a monastery with the policies attempted in China. The anarchist solution, which goes further than the previous
one because it promotes a society without a state.35
16.Values
There is a predominant view that human beings are of exclusive moral significance though there are
dissenting opinions. The problem is how best to utilize the nature and moral question concerned the implications
for other humans. The nonhuman values are generally scaled on vertical rather than horizontal axis. Various
reasons, religious and sentiments have been given for the supremacy of moral standing of human beings.
Humans unlike others are considered morally superior. In recent years there is a debate on the revival of interest
in the question of the values of non-human world. In the past also we find many instance of it. Plutarch,
advocated a vegetarian diet and many non- western tradition recognize moral significance of natural world. The
impact of the human activities on the nonhuman are evaluated like in Peter singers book, animal liberation.
Another group is concerned with the ethical significance of our actions affecting the environment. Their
concerned is with ecosystem e.g. pollution, extinction of species. Extending humanity beyond humans and there
is diversity of opinions to extend the moral universe. Now the argument arises is that there is common principles
dealing with animals and human beings. Moral consideration is due to us because we have interests. But our
interests are integral part of life process. Even animals, plants, species and ecosystem have interests which have
moral significance. If human interests are to have any moral weight at all, then all genuine interests must be
recognized.36
What drives environmental political thought and action is the green theory of value. According to this
theory, something is especially valuable if it has come about through natural rather than through artificial human
processes. The task of the political ecologist, then, is to work for the preservation of this natural value through
time. Goodin carefully distinguishes between this theory of value and a putative green theory of agency. Green
also question the rising population. In terms of reducing overall consumption, theres nothing more effective
than reducing the number of people doing the consuming. Greens are aware that some people in some countries
consume much more than other people in other countries. The green sustainable society raises the issue of the
34.
35.
36.
R.J Johnson, Environmental Problems: Nature, Economy and State ( London: Belhaven Press, 1989).
Lawrence E. Johnson, A Morally Deep World- An Essay on Moral Significance and Environmental Ethics ( New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1991).
95 | Page

role and place of technology. Greens blame scientific development for many of the ills it believes we now suffer
and they are viewed as anti-technological and therefore as a call to return to a pre-technological age.
III.
Conclusion
The chapter highlighted that only an integrated approach can solve the climate problem. The integrated
approach includes economy, ecology, social stability, sustainability and spatial planning. This chapter highlights
four environmental visions- market- liberal vision, institutionalis vision, bioenvrionemtalism and social green. It
highlights technological strategy like using saving energy devices, clean development project and joint
implementation projects. It also highlights the problem with the present development path and explore
sustainable development as the possible strategy. Only collective action is effective. Eco-feminists advances
their solution in term of developing feminists tendencies. Resource conservation is also an effective strategy.
Further ecologists talk of developing ec0system which deals with ecological economy. Eco-marxists and ecosocialism can also act as solution to this acute crisis. There is also required a change in energy policy, transport
policy and developing green principles. At the individual and community level voluntarinism, lifestyles and
developing eco-values are good strategies. Ecologists also promote the idea of ecological citizenship and
spiritual approach. Legislature can also help in managing the climate change by establishing environmental
laws. Finally we can apply democractic or authoritarian means to save the climate as when required.
96 | Page

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IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)

Volume 14, Issue 1 (Jul. - Aug. 2013), PP 01-09

Oil Exploitation and Agricultural Commodity Export in Nigeria:

Department of Economics, Renaissance University, Ugbawka, Enugu State, Nigeria

Theory and Literature Related to Dutch Disease

Model, Data Sources, Measurement and Justification

Measurement and Justification of Variables

Econometric Methodology, Results and Discussion

1st Difference I(I)

1st Difference I(I)

Source: Authors computation using Stata 11

IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)

Scholarly Use of Internet by the Faculty of Medical Sciences: An

Abstract: The study was conducted to assess

the Internet usage amongst Faculty members of medical

Internet is continuously evolving as a global communications network. Many health science

The basic objectives of this study are:

The present study has the following limitations in its ambit:

Scholarly Use of Internet by the Faculty of Medical Sciences: An Evaluative Study

The collected data has been analyzed and interpreted below:

Designation wise distribution of respondents

5.2. Distribution of Respondents by Medical Colleges

Name of the Govt.

Scholarly Use of Internet by the Faculty of Medical Sciences: An Evaluative Study

VSS Medical college, SCB Medical college,

Name of the Medical college

5.3. Distribution of Respondents by Internet Use Habit

5.4 Distribution of Respondents by purpose of using Internet

Purpose of Internet use

Scholarly Use of Internet by the Faculty of Medical Sciences: An Evaluative Study

Purpose of internet use

5.5. Distribution of Respondents by Experience in Using Internet

5.6. Distribution of Respondents by Frequency of Using Internet

Scholarly Use of Internet by the Faculty of Medical Sciences: An Evaluative Study

Frequency of using internet

5.7. Distribution of Respondents by Place of Access to Internet

place for access of internet

IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)

Review of Judicial Administration of Manipur in Early Period

Materials And Methods

Review of Judicial Administration of Manipur in Early Period (33-1122 A.D)

Review of Judicial Administration of Manipur in Early Period (33-1122 A.D)

Review of Judicial Administration of Manipur in Early Period (33-1122 A.D)

AIR-1958. State of Punjab, Punjab-63, P. 69.

IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)

Effect of Parental Musical Interest Background on Their

How does parents musical interest influence their childrens

Which of your parents is very much interested in music?

Is any of your parents a musician? Yes

5. What is the highest educational qualification of:

Which of your parents studied music in school?

Section B: Parents Musical Interest Background

7. My parents love singing.

Section C: Students Interest In Music As A Course Of Study

16. I like music.

IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)

Spatial Modelling of Cardiovascular Mortality Patterns: A GIS

Data and Methods

Map 1: India - Location of Punjab

Map 2: Punjab - Location of BistDoab

Spatial Variation In Proportional Mortality Rate

Map 3: Rural Bist Doab - Proportional Cardiovascular Mortality, 2009

Geographical Distribution Of Cardiovascular Risk Index

Map 4: Rural Bist Doab - Cardiovascular Risk Index, 2009