Temperaments and Tunings: A Guide for Lute Players

This is a guide of advice and articles having to do with how to understand temperaments and fret placement
for fretted string instruments -- in particular the lute. This page, its opinions and recommendations, and any
mistakes or omissions are the sole responsibility of me. for clarifications or additions, please contact me via
the Contact page of the Renaissance Cittern Site.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Books & Articles

Tuning Advice
Tables of Cent Values
Formula for Converting Cent Values into Fret Factors
Links to Online S ources About Temperaments

1. Books & Articles

The following is a list of books and articles dealing with tuning and temperament with the specific concern of
plucked string instruments such as the lute. for lute players wishing to discover the joys of meantone
temperament with a minimum of theory, Damiani's chapter or Dolata's article, "Lute Tuning with M eantone
Temperaments" are highly recommended and both contain tables of factors for theoretical fret placement.
(But see note about differences in factor numbers below in "Tuning Advice.")
The following list is sorted chronologically, with older articles appearing first:
Dombois, Eugen. "Corret and Easy Fret Placement." Journal of the Lute Society of America VI (1973),
pp.30-33.
Dombois, Eugen. "Varieties of M eantone Temperament Realized on the Lute." Journal of the Lute
Society of America VII (1974), pp.82-89.
Lindley, M ark. Lutes, Viols and Temperaments. (Cambridge Univ. Press: 1984).
Crum, Alison and Sonia Jackson. "Appendix 1: Tuning (by Elizabeth Liddle)." Play the Viol. (Oxford
Univ. Press: 1989), pp.155-164.
Dolata, David. "Lute Tuning with Harmonics: A Square Peg in a Round Hole." LSA Quarterly (Feb.
1993), pp.7-9.
Dolata, David. "Lute Tuning with M eantone Temperaments." LSA Quarterly (Feb. 1993), pp.12-15.
Robiczek, Bonnie. "A M ethod for Tuning the Lute." Lute Society of America Newsletter, XVI, No. 1
(1981), reprinted in LSA Quarterly (M ay/Aug. 1993), pp.28-29.
Dolata, David. "An Introduction to Tuning and Temperaments." LSA Quarterly, (M ay/August 1993),
pp.30-31. [Note: cent values for Perfect 4th and Perfect 5th for 1/4 Comma Meantone in Table I are

reversed. Should read: Perfect 4th: 503.5 and Perfect 5th: 696.5. -A:H]
Dolata, David. "The Secret of Tuning by Harmonics." GFA Soundboard (Spring 1993), pp.27-37,
Dolata, David. "An Introduction to Tuning and Temperaments, Part II." LSA Quarterly" (Feb. 1994),
pp.20-23.
Damiani, Andrea. "Chapter 19: Temperament." Method for Renaissance Lute. (Ut Orpheus Edizioni,
Bologna: 1999), pp.190-192. English Translation by Doc Rossi. [Book originally published in Italian.]

Another highly interesting and recommended book that looks at the debate between pure tuning versus
meantone and equal temperaments is Temperament: How music became a battleground for the great minds of
Western Civilization, by S tuart Isacoff. I would recommend getting the later edition of this book which
contains an afterword that addresses some of the criticisms Isacoff received for his book as well as his
explanation of his views of temperaments.
top

2. Tuning Advice
It should be pointed out that exact mathematical values for factors for fret placement do differ slightly from
article to article, perhaps in part due to the number of decimal places available on calculators used for
calculations. Despite this discrepancy, the factors are within an acceptable range when one considers that
precise adjustment of the frets is near impossible due to the nature of strings and their elasticity, variance in
the height of action from instrument to instrument, and differences in perception of hearing from person to
person. The mathematical and theoretical placement of frets is really just a guide to follow, after which one
may decide to alter this fret or that in order to please one's own aesthetic sense.
It should also be noted that for those who are interested in trying temperaments or tunings other than equal
for the first time, it is recommended that one rethink one's method of tuning. A tuning menthod such as the
following described by Stewart M cCoy, and posted by Leonard Williams to the Lutenet (April, 2000), is
recommended:
I think you should be able to manage to tune the lute well without a sophisticated tuning box.
After all, the "old" guys didn't have one. The important thing is to be sure that you have the frets
in the correct position for the temperament you want. The exact spacing can be measured easily
enough, of course. The important thing to bear in mind with measuring is to ensure that your
calculations involve the vibrating length of the string, not the full length from nut to bridge,
because the string doesn't effectively vibrate right up against the nut and bridge. So for a stringlength of 60 cm, the vibrating length will possibly be somewhere in the region of 59.8 cm.
Although my tuning box can give me all sorts of fancy temperaments, I use it most of the time
just to get me started. The rest I do by ear. If I have problems, and I just can't get the instrument
in tune, then I will use the box for every note. But that really is for emergency use only, when

panic is starting to set in.

1) I start by tuning the 6th course to G. The habit many musicians have of tuning to a' is a
hangover from tuning violins and other instruments. Tuning to a' is literally the last thing you
want to do with a lute in g'. So I tune the lower string of the 6th course first (using the box),
followed by its octave.
Sometimes it helps to have the octave of the 6th course tuned very slightly on the flat side,
because the differences of thickness between the strings causes discrepancies higher up the neck.
When you press down say the 6th course at the 7th fret, the thinner string has further to go
before it reaches the fingerboard, so it will be pulled down further and thus stretched further,
increasing its pitch. This discrepancy will affect all stoppable octave courses to some extent, but
the fatter the string the more noticeable will be the discrepancy.
Anyway, once tuned, that course stays put, and I tune everything else to the lower octave of it,
come what may.
2) Next I tune the 1st course to the 6th course, if need be using a harmonic at the 5th fret.
3) Next I tune the 2nd course (as always to the lower string of the 6th course) using a harmonic at
the 7th fret. I aim to get the 2nd course the tiniest bit flat to that harmonic. I don't count beats
like piano tuners do. That's unnecessarily sophisticated. The main thing is for the 2nd course not
to be sharp to the harmonic on the 6th course.
If I feel unsure, I check f2 against a1 (i.e. 5th fret 2nd course against open 1st course), and a2
against h1. If it is impossible to get those two checks to work, the frets must be incorrectly
placed, probably because of using an incorrect vibrating length, or the strings are FALSE and need
replacing.
I play the following chord, which must sound good before I can proceed:
___a___
___a___
_______
_______
_______
___a___

4) Now that 3 courses are well in tune, I tune the 4th course. I do this by tuning it at the 2nd fret,
again to match the 6th course. If need be, I use the harmonic at the 12th fret of the 6th course.
Again I sound a chord, which must sound well in tune:
___a___
___a___
_______
___c___
_______
___a___

If it is not in tune, it must be the 4th course which needs fiddling with, because I know that the

other three were OK before.

Next I check the 4th course against the 2nd, if need be using a harmonic at the 12th fret of the 4th
course, but I can usually cope tuning notes an octave apart.
_______
___d___
_______
___a___
_______
_______

5) Four down, two to go. The fifth course comes next. Actually I usually begin by tuning this
course in 5ths to the 1st course, going for a slightly narrow fifth. That may do the trick, but even
if I get it spot on (which is not often), I still have numerous checks. The main one is c5 against
a2. I may also stick to my original plan of always checking against the lower string of the 6th
course, so I check a5 against f6. I don't bother with a6 against h5.
6) Last comes the 3rd course, which is always the hardest to get right. That's why it's suicide to
start tuning the lute to a'. I begin by tuning a3 to c6. This should be an octave. Then I check a5
against d3. Then I test a few chords:
___a____a____c___
___a____c____d___
___c____d____d___
_____________a___
________a________
___a_____________

Last comes my ultimate check. If the following two chords sound well in tune, I know I've made
it:
___c____d____
___e____d____
___f____f____
___e____f____
___c____f____
________d____

The commonest difficulty I have at the very end is that the 3rd course is sometimes a bit on the
sharp side. That's why I use those last two chords. If need be, I flatten the 3rd course very
slightly, even though that may not give me a perfect octave with c6. It's a compromise which
often needs making.
One last point. If frets are correctly placed, and you always use octaves and unisons, it doesn't
matter what temperament you go for. the difficulties arise when you TRY to judge tuning with
intervals like major thirds, because the ear allows for greater tolerance with thirds than it does
with octaves and unisons.

top

3. Tables of Cent Values

Note: All values assume a standard "G" tuning with a wolf 5th between G# and Eb (an enharmonically spelled
5th). Most common fret placements for meantone temperaments are dentoed by an asterisk (*).

TABLE 1: Comparison of Cent Values for 1/4 Comma, 1/6 Comma, and Pythagorean Tuning
Pure

1/4 Comma

1/6 Comma

Pythagorean

Major 3rd

386 c.

386 c.

393.3 c.

408 c.

Perfect 4th

498 c.

503.5 c.

501.6 c.

498 c.

Perfect 5th

702 c.

696.5 c.

698.3 c.

702 c.

TABLE 2: Cent Values for Various Temperaments and Tunings

fret

Pythagorean
note
Tuning

1/4
1/5
1/6
1/8
Comma Comma Comma Comma

1/11 Comma
(Equal
"396" "Gerle"
Temperament)

a
[open]

b1
* b2

G#
Ab

114
90

75.5
117.5

83.2
112

88.3
108.3

94.75
103.75

100

93
105

88.8
108

204

193

195.2

196.6

198.5

200

198

196.8

d1
* d2

A#
Bb

318
214

268.5
310.5

278.4
307.2

285
305

293.25
302.25

300

291
303

285.6
304.8

* e1
e2

B
Cb

408

386
428

390.4
419.2

393.3
413.3

397
406

400

396
408

393.6
412.8

498

503.5

502.4

501.6

500.75

500

501

501.6

g1
* g2

C#
Db

612
588

579
621

585.6
614.4

590
610

595.5
604.5

600

594
606

590.4
609.6

702

696.5

697.6

698.3

699.25

700

699

698.4

i1
* i2

D#
Eb

816
792

772
814

780.8
809.6

786.6
806.6

794
803

800

792
804

787.2
806.4

906

889.5

892.8

895

897.75

900

897

895.2

l1
* l2

E#
F

1020
996

965
1007

976
1004.8

983.3
1003.3

992.5
1001.5

1000

990
1002

984
1003.2

* m1
m2

F#
Gb

1110
1086

1082.5
1124.5

1088
1116.8

1091.6

1111.6

1100

1095
1107

1092
1111.2

1200

1200

1200

1200

1200

1200

1200

1200

TABLE 3: Comaprison of the sizes of Pure and Equal Intervals *

Interval

Pure

Equal

Difference

Chromatic semitone

90 c.

100 c.

+10 c.

Diatonic semitone

112 c.

100c.

-12 c.

M ajor second

204 c.

200 c.

-4 c.

M inor third

316 c.

300 c.

-16 c.

M ajor third

386 c.

400 c.

+24 c.

Fourth

498 c.

500 c.

+2 c.

Tritone

590 c.

600 c.

+10 c.

Fifth

702 c.

700 c.

-2 c.

M inor sixth

814 c.

800 c.

-14 .

M ajor sixth

884 c.

900 c.

+16 c.

M inor seventh

996 c.

1000 c.

+4 c.

M ajor seventh

1088 c.

1100 c.

+12 c.

Octave

1200 c.

1200 c.

0 c.

taken from "An Introduction to Tuning and Temperaments, Part II" by David Dolata

top

4. Formula for Converting Cent Values into Fret Factors

In the equation below, y=factor and x=cent value.

y = 1 - 0.5(x/1200)
This formula can be used to convert cents into a fret factor for any kind of string instrument. Once you have
determined the fret factors for all of the fret locations (based on cents) that you wish, simply multiply the
vibrating string length by the factor in order to obtain the location of the fret as measured from the nut. It may
be helpful to inscribe all of the fret locations onto a piece of grid or graph paper, then use this paper as a
template which can be conveniently stored in one's lute case. In this way it is possible to have a number of
different temperaments prepared for a single lute: all one needs to do is use the templates to quickly switch
fret position.
It should be noted, however, that the actual vibrating string length may differ slightly from the lute's mensur:
the vibrating length should be measured between the free end of the string at the nut to the location where the
string passes under itself near the bridge. One may also wish, depending upon the action of one's instrument,
to make the vibrating string length slightly smaller than what is measured in order to account for "bending" of

the string when depressed.

An "easy" way to calculate the "actual" vibrating string length to use for calculations is simply to measure the
distance between the bridge-end of the nut and the center of the 12th fret (which is fixed on most instruments)
-- assuming, of course, that this fret was originally placed in the correct position for a perfect octave.
top

5. Links to Online Sources About Temperaments

(Just a start!)
David van Ooijen's do-It-Yourself Article
A History of Temperaments and Tunings
The Just Intonation Network
Tuning Forum/Digest

top
Last updated Sep. 10, 2005