Psychotherapy Volume 31/Summer 1994/Number 2 ELEMENTS OF THE SOCRATIC METHOD: II. UNIVERSAL DEFINITIONS JAMES C. OVERHOLSER Case Western Reserve University In the Socratic method, systematic questioning and inductive reasoning are used jointly 1o derive a universal definition. Definitions play a role in the client's perception, description, and understanding of common problems, This article focuses on the content, process, and functions of universal definitions as used in psychotherapy. The content of universal definitions focuses on behavior labels (e.g., aggressive), evaluative standards (e.g., success), and abstract qualities (¢.g., love). The process of using universal definitions in psychotherapy follows refutation, collection, and division to identify the essence of the concept. The functions of universal definitions include clarifying category membership, identifying potential causes, building new knowledge, broadening the client's perspective, limiting overgeneralizations, and guiding behavior change. Clients learn a general process that helps them evaluate the appropriateness of the generalizations they make. Clinical ‘applications are discussed and psychotherapy examples are provided. Tem indeed to Mark Fine, Kim Letoert, Sue Wotan, Dave Brisk Stacy Fret, Dali Adams, and Pe Wale ‘cw for thought comments radeon ear versions of ‘tis muse ‘Curespendence reguding this aise shoud be ated 1 Jamer €. Overoler, Deparment of Prychology. Case ‘Weiter Reverve Unverty. 10800 Facid Avene, Cleve- and, OF 48106-7123, 286 ‘The Socratic method is often included as part ‘of cognitive therapy (Beck et al., 1979; Beck ‘& Emery, 1985), rational-ermotive therapy (Ellis, 1962), and psychodynamic therapy (Rychlak, 1968; Stein, 1991). However, few authors have described the Socratic method ina thorough man- ner. The Socratic method includes three main ele- ‘ments: systematic questioning, inductive reason- ing. and universal definitions. Systematic ques- tioning (Overholser, 19930) is used to guide the interview process and encourage clients to sock answers independently. Inductive reasoning (Ov- cetholser, 19934) helps clients generate broad, logical conclusions based on limited experience. In the Socratic method, the therapist often uses systematic questioning and inductive reasoning to cexamige a series of relevant life experiences. This helps therapist and client construct a universal definition pertining to issues that are central to ‘the client's problems (Nelson, 1949). Universal definitions describe the properties tha are suficient to capture the essence of a con cept (Saunders, 1987). A term must be deseribed in such 2 way that the concept remains unchanged even when specific instances vary (Overholser, 1987). For example, independence can be defined Drosdly as being free from contol by others, and therefore applies to an adolescent struggling for ‘autonomy fom parents, and also pertains to many ‘ssues facing an adult deciding to relocate to a new state (Overtiolse, 1988). The process of for- ‘malating universal definitions in therspy can help clients evaluate the appropriateness of the terms they use and the generalizations they make ‘Universal definitions are important because lane ‘guage and definitions influence our perceptions, de- sexi and undentnng of the wri (Eta, etal, 1990; Gergen, 1985). In poychotherapy, the definition of key terms can be constructed collabora- tively (Keeney, 1987). Clarifying definitions can reduce ambiguities and biases in the client's inter- ‘pretation and description of life events. Universal ‘definitions can help clients shift their perspective 10 sir et eas mss wound sie afaieas re Jn psychotherapy. i three areas of content sine 7 ee oer cea Samy Foes ieee ‘parents can be helped b Sere! Siac Sore ‘responses beceuse they being “polite.” Confre es maces — ancl a iat ah Enacetes cea? dards. Clients need tc aria ssanec sania zr coe damaged her spinal ¢ sree ie rs pumas Saat Ehes soeete eee a ioe ‘one day she reluctantly janaae elle sing bsBOP eS FERN aa S TERME RETR SPT aT eS ae Se eee 1 broader and more balanced view of life events. Rebinson (1950) distinguished berween the process ‘nd the functions of universal definitions. This arti- cle describes the content, process, and functions of sing universal definitions in psychotherapy. L. Content of Universal Definitions In psychotherapy, it cam be useful to clarify three areas of content used in universal defini- tions: Behavior labels, evaluative standards, and ‘abstract qualities, Behavior labels attempt to de scribe common problematic behaviors. For exam- pile, “aggressive” can be used to deseribe numer ‘us types of responses (Benjamin, 1985). It can be useful to help cients clarify the emotional state of anger as contrasted with the personality trait of aggressiveness. Likewise, many distraught pans can be helped by clarifying when a child's behavior constiwies a “tantrum” and when it is best viewed asa normal emotional reaction, Also, shy and timid clients often inhibit their social responses because they view assertiveness a8 not being “polite.” Contronting and modifying these ‘diosynchratic behavior labels can have important use (orate their performance in certain situa For example, phrases like “a horrible job,’ ‘good marrage,” or “success” often capiure the Client's connotation in an idiosyncratic manner. Eraluative terms may be biased by the client's unrealistically high gouls or perfectionstc stan- dards. Clienis need to avoid defining evaluative terms based on a narrow perspective anda limited range of experiences. Aiso, many clients dichoto- ‘mize evaluative terms into bipolar extremes (¢ 2. success versus failure) while ignoring the various intermediate gredations, For example, an adult female had recently damaged ter spinal cord in a car accident and had become paralyzed. While sill recovering in the hospital, she became severely depressed over her injury, especially because of the effect her injury would have on her sexuality. Therapeutic discussions were unable to help improve her de- pression because she viewed che changes inher life as “catastrophic.” She defined catastrophe as ‘aterible event that left a person wortless, totaly ‘destroyed, with no reason leftto lve. Fortunately, ‘one day she reluctantly attended her physical ther= apy session during which they played wheelchair volleyball using a beachbell and a low net. In filly, she thought it was stupid and didn’t want Universal Definitions to paticipste. However she did play and soon found herself enjoying the game. Afterwar, in therapy, we discussed how voleyball_ would "never be the same again, but stil could be fun, Now, she had to work harder, it coud be quite Tumorous a times, andi certainly was diferent than before her accident. More imporundy, the same deseripion applied 10. cenuality now. Slowly, sbe begun to Vew her accident and boc quent paraplegia as a problem, sometimes a8 u Challenge. but no longer as acatstophe ‘Abstract qualities inciode numerous concepts relevant to psychotherapy. For example, issies Fertuning to courage, love, friendship, end teauty can be the source of a cients problems. Ciarfyng these abstract terms cam hive much therapeutic potential. For example, an aul fe- male clint became extremely upset when sbe scovered her ex-boyfriend Was dating anther woman. Although they hadn't dated in months, the client sil fet possessive of im. She began focusing sch of her energy on planning ways she could injure ber exchoyiriend or the other woman. She often made thestening of obscene ‘hone cals, and frequently fantasized aout in- ficting physical harm upon them. When erat tas were discussed in therapy, she described it 25 justice " When asked to define josie in gen eral tera, she stated that asics involved people getting what they deserve. Because the ¢x-boy- friend ad hurt her feligs, the cient felt she had ight to hur him back pysicaly or emo- tionally. She felt she had aright o fel angry and express itany way she choso She wes asked how her definition of justice difered from revenge She fet this distinction did not matter. The these Dist asked her to separate her feclngs of anger from is betaviorl expression. She needed to see that she was dveling on ber ange and using it estuctively. The therapist discussed how anger is amature, acceptable emorion but needs to'be expressed in @ mature and constrctive manner. ‘She novded to see that justice and revenge differ in tes ofthe emotions behind the actions. IL, Process of Using Universal Definitions ‘The process of using universal definitions in psychotherapy involves helping clients to iden- {ify their definitions, evaluate the limitations of their initial definition, and then therapist and client jointly create a new definition. Whenever a general term (e.g., courage) was mentioned, Socrates requested & definition, When the per- 287