Instrument transformers (ITs)

Instrument transformers (ITs) are designed to transform voltage or current from the high
values in the transmission and distribution systems to the low values that can be utilized by
low voltage metering devices.
There are three primary applications for which ITs are used:
metering (for energy billing and transaction purposes)
protection control (for system protection and protective relaying purposes)
and load survey (for economic management of industrial loads)

Instrument transformer used in conjunction with ammeters and over current relays are called
current transformers.

Current Transformer (CT)

CT or Current Transformer is an important switchgear device. It transforms the current on the
power system from large primary values to safe secondary values. The measured current is
lowered to a reasonable value that can be used in measurement and for protective relaying.
The secondary current will be proportional (as per the ratio) to the primary current.
Its sole purpose is to measure current for measurement or sensing purpose.
A current transformer comprises a primary circuit and a secondary circuit connected via a
magnetic core and an insulating coating system in epoxy-silica or any other suitable material
by manufacturer.

In Current transformer primary current is independent of secondary current; hence primary

current is the dominant factor in CT.

Current transformers have two basic functions:

adapting the MV current value at the primary to the characteristics of the metering or
protection devices by supplying a secondary current with a reduced, but proportional
current value

isolating power circuits from the metering and/or protection circuit.

CTs are connected on the MV network primary circuit, they supply a reduced current value to
the secondary circuit, proportional to the network current on which they are installed.
The current transformer is designed to connect in series with the line to transform the line
current to the standard 5 amperes suitable for the meter or relay.
The primary is series-mounted on the MV network and subject to the same over-currents as
the latter and withstands the MV voltage.
The secondary generally has one of its terminals connected to earth. The secondary must
never be in an open circuit to avoid lethal shock as high voltage induced in secondary open
terminal in this case.
Types of CTS
wound: when the primary and the secondary have a coil wound on the magnetic circuit
slip-over: primary made up of a conductor that is not insulated from the installation
core: primary made up of an insulated cable.
Why secondary circuit of current transformer should not open:
To open the secondary circuit of current transformer while it is energized is a dangerous act.
If the secondary circuit open circuited then there will be zero current in the secondary circuit,
hence reduced back emf. This back emf restrains the primary flux to exceed. Without back
emf the primary flux increases and core get saturated. This increased flux develops high
voltage across secondary that is dangerous enough to catch a lethal shock.

Voltage transformers
Potential Transformer (PT) or Voltage Transforner (VT) is a device which transforms the
voltage on the power system from primary values to safe secondary values, in a ratio
proportional to the primary value. It is designed to give the secondary a voltage which is
proportional to that applied to its primary.
VTs or PTs make a low voltage from the high voltage of a certain ratio, so that the large
voltage can be easily measurable or sensed by using this low voltage by low voltage capacity
costly equipment like relay, PLC.
VTs or PTs are connected to the MV network primary, they supply the secondary circuit with
a reduced voltage value, proportional to the network voltage on which they are installed.
The voltage transformer is designed to connect in parallel with the line to transform the line
voltage to 115 or 120 volts suitable for the meter or relay. To keep the voltage at the meters
and relays at a safe value, the secondary circuit must be grounded.
A voltage transformer is connected across the line or lineground, and is loaded to a greater or
lesser degree depending on the number of devices connected in parallel at the secondary
terminals (Figure 20). As the load is increased, the curves for ratio error and phase angle will
show how the accuracy is affected. If accuracy is not important, the load can be increased to
the thermal volt-ampere rating, the maximum which can be carried without overheating.
Voltage transformers must be able to withstand an accidental short circuit for one second
Consists of a primary winding, a magnetic core, one or several secondary windings, with
everything encapsulated in an insulating resin.
Voltage transformers have the following two functions:
Adapting the value of MV voltage on the primary to the characteristics of metering or
protection devices by supplying a secondary voltage that is proportional and lower in
value.
Isolating power circuits from the metering and/or protection circuit.
.

Types of voltage/potential transformer

According to connection-phase/phase: primary connected between two phases, phase/earth:
primary connected between a phase and the earth.

Why secondary of voltage transformer should not kept open

In voltage/Potential transformer the secondary must never be placed in short circuit.As the
secondary voltage is virtually independent of the load, due to it being connected through a
high impedance (virtually used in an open circuit). Therefore, the secondary must not be short
circuited. Under these conditions an excessively high current will damage the transformer.
`

Generator Protection

What can go wrong?

Protection

A. Stator Winding Problems A. Differential Protection (what goes in must come out)
1. Winding-winding short

1. Detects phase-phase faults

2. Stator ground

B. Stator Ground Protection

1. 59N (95% of Stator)
2. Third Harmonic Voltage Method (100% of Stator)
3. Signal Injection (100% of Stator)

B. Rotor Problems

1. Loss of Field

1. Loss of field

a. Impedance

2. Field ground

2. Field ground

a. First ground

a. DC voltage relay (64F)

b. Second ground

The field ground relay is connected from the negative side

of the field to DC ground. Detects voltage from the field to
ground

C. Abnormal Conditions
1. Over/Under Frequency
2. Over Excitation
3. Reverse Power
4. Out of Step
5. Unbalance Current

Protection relays

Protective relays monitor the current and/or voltage of the power system to detect problems
with the power system. Currents and voltages to relays are supplied via CTs and PTs
As Generators and transformers are major components of a power system, so it is quite
necessary to take all the preventive measures for the protection of transformers and
generators.
These are the following ways (ANSI codes) we use to protect transformers and generators
from faults:
ANSI
code
87/G1

Description
Generator differential protection (87/G1): the protection is provided with high
speed, high stability circulating current relays. The relays has a pick up range of
10 to 40% of 5A and shall have suitable stabilizing for ensuring stability against
external faults. The relays shall be tuned to fundamental frequency to reject
harmonics produced by CT saturation.

87/GT1

Generator-transformer differential protection (87/GT1): the diff. relays for the

generator-transformer has to be of sensitive high speed percentage bias type
with harmonic restraint and has CT ratio matching devices.
The relay should have all required restraints to make it inoperative for fault
current, magnetizing inrush current and abnormal magnetizing inrush current
during short time over voltage conditions.

87T1A

Unit auxiliary transformer differential protection (87T1A): percentage biased

differential relays are used along with ratio matching device. The relay shall not
operate for magnetizing inrush current. High set instantaneous over current
relays shall be provided in series with the previous relay, set for magnetizing
inrush current, for fast protection from internal faults.

64GI

Generator stator earth fault protection (64GI): the stator earth fault protection
shall consist of a zero sequence voltage relay connected to the broken delta
winding of generator voltage transformer. The protection shall act to initiate a
time-delayed signal only and hence the relay shall be continuously rated for
110V.
The relay shall incorporate arrangements to make it insensitive to third

harmonic voltages.
87TG

Generator inter-turn protection(87TG): the protection shall be by means of an

instantaneous over current relay. The relay shall incorporate filtering
arrangements to make it inoperative for third harmonics. The relay shall have
suitable range to cover 20-50% of generator current.

64-1,64-

Generator rotor earth fault protection(64-1,64-2): the first rotor earth fault of

generator shall be detected by means of super imposing of separate Dc bias on

the field winding. The DC bias shall be such that the faults at any point in the
winding are covered by the protection. Also the relay shall withstand the voltage
encountered. Second rotor earth fault protection for generators shall also be
provided, with suitable relays common for two units.
The protection shall incorporate feature for compensating the effects of induced
alternating currents in rotor circuit and shall have minimum dead zone.

40G

Generator loss of field protection(40G): this protection shall be single phase off
set impedance type. The relays shall have impedance settings to cover the usual
range of impedance of large turbo generators.

21G

Generator backup protection(21G): the generator backup relay shall be of three

phase impedance type for one zone protection together with required auxiliary
relays and two stage timer to give backup protection for faults in the generator,
main transformer and transmission system.

46G

Generator negative sequence current protection(46G): the negative sequence

current relays shall protect the generator from damage by overheating due to
sustained flow of unbalanced phase currents, and the operating characteristics of
the relay shall be adjustable to match I2Rt thermal characteristics.
Generator under power and anti motoring protection (67-1G, 67-2G): the step

67-1G,

up transformer back up earth fault protection current relays shall be of IDMT

67-2G

characteristics. One of the two relays shall be set with higher time dial setting to
provide second stage of protection.

51G

Generator overload protection(51G): one over current relay shall be provided to

initiate an overload alarm. The relay shall have high reset ratio and adequate
continuous thermal rating.
59G

Generator over voltage protection(59G): suitable over-voltage relays preferably

with volt/cycle characteristics shall be provided.

50T1A

Back-up protection for unit auxiliary transformer(50T1A): Two instantaneous

over current relays with an external DC timer shall be provided for back-up

95G

protection for unit 6.6 kV bus bar

Fuse failure protection(95G): This protection shall block the operation of all
protections associated with voltage circuits in the event of failure of a fuse of
generator.

86G and Lockout relays(86G and 86GT): lockout relays shall be provided for each
86GT

generator unit which will be multi contact , hand reset type. The latching
mechanism shall be positive and insensitive to vibration and shock

Excitation
Excitation systems have a powerful impact on generator dynamic performance and
availability, it ensures quality of generator voltage and reactive power, i.e. quality of
delivered energy to consumers
The main purpose of excitation system for generator is to supply the power source to the rotor
field coil. Excitation system produce the field current and it controlled by the automatic
voltage regulator (AVR).
This field current controller is important to ensure the generator running in the suitable
voltage. It also controls the value of current when generator connected to a large load. It
receives or delivers the required level for reactive power ( kVAr).
Following types are common:

Brushless excitation systems, with rotating exciter machines and Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR), or

Static excitation systems (SES), feeding rotor directly from thyristor bridges via
brushes.

Main functions of excitation system are to provide variable DC current with short time
overload capability, controlling terminal voltage with suitable accuracy, ensure stable
operation with network and/ or other machines, contribution to transient stability subsequent
to a fault, communicate with the power plant control system and to keep machine within
permissible operating range.
The functions of an excitation system are
to provide direct current to the synchronous generator field winding, and
to perform control and protective functions essential to the satisfactory operation of
the power system
Types of Excitation Systems
1. DC excitation systems
2. AC excitation systems
3. Static excitation systems
1. DC Excitation Systems:
utilize
dc
generators
driven

by

motor

as
or

the

source
shaft

of

of

power;

main

generator;

self or separately excited

self-excited dc exciter supplies current to the main generator field through slip rings
the exciter output provides rest of its own field by self-excitation
2.

AC Excitation Systems:
use ac machines (alternators) as source of power
usually, the exciter is on the same shaft as the turbine-generator
the ac output of exciter is rectified by either controlled or non-controlled rectifiers
rectifiers may be stationary or rotating
early systems used a combination of magnetic and rotating amplifiers as regulators;
most new systems use electronic amplifier regulators

3. Static Excitation Systems:

all components are static or stationary
supply dc directly to the field of the main generator through slip rings

 the power supply to the rectifiers is from the main generator or the station auxiliary
bus

An exciter is part of the generator package supplying direct current to the alternator field
windings to magnetize the rotating poles. The exciter output may be controlled by a voltage
regulator. Types of exciters include brush type with rotating commutator, static excitation or
brush less generator and exciter.
DC Exciter
This invoves a small DC generator coupled to the same shaft as the rotor. Therefore, when the
rotor rotates this exciter produces the power for the electromagnet. Control of the exciter
output is done by varying the field current of the exciter. This output from the exciter then
controls the magnetic field of the rotor to produce a constant voltage output by the generator.
This DC current feeds to the rotor through slip rings.

Static Exciter
In modern generators the exciters are static. The DC power for the electromagnet is from the
main generator output itself. A number of high power thyristors rectify the AC current to
produce a DC current which feeds to the rotor through slip rings. This eliminates the
operation and maintenance problems associated with having another rotating machine. Static
exciters offer a better control of the output than an electromechanical control.
During start up, when there is no output from the generator, a large battery bank provides the
necessary power for excitation.
Brushless Exciter
In this system the armature of the exciter is on the rotor shaft itself. The DC output of this
armature, after rectification by solid-state devices, goes to the rotor coils. Since the armature
and rotor are on the same rotating shaft, this eliminates the need for slip rings. Hence it
reduces maintenance and operational requirements and thus improving reliability.

Synchronous Generator (Alternator)

Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current (AC) generators.

They supply the electric power used by all sectors of modern societies: industrial,

commercial, agricultural, and domestic.

Synchronous generators usually operate together (or in parallel), forming a large

power system supplying electrical energy to the loads or consumers.

Synchronous generators are built in large units, their rating ranging from tens to

hundreds of megawatts.
Synchronous generator converts mechanical power to ac electric power. The source of
mechanical power, the prime mover, may be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, a water

turbine, or any similar device.

For high-speed machines, the prime movers are usually steam turbines employing

fossil or nuclear energy resources.

Low-speed machines are often driven by hydro-turbines that employ water power for

generation.
Smaller synchronous machines are sometimes used for private generation and as
standby units, with diesel engines or gas turbines as prime movers

The Basic Principle

Electricity is produced in alternators by electromagnetic induction. To generate electricity in a
coil either the coil should rotate with respect to a magnetic field or a magnetic field should
rotate with respect to the coil.

Fig.1 Two methods to produce electricity: Rotating coil and Rotating magnetic field concept
In the case of alternators the latter approach is used.
Main Parts and Working
Rotor and Armature coils are the 2 main parts of an alternator. Rotor produces a rotating
magnetic field. Armature coils are stationary and rotating magnetic flux associated with the
rotor induces electricity in the armature coils.
The rotor is made to rotate by a prime mover. This makes the rotor flux also rotate along with
it, at the same speed.
Such revolving magnetic flux now intersects the armature coils, which is fitted around the
rotor. This will generate an alternating E.M.F across the winding.