Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
for
Peter L. Kresan
University of Arizona, Tucson (retired)
IS
W. H. Freeman and Company
New York
CHAPTER
Contents
Part I: How to Study Geology
1 Brief Preview of the Study G u i d e
2 Meet the A u t h o r s
3 How to Be Successful in G e o l o g y
19
26
35
50
5 Sedimentation: R o c k s F o r m e d by Surface P r o c e s s e s
64
12 Volcanoes
94
106
113
13 Earthquakes
74
84
124
133
144
155
166
191
201
211
2 0 Coastlines and O c e a n B a s i n s
21 Glaciers: T h e W o r k of Ice
217
226
234
244
253
255
257
After Lecture
After e a c h lecture we suggest that y o u s c h e d u l e t w o separate sessions: a brief note review and
i m p r o v e m e n t session and an Intensive S t u d y S e s s i o n (lasting at least an h o u r ) d u r i n g w h i c h
y o u a c h i e v e m a s t e r y of the l e c t u r e ' s content.
Have you checked your notes?
a l w a y s be i m p r o v e d after lecture. G o o d students k n o w this and take the time after lecture to
revise their n o t e s . T h e s e s t u d e n t s also pull additional p o i n t s o n every m i d t e r m a s t h e i r " p a y check." Specific suggestions in every chapter of the Study G u i d e will help you i m p r o v e y o u r
lecture notes. Often these suggestions focus on a d d i n g visual material from the text or s u m m a r i z i n g w h a t w a s covered in a form that will be easy to r e m e m b e r .
Intensive S t u d y S e s s i o n .
m a t e r i a l t a u g h t i n l e c t u r e . L e a r n i n g and c o g n i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y t e a c h e s u s that r e a d i n g p a s sively is an inefficient w a y to learn. You learn best if you spend y o u r study time a n s w e r i n g
q u e s t i o n s . W i t h this m e t h o d y o u read portions of the text as y o u n e e d t h e m to find a n s w e r s
to q u e s t i o n s . I t ' s a lot like t h e w a y we l e a r n a n e w software p a c k a g e on t h e c o m p u t e r . We
m a y not r e a d the software m a n u a l first. Instead we load a p r o g r a m a n d start u s i n g it. T h e n
w e g o t o t h e m a n u a l (or o n l i n e h e l p ) w h e n w e n e e d t o f i n d out i f w e c a n d o s o m e t h i n g w i t h
t h e p r o g r a m , o r t o see h o w t o d o it. A p p l y i n g this t o the t e x t b o o k , y o u will l e a r n g e o l o g y
m o s t efficiently b y w o r k i n g b a c k w a r d from q u e s t i o n s , a n d for e a c h c h a p t e r w e s u g g e s t
q u e s t i o n s y o u c a n u s e this way. A n d often w e s u g g e s t o t h e r g u i d i n g q u e s t i o n s f r o m
Understanding Earth or the W e b site.
S i m p l y stated:
Do a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s , d o n ' t " j u s t
Exam Prep
D o i n g well on college e x a m s is mostly about organization. Effective study r e q u i r e s a s y s t e m a t i c , orderly review. M o s t of y o u r review time (about 70 p e r c e n t ) should be spent a n s w e r ing review q u e s t i o n s . F o r e a c h c h a p t e r of the text the Study G u i d e i n c l u d e s a C h a p t e r
S u m m a r y , Practice Exercises, R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s , and W e b activities. U s i n g t h e s e features
is the fastest w a y to learn and the best w a y to r e m e m b e r the information y o u h a v e learned.
S t u d y tips for preparing for m i d t e r m and final e x a m s , helpful hints that will i m p r o v e y o u r testtaking skills on m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e tests, and information on h o w to use y o u r p e r s o n a l l e a r n i n g
style to y o u r a d v a n t a g e d u r i n g e x a m s m a y also be found in this section.
CHAPTER
Geology fascinates and excites us. We wrote U n d e r s t a n d i n g Earth to help you discover for yourselves how interesting geology is in its own right and how important
an understanding of geology has become for making decisions of public policy. What
can we do to protect people and property from natural disasters such as volcanoes,
earthquakes, and landslides? How can we use the resources of Earthcoal and oil,
minerals, water, and airin ways that minimize damage to the environment? In the
end, understanding Earth helps us understand how to preserve life on Earth.
T h e y add that p e o p l e t e n d to enjoy w h a t they do well. T h e y d e s i g n e d their text to h e l p y o u do
well in y o u r g e o l o g y c o u r s e . M a n y aids to learning are built into the text. L e t ' s s p e n d a m i n u t e
or t w o talking about these aids and h o w you can use t h e m .
Meet the Authors of Understanding Earth: How to Use Your Geology Textbook
/ Chapter Outline
T h e a u t h o r s begin e a c h c h a p t e r with an outline of w h a t will be
c o v e r e d . To use this tool you n e e d to l o o k actively for clues. L o o k at the outline for
C h a p t e r 1. E a c h item in the outline is a clue to w h a t will be covered in the chapter. Try
t u r n i n g e a c h item in the outline into a q u e s t i o n . E x a m p l e : A s k yourself, " W h a t is the
scientific m e t h o d ? " as you r e a d that section. Pay particular attention to material in
the outline y o u find intriguing, surprising, or p u z z l i n g in any way. U s e y o u r surprise
o r p u z z l e m e n t t o motivate y o u r s e l f w h e n y o u read that section. E x a m p l e : C o n s i d e r
the item " E a r t h as a S y s t e m of Interacting C o m p o n e n t s . " H e r e there are t w o p o s s i b i l ities. You m a y be p u z z l e d a b o u t w h a t c o m p o n e n t s the a u t h o r s are referring to. In that
case, activate y o u r curiosity. F r a m e y o u r surprise in a q u e s t i o n such as " W h a t in t h e
w o r l d are t h e a u t h o r s talking a b o u t ? " o r " W h a t are E a r t h ' s interacting c o m p o n e n t s ? "
R e a d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n in m i n d .
/ Chapter Summary
At the e n d of each c h a p t e r a brief s u m m a r y e m p h a s i z e s the m o s t
important ideas of the chapter. T h i s is a very useful r e s o u r c e w h e n you are studying for
an e x a m .
/ Key Terms within the text are printed in bold. You can speed up your reading time by being
vigilant for key terms. W h e n you see a boldfaced t e r m you k n o w it is the most important
concept in that paragraph. Focus on understanding the concept.
/ Photographs
G e o l o g y is a very visual science. Pictures in the text are essential. U s e
t h e m as a "virtual field t r i p " to h e l p you learn w h a t particular r o c k s and formations l o o k
like. P e r h a p s you h a v e h e a r d of or even visited s o m e of the p h o t o sites. E x a m p l e : See
Figure 1.4 in C h a p t e r 1. P a y particular attention to the p h o t o g r a p h s that are paired with
s c h e m a t i c figures or d i a g r a m s and refer to t h e m as you read.
Study Tip
H a v i n g a t o u g h t i m e g e t t i n g y o u r s e l f started in a study s e s s i o n ? U s e the art to
motivate y o u . Start a c h a p t e r s t u d y session by s c a n n i n g t h e i m a g e s a n d c a p t i o n s
t o f i n d m a t e r i a l that interests y o u . B e g i n y o u r r e a d i n g with this m a t e r i a l . T h i s
a p p r o a c h w o r k s like starting a fire. You g e n e r a t e a small s p a r k of interest and t h e n
fan it by b r i n g i n g in n e w m a t e r i a l .
/ Figures (Flowcharts)
F i g u r e s are even m o r e important than p h o t o g r a p h s . F l o w c h a r t s
such as the r o c k cycle in F i g u r e 3.26 present key c o n c e p t s . Pay careful attention to the
a r r o w s in flow m o d e l s and ask yourself w h a t drives the p r o c e s s and w h a t p r o d u c t s are
formed. If you are a visual learner, you m a y even want to study the figures a n d sketches
before y o u start to read. T h e n read text on an a s - n e e d e d basis, to clarify the figure.
/ Figure Stories
In g e o l o g y the story of a particular feature or area is often instructive.
In e a c h c h a p t e r of Understanding Earth, you will find a "figure story," an illustrated
vignette that explains an i m p o r t a n t g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s or principle. F i g u r e stories contain
Meet the Authors of Understanding Earth: How to Use Your Geology Textbook
/ Chapter Outline
T h e a u t h o r s b e g i n e a c h c h a p t e r w i t h an outline of w h a t will be
c o v e r e d . To u s e this tool you n e e d to look actively for clues. L o o k at the outline for
C h a p t e r 1. E a c h item in the outline is a clue to w h a t will be c o v e r e d in the chapter. Try
turning e a c h i t e m in the outline into a q u e s t i o n . E x a m p l e : A s k yourself, " W h a t is the
scientific m e t h o d ? " as y o u r e a d that section. P a y particular attention to material in
the o u t l i n e you find intriguing, surprising, or p u z z l i n g in any way. U s e y o u r surprise
o r p u z z l e m e n t t o m o t i v a t e yourself w h e n you r e a d that section. E x a m p l e : C o n s i d e r
the item " E a r t h as a S y s t e m of Interacting C o m p o n e n t s . " H e r e there are t w o p o s s i b i l ities. You m a y be p u z z l e d a b o u t w h a t c o m p o n e n t s the a u t h o r s are referring to. In that
c a s e , activate y o u r curiosity. F r a m e y o u r surprise in a q u e s t i o n such as " W h a t in the
w o r l d are t h e a u t h o r s talking a b o u t ? " o r " W h a t are E a r t h ' s interacting c o m p o n e n t s ? "
R e a d w i t h the q u e s t i o n in m i n d .
/ Chapter Summary
At the end of e a c h c h a p t e r a brief s u m m a r y e m p h a s i z e s the m o s t
i m p o r t a n t ideas of the chapter. T h i s is a very useful r e s o u r c e w h e n you are studying for
an e x a m .
/ Key Terms within the text are printed in bold. You can speed up your reading time by being
vigilant for key terms. W h e n you see a boldfaced t e r m you know it is the most important
concept in that paragraph. Focus on understanding the concept.
/ Photographs
G e o l o g y is a very visual science. Pictures in the text are essential. U s e
t h e m as a "virtual field t r i p " to h e l p you learn what particular r o c k s and formations l o o k
like. P e r h a p s you h a v e heard of or even visited s o m e of the p h o t o sites. E x a m p l e : See
F i g u r e 1.4 in C h a p t e r 1. Pay particular attention to the p h o t o g r a p h s that are paired with
s c h e m a t i c figures or d i a g r a m s a n d refer to t h e m as you read.
Study Tip
H a v i n g a t o u g h t i m e g e t t i n g y o u r s e l f started in a study s e s s i o n ? U s e the art to
m o t i v a t e y o u . Start a c h a p t e r s t u d y s e s s i o n by s c a n n i n g t h e i m a g e s a n d c a p t i o n s
t o f i n d m a t e r i a l that interests y o u . B e g i n y o u r r e a d i n g with this m a t e r i a l . T h i s
a p p r o a c h w o r k s like starting a fire. You g e n e r a t e a small s p a r k of interest a n d t h e n
fan it by b r i n g i n g in n e w m a t e r i a l .
/ Figures (Flowcharts)
Figures are even m o r e important than p h o t o g r a p h s . F l o w c h a r t s
such as the r o c k cycle in F i g u r e 3.26 present key c o n c e p t s . Pay careful attention to the
a r r o w s in flow m o d e l s and ask yourself w h a t drives the p r o c e s s and w h a t p r o d u c t s are
formed. If you are a visual learner, you m a y even want to study the figures and sketches
before you start to read. T h e n read text on an a s - n e e d e d basis, to clarify the figure.
Figure Stories
In g e o l o g y the story of a particular feature or area is often instructive.
In e a c h c h a p t e r of Understanding Earth, you will find a "figure story," an illustrated
vignette that e x p l a i n s an i m p o r t a n t g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s or principle. Figure stories contain
E x e r c i s e s (end of chapter)
T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s (end of chapter)
Meet the Authors of Understanding Earth: How to Use Your Geology Textbook
Text-marking tips
Underlining
Underline i m p o r t a n t points.
Underline to highlight t h e k e y i d e a s .
Do pay attention to the k e y t e r m s that
are in boldfaced t y p e in the text.
Summarizing
Write a brief s u m m a r y statement of k e y g e o l o g y
processes in y o u r o w n w o r d s in the text margin.
U s e these a n n o t a t i o n s to facilitate e x a m review.
Annotating
M a r k i n g the text will aid kinesthetic learning. G o o d text m a r k i n g will aid visual m e m o r y
so use caution w h e n m a r k i n g up y o u r text. Mark carefully and selectively. If you m e s s up the
text with excessive and illegible m a r k i n g s , you m a y interfere with s o m e of the g o o d m e m o r y
aids that are built into the careful design of the text. R e m e m b e r , a w e l l - m a r k e d text will m a k e
e x a m r e v i e w far m o r e efficient b e c a u s e the m a r k s will focus y o u r a t t e n t i o n o n the key m a t e rial you need to find and review. If you are worried about the i m p a c t of m a r k i n g on y o u r textb o o k ' s resale value, be sure to ask y o u r b o o k s t o r e . M a n y b o o k s t o r e s h a v e policies that
e n c o u r a g e effective text m a r k i n g .
TRY T H I S NOW!
1. Try underlining. C h o o s e a section you c o n s i d e r to be important, key material. R e a d
the p a s s a g e several t i m e s until you are sure you u n d e r s t a n d it. T h e n m a r k the p a s s a g e
following the directions in the table.
2. S u m m a r i z e
that you think
p r o c e s s in the
in the table as
CHAPTER
10
PARTI
CHAPTER 3
Visual Learning
Auditory Learning
r e m e m b e r best b y j u s t listening.
Kinesthetic L e a r n i n g
T R Y T H I S NOW!
Put a 1 in the b o x next to the m o d e of learning y o u prefer m o s t strongly, a 2 for y o u r next
strongest m o d e , and a 3 beside the m o d e you think you use least well and least prefer to
use. H i n t : Usually, the m o d e we prefer is the o n e we use best. If y o u are not sure w h i c h
m o d e you prefer, try taking the Learning Style Inventory online at the University of A r i z o n a
L e a r n i n g C e n t e r W e b site: www.ulc.arizona.edu (click on Self-Assessment).
How to Be Successful in Geology (and Just About Any Other Challenging Course)
Before Lecture
Strategy: Preview the chapter before going
to the lecture
To preview a chapter, use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions. T h e s e questions are provided at the
beginning of each chapter of the Study G u i d e . R e a d each question, then skim the chapter to
find the relevant material. Feel free to annotate the brief a n s w e r s provided for each question.
T h e idea is to go to lecture with a general idea of the a n s w e r s to the questions in mind.
Why preview?
Introductory courses can be difficult. T h e r e are lots of new terms, new ideas,
and new skills during a first-semester geology course. But which ideas are " i m p o r t a n t " ? H o w
do you focus y o u r effort in this new and seemingly strange terrain?
Picture a house under construction. Imagine that the contractor was very careless
and neglected to construct whole sections of the frame. Finishing the areas lacking a frame would be impossible. You can't tack siding onto thin air! This
metaphor describes your geology lecture. You are the contractor. You need to
arrive at class with an overview of the lecture already in mind. You have already
identified what geological processes will be explained and what key questions the
lecture will answer. Going to class without a frame of key questions is like building a house with no supporting structure. You will have nothing on which to hang
the lecturer's main points (information). Without the main points, the details are
meaningless. As the lecture progresses you are likely to feel increasingly confused
and bored. By the time the lecturer gets to the most important material, you may
be completely lost.
11
12
PART I C H A P T E R 3
Before you go to lecture, be sure to spend some time previewing. You will find that as little
as 10 to 15 minutes of time spent previewing can m a k e a big difference in h o w m u c h you understand of the lecture. With the key points already in mind, y o u can focus in lecture on understanding the details. This, in turn, will help ensure you get an excellent set of notes.
TRY T H I S NOW!
M o v e i m m e d i a t e l y to the c h a p t e r that will be covered in y o u r next lecture. P r e v i e w the
chapter. T h e n return here to read the next strategy.
During Lecture
Strategy: Note-Taking Checklist
Your basic g o a l d u r i n g lecture is to take g o o d notes. T h e notes should a n s w e r the C h a p t e r
P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in depth. To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d .
H a v e a c o p y of the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in front of y o u . Better yet, d e v e l o p p r e l i m i nary a n s w e r s t o the q u e s t i o n s and c o m m i t t h e m t o m e m o r y before t h e lecture.
A n o t h e r w a y to k e e p t h e b i g p i c t u r e in m i n d is to b r i n g a c o p y of t h e k e y figure or
f l o w c h a r t t o l e c t u r e t o refer t o . I n m a n y c h a p t e r s w e s u g g e s t w h i c h f i g u r e y o u s h o u l d h a v e
handy.
D u r i n g s o m e classes the lecturer m a y show r o c k formations a n d m a y pass a r o u n d s p e c i m e n r o c k s . You will get m o r e out of t h e s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s if y o u sit c l o s e to the front of the
r o o m w h e r e y o u c a n see the s a m p l e r o c k s a s the lecturer d i s c u s s e s t h e m . R e m e m b e r t o focus
on clues the lecturer p r o v i d e s for r e c o g n i z i n g a particular s a m p l e in the field. F o c u s in particular on the texture of s a m p l e s and learn to r e c o g n i z e d i f f e r e n c e s , for e x a m p l e , t h e fine
t e x t u r e of a volcanic r o c k and the c o a r s e texture of a p l u t o n i c rock.
As y o u listen to lecture, identify q u e s t i o n s y o u need to ask to u n d e r s t a n d the m a t e r i a l .
Try to formulate at least o n e g o o d question y o u can ask d u r i n g every lecture.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t task d u r i n g lecture is, of c o u r s e , taking a g o o d set of n o t e s . N o t e taking is not easy. It is a skill that i m p r o v e s with practice. H e r e are a few tips that will h e l p y o u .
Note-Taking Checklist
How to Be Successful in Geology (and Just About Any Other Challenging Course)
T R Y T H I S NOW!
Take the n o t e - t a k i n g checklist with y o u to y o u r next lecture. Try to follow all the
s u g g e s t i o n s . After lecture review y o u r notes and c h e c k off e a c h point that y o u actually
followed. T h e n return h e r e to read t h e next strategy.
H i n t : P h o t o c o p y the checklist a n d u s e it for every lecture until all the strategies b e c o m e
habits. U s e d this way, the checklist b e c o m e s a visual record of y o u r p r o g r e s s as a skillful
n o t e taker.
After Lecture
Review Your Notes Immediately
G o o d n o t e t a k i n g c o n t i n u e s after the lecture is over. Right after lecture, w h i l e the material is
fresh in y o u r m i n d , is the perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s . R e v i e w to be sure y o u u n d e r s t o o d
the key points and w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a form that will be easy to review later.
D o n ' t p o s t p o n e this activity. T h e best t i m e is right after lecture before you go to y o u r next
class or activity. L e a r n i n g experts tell us that m o s t of us will forget 80 p e r c e n t of w h a t we
h e a r d in a lecture by the following day. On the other hand, if y o u review right after the lecture, t h e r e will h a v e b e e n no interruptions. M u c h of w h a t w a s said will still be in y o u r shortt e r m m e m o r y . If y o u m i s s e d s o m e t h i n g , you can p r o b a b l y r e m e m b e r it and p u t it into y o u r
notes. T h e basic i d e a of r e v i e w i n g y o u r notes is to fill in w h a t you m i s s e d and to add helpful
visual m a t e r i a l from the text. U s e the following checklist as a g u i d e .
identified the important points clearly? (You should have h e a d i n g s in y o u r notes for
e a c h of the questions in the C h a p t e r Preview.)
created a brief big picture overview of this lecture (using a sketch or written outline)?
T R Y T H I S NOW!
After the next lecture, review y o u r notes and improve t h e m using the points in the checklist
as a guide. C h e c k off each point as you complete it. T h e n return here to read the next
strategy. Hint: Consider photocopying the checklist so that you can u s e it repeatedly.
How to Be Successful in Geology (and Just About Any Other Challenging Course)
T R Y T H I S NOW!
E a c h c h a p t e r of the S t u d y G u i d e c o n t a i n s a section titled I n t e n s i v e S t u d y S e s s i o n .
Turn n o w to t h e c h a p t e r y o u are currently w o r k i n g on and try out its Intensive S t u d y
Session material. Do e n o u g h to get a feeling for h o w Intensive S t u d y S e s s i o n
works. T h e n return h e r e and r e a d t h e next section.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r preparation for m i d t e r m and final e x a m inations. F o r o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e , m i d t e r m preparation should begin about eight days before
the e x a m (see the E i g h t - D a y S t u d y P l a n in A p p e n d i x A ) . T h e basic i d e a is a systematic
review of material divided into short study sessions.
Test Taking
In every college e x a m , a n u m b e r of students k n o w the material yet fail the test b e c a u s e they
get a n x i o u s , p a n i c , and freeze u p . We have found over the years that the best w a y to o v e r c o m e
or avoid test anxiety is by c o m i n g to the test well p r e p a r e d a n d confident a n d by w o r k i n g
strategically on the test. E x a m p r e p will not be a p r o b l e m if y o u u s e the materials p r o v i d e d
for this p u r p o s e in this Study G u i d e . In this section, we will s u g g e s t strategies to try out during y o u r e x a m . You m a y w a n t to return to this section a day or so before y o u r e x a m .
How to Be Successful in Geology (and Just About Any Other Challenging Course)
CHAPTER
During Lecture
This will be your very first lecture for this course. Get off to a good start. Arrive 10 minutes early.
Find the best seat in the house: close to the front of the room, where you can hear the lecture and
see the slides. This section is referred to by some as the "A section." Quite apt, since there really
is a correlation between where you sit in a lecture hall and the grade you are likely to receive.
Test this out. Try sitting in different locations the first week. Notice where it is easiest to concentrate and where it is most difficult. In many lecture halls the back row is the worst place to be.
It is the location chosen by students w h o arrive late and leave early. It may even be noisy. A l w a y s
feel free to change locations if your view is impeded by projection equipment or if you c a n ' t hear
because of the whispered conversations of other students. Talk to your instructor if you need to.
Okay, you have g o o d seat. W h a t can you do w h i l e you wait for lecture to b e g i n ?
M o t i v a t e yourself to w a n t to listen to this l e c t u r e . O p e n y o u r text to C h a p t e r
1. T h u m b through the chapter. Take a g o o d l o o k at the p h o t o s and figures.
L o o k for topics that interest you. C h a p t e r 1 is loaded with visual material that
should m a k e it easy to find subjects of interest. A s k yourself w h a t y o u w o u l d
like to k n o w about this chapter. W h a t w o u l d you ask y o u r teacher if this w e r e
a o n e - o n - o n e tutorial? Finally, try to think of s o m e e x p e r i e n c e you h a v e h a d
that relates to this chapter. M a y b e you visited a p l a n e t a r i u m or read a catchy
version of the formation of the universe like Cosmic Comics by Italo C a l v i n o .
Or m a y b e you saw a v o l c a n o on y o u r last vacation. Actively l o o k for e x p e r i e n c e s to h o o k y o u r interest and to c o n n e c t you personally with c o u r s e inform a t i o n . Notice that the m o r e you look at the c h a p t e r and the m o r e you let
yourself think about the pictures, the m o r e y o u r interest builds. Five m i n u t e s
should b e e n o u g h t o get y o u r "motivational e n g i n e " turned o n and h u m m i n g .
P r e p a r e y o u r m i n d for learning. M a s t e r football players w a r m up by r u n n i n g ,
stretching, and passing the football. M a s t e r learners w a r m up by focusing their
attention on what will be covered during lecture. S p e n d a m i n u t e or t w o looking over the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions. Try to anticipate h o w these questions
will be a n s w e r e d in lecture. If you have time, read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y for
C h a p t e r 1. W h e n you preview, the goal is not to learn the material but merely
to formulate questions that you expect to be a n s w e r e d during the lecture. W i t h
questions in m i n d you are ready to take notes.
Learning Tip
Do a learning w a r m - u p before every lecture. Arrive 10 m i n u t e s early. A n t i c i p a t e
questions that will be a n s w e r e d in lecture.
The
man
who
is afraid of asking
is ashamed of learning.
D A N I S H PROVERB
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to r e v i e w y o u r notes is right after the lecture w h i l e the material is still fresh
in your m i n d . R e v i e w to be sure y o u o b s e r v e d all the key points a n d w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a
form that will be r e a d a b l e later. As y o u review, y o u c a n polish y o u r notes by a d d i n g useful
visual material and a s u m m a r y .
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r S u m mary and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w
that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , r e v i e w e a c h q u e s tion you missed. Identify a n d correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How do geologists study Earth?
Field and lab observations, experiments, and the h u m a n creative process help
geoscientists formulate hypotheses (models) for h o w the Earth works and its history. A " h y p o t h e s i s " is a tentative explanation that can help focus attention on
21
22
PART II C H A P T E R 1
plausible features and relationships of a working m o d e l . If a hypothesis is eventually confirmed by a large body of data, it m a y be elevated to a "theory."
Theories are a b a n d o n e d when subsequent investigations show t h e m to be false.
Confidence g r o w s in theories that withstand repeated tests and are able to predict the results of new experiments and c o m p u t e r m o d e l s .
Practice Exercise
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the Study G u i d e .
Earth's topography
A. W h e r e is the highest point on Earth relative to sea level?
B. W h e r e is the lowest t o p o g r a p h i c point on E a r t h ?
C. Relative to sea level, h o w m u c h l o w e r is the lowest point c o m p a r e d to the highest
point?
D. W h a t is the total t o p o g r a p h i c relief on the E a r t h ?
Hint: Refer to p a g e 4 and Key F i g u r e 1.3.
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the end of the Study G u i d e .
1. W h a t p u r p o s e d o e s a scientific h y p o t h e s i s serve?
A.
B.
C.
D.
It
It
It
It
represents a w i d e l y a c c e p t e d explanation.
provides an opportunity for f e e d b a c k and testing.
serves little p u r p o s e as part of the scientific m e t h o d .
typically results in u n a n i m o u s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n scientists.
23
C.
mantle
B . inner core
D.
outer c o r e
C.
nickel
B. magnesium
D.
silicon
11. C o n v e c t i o n transfers heat (see Key F i g u r e 1.11) by the physical circulation of hot and
cold matter. H o w d o e s it w o r k ?
A. H e a t e d m a t t e r rises u n d e r the force of b u o y a n c y b e c a u s e it is less d e n s e .
B. H o t m a t t e r within the m a n t l e sinks b e c a u s e it is denser.
C. C o l d m a t t e r rises u n d e r the force of b u o y a n c y b e c a u s e it is less d e n s e .
D. M e t e o r b o m b a r d m e n t acts to stir up the m a n t l e and drive convection.
12. W h e n did b i o l o g y ' s B i g B a n g (evolutionary e x p l o s i o n ) o c c u r ?
A . about 6 5 million y e a r s a g o
B . a b o u t 5 4 0 million years a g o
C . a b o u t 2 2 0 0 million years a g o
D . a b o u t 3 5 0 0 million years a g o
25
Before Lecture
This is a particularly i m p o r t a n t chapter. Plate tectonics is the major c o n c e p t that guides m o d ern geology. Before y o u attend lecture be sure to spend s o m e t i m e previewing the chapter.
Previewing will greatly increase y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture (see the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w
in Part I, C h a p t e r 3, H o w to Be Successful in G e o l o g y ) . F o r an efficient preview use the following questions.
Chapter Preview
This chapter c o n t a i n s extraordinarily helpful figures and p h o t o s . T h e goal is to learn
how the continents and o c e a n plates can float about the Earth. F o c u s y o u r C h a p t e r 2
study time on e x a m i n i n g the fascinating figures and p h o t o s of s o m e of E a r t h ' s m o s t
amazing features.
W h a t is t h e t h e o r y of p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ?
Brief answer: T h e theory of plate tectonics describes the m o v e m e n t of lithospheric
plates and t h e forces acting b e t w e e n t h e m . It also explains the distribution of m a n y
large-scale features that result from m o v e m e n t s at plate b o u n d a r i e s : m o u n t a i n c h a i n s ,
earthquakes, v o l c a n o e s , t o p o g r a p h y of the seafloor, and distribution of r o c k
a s s e m b l a g e s a n d fossils. Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 5 , E a r t h ' s lithosphere is m a d e of m o v i n g
plates, on p a g e 2 4 .
W h a t are s o m e of t h e g e o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of plate b o u n d a r i e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Volcanoes a n d e a r t h q u a k e activity are c o n c e n t r a t e d along plate
b o u n d a r i e s . W h e r e divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s are e x p o s e d on land, subsiding basins
and v o l c a n i s m are typical. M o u n t a i n chains form along convergent and transform
plate b o u n d a r i e s . It is i m p o r t a n t to visualize each major type of plate b o u n d a r y and
their locations on Earth. U s e the following figures in the text to do so: F i g u r e s 2 . 5 ,
2.6, 2.7, and 2.8 for divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s ; F i g u r e s 2.5 and 2.6 for convergent
plate b o u n d a r i e s ; a n d F i g u r e s 2 . 5 , 2.6, a n d 2.9 for a transform b o u n d a r y . If y o u h a v e
seen or lived near the San A n d r e a s , a v o l c a n o , or a rift valley, like the R i o G r a n d e in
N e w M e x i c o , start with the actual feature.
H o w c a n t h e a g e of t h e seafloor be d e t e r m i n e d ?
Brief answer: A pivotal discovery in the history of plate tectonics w a s the determination
of the age of the seafloor u s i n g m a g n e t i c a n o m a l i e s . F i g u r e 2.10 s h o w s h o w the age
was d e t e r m i n e d .
H o w is t h e h i s t o r y of plate m o v e m e n t r e c o n s t r u c t e d ?
Brief answer: T r a n s f o r m b o u n d a r i e s indicate the directions of relative plate m o v e m e n t ,
and seafloor i s o c h r o n s reveal the positions of divergent b o u n d a r i e s in earlier t i m e s .
Refer to F i g u r e s 2.11 and 2 . 1 2 .
W h a t drives p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ?
Brief a n s w e r : E a r t h ' s internal heat creates convective currents (flow of r o c k material
from hotter to c o o l e r areas) in the m a n t l e . C o n v e c t i o n , the force of gravity, a n d the
existence of an a s t h e n o s p h e r e are all i m p o r t a n t factors in any explanation of plate
m o v e m e n t . R e v i e w Key F i g u r e 1.11 to see h o w convection w o r k s .
27
CHAPTER
Plate Tectonics:
The Unifying Theory
From time to time in the history of science, a fundamental concept appears
that unifies a field of study by pulling together diverse theories and
explaining a large body of observations. Such a concept in physics is the
theory of relativity; in chemistry, the nature of the chemical bond;
in biology, DNA; in astronomy, the Big Bang; and in geology, plate tectonics.
UNDERSTANDING EARTH,
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r
S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview
that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as you w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well you h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h q u e s tion you m i s s e d . Identify a n d correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What is the theory of plate tectonics?
For over the last century s o m e geologists have argued for the concept of continental drift because of the j i g s a w - p u z z l e fit of the coasts on both sides of the
Atlantic, the geological similarities in rock ages and trends in geologic structures
on opposite sides of the Atlantic, fossil evidence suggesting that continents w e r e
j o i n e d at one time, and the distribution of glacial deposits as well as other paleoclimatic evidence.
29
During Lecture
O n e goal for the lecture should be to leave the class with good a n s w e r s to the preview questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 2 tells
the story of plate tectonics: Earth's moving plates, how the plates m o v e , and the
g e o l o g i c a l features associated with converging and diverging plate b o u n d a r i e s .
Plate tectonics underlies and explains m u c h about m o d e r n geology. In that
sense, this chapter provides a preview of y o u r entire g e o l o g y c o u r s e .
Focus on understanding Figure 2.6. It will be helpful to have this figure handy
during lecture. Annotate the text figures with c o m m e n t s m a d e by your instructor.
If you h a v e n ' t already d o n e so, read the discussion of n o t e t a k i n g in Part I,
C h a p t e r 3, H o w to Be Successful in G e o l o g y . H i n t : You can u s e the N o t e T a k i n g C h e c k l i s t before you go to lecture as a o n e - m i n u t e r e m i n d e r of w h a t
to do to i m p r o v e y o u r note-taking skills. After lecture, use it as a quality c h e c k .
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general review tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.
31
typically f o r m a l o n g c o n v e r g e n t a n d t r a n s f o r m p l a t e b o u n d a r i e s . W h e r e
divergent p l a t e b o u n d a r i e s are e x p o s e d o n land, s u b s i d i n g b a s i n s a n d volcanism are typical.
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Convergent
See Figures 2.5 and 2.9.
Divergent
Characteristics
Examples
Topography
Volcanism
Ocean/
Ocean
J a p a n e s e islands
Marinas Trench
Aleutian T r e n c h
oceanic ridge,
rift valley,
ocean
basins,
ocean
floor features
offset by transforms,
seamounts
trench,
island arc
Ocean/
Continental
Collision
Transform
See Figures2.5,
2.6, and 2.9.
H i m a l a y a s and
Tibetan Plateau
offset of creek
beds and other
topographic
features
that
cross the fault
present
not
characteristic
30
PART II C H A P T E R 2
In the last half of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y the m a j o r e l e m e n t s of the plate t e c t o n i c theory w e r e f o r m u l a t e d . Starting in the 1940s, o c e a n floor m a p p i n g
b e g a n to reveal major g e o l o g i c features on the o c e a n floor. T h e n the m a t c h
b e t w e e n m a g n e t i c a n o m a l y p a t t e r n s o n t h e seafloor with the p a l e o m a g n e t i c
t i m e scale revealed that the o c e a n floor h a d a y o u n g g e o l o g i c age a n d w a s
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o l d e r a w a y from the o c e a n i c r i d g e s y s t e m s . T h e c o n c e p t s o f
seafloor s p r e a d i n g , s u b d u c t i o n , and t r a n s f o r m faulting e v o l v e d f r o m t h e s e
and o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s .
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth's lithosphere is broken into
over a dozen moving plates. T h e plates slide over a hot and w e a k asthenosphere,
and the continents, e m b e d d e d in s o m e of the m o v i n g plates, are carried along.
T h e assembly breakup of Pangaea (see Figure 2.12) provides a dramatic e x a m p l e
of h o w the m o v e m e n t of plates creates geography and geological features such as
the H i m a l a y a M o u n t a i n s and even changes climate as land masses travel about.
(Note Antarctica's location during the late Proterozoic. Would Antarctica have
been covered with ice at that time? W h a t would its climate have been like?)
density differences
convection
lithosphere
asthenosphere
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. T h e m o s t important p r o c e s s in building the o c e a n floor is
A. v o l c a n i s m .
B . subduction.
C. e a r t h q u a k e activity.
D . m a g n e t i c reversal.
C.
B. in the o c e a n i c t r e n c h e s .
a r o u n d hot spots.
C.
m e t e r s per year.
B. c e n t i m e t e r s per year.
D. kilometers p e r year.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 5 .
4. A l o n g a transform plate boundary, the t w o plates
A. m o v e apart to create a w i d e n i n g rift valley.
B. are being c o n s u m e d by subduction.
C. are being forced together to p r o d u c e a m o u n t a i n s y s t e m .
D. m o v e horizontally past e a c h other.
5. T h e
is an e x a m p l e of a divergent plate m a r g i n .
A. E a s t African Rift
B. J a p a n Trench
C. H i m a l a y a s
D. San A n d r e a s fault
C. the H a w a i i a n Islands.
D. Iceland.
C. Gulf of California
D. Himalayas
C. L a u r a s i a .
B . Atlantis.
D. Pangaea.
H i n t : Refer to Figure 2 . 1 3 .
p l a c e s w h e r e o c e a n i c crust is c o n s u m e d .
pull-apart z o n e s w h e r e new oceanic crust is p r o d u c e d .
locations of plate c o n v e r g e n c e .
t r a n s f o r m faults.
10. T h e
are an e x a m p l e of a collision z o n e b e t w e e n t w o
C.
B. islands of J a p a n
D. A n d e s M o u n t a i n s in South A m e r i c a
A l e u t i a n Islands in A l a s k a
C.
B. c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s
D. hot spots
transform b o u n d a r i e s
B. last 65 million y e a r s .
D. early D e v o n i a n (390 M a ) .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 . 1 3 .
14. T h e significance of the m a g n e t i c a n o m a l y patterns discovered in association with the
seafloor w a s that the a n o m a l y patterns
A. c o u l d be m a t c h e d with the m a g n e t i c reversal c h r o n o l o g y to establish an e s t i m a t e d
age for the seafloor.
B. p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e for m a n t l e convection, a driving m e c h a n i s m for plate tectonics.
C. a l l o w e d g e o m a g n e t i s t s to reconstruct the supercontinent Rodinia.
D. r e p r e s e n t e d absolute proof that the seafloor w a s spreading apart.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2.10.
15. T h e oldest r o c k s on the seafloor are about
A. 20 million years old.
C.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2.12.
16. T h e o c e a n i c crust
A . b e c o m e s progressively y o u n g e r a w a y from the oceanic ridges.
B . b e c o m e s progressively older a w a y from the oceanic ridges.
C. is the s a m e age virtually e v e r y w h e r e .
D. r a n g e s in age from Jurassic to P r e c a m b r i a n .
17. Volcanic island arcs like the J a p a n e s e islands are associated with
A. c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s .
C.
transform b o u n d a r i e s .
B. divergent b o u n d a r i e s .
D.
A. c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s .
C.
transform b o u n d a r i e s .
B . divergent b o u n d a r i e s .
D . active continental m a r g i n s .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2.6.
18. Rift valleys are associated with
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2.6.
33
34
PART II C H A P T E R 2
C.
B. m o v e m e n t on a transform fault
D. c o n t i n e n t a l collision
continental r u p t u r e
CHAPTER
Earth Materials:
Minerals and Rocks
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
W h a t is a m i n e r a l ?
Brief a n s w e r : A naturally occurring inorganic, crystalline solid.
H o w are r o c k s related to m i n e r a l s ?
Brief a n s w e r : M i n e r a l s are the building b l o c k s of r o c k s . Study Figure 3.21 (p. 3 5 ) .
H o w d o a t o m s c o m b i n e t o f o r m the crystal s t r u c t u r e o f m i n e r a l s ?
Brief answer: H o w atoms c o m b i n e (chemically bond) d e p e n d s on the electronic charge
on their ion, the size of the ion, and the degree to which the b o n d is ionic or covalent.
W h a t is t h e a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e of m i n e r a l s ?
H i n t : See Figures 3.3 (halite), 3.8 (graphite and d i a m o n d ) , 3.9 (silicates), 3.10
(calcite), and 3.15 (mica).
W h a t a r e t h e m a j o r r o c k - f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s a n d t h e i r physical p r o p e r t i e s ?
Brief answer: T h e major minerals are silicates, carbonates, oxides, sulfides, and sulfates.
Diagnostic properties include hardness, cleavage, luster, color, density, and the shape of
the crystal.
W h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of r o c k s ?
Brief a n s w e r : M i n e r a l content and texture.
W h a t are the three t y p e s of r o c k s a n d h o w a r e they f o r m e d ?
Brief a n s w e r : I g n e o u s , sedimentary, and m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .
H o w do t h e three t y p e s of r o c k s interact with e a c h o t h e r via plate t e c t o n i c s ,
t h e c l i m a t e s y s t e m , a n d the rock c y c l e ?
Brief a n s w e r : Refer to Figures 3.22, 3 . 2 3 , 3.25, and 3.26.
W h a t is an ore m i n e r a l ?
Brief a n s w e r : Mineral deposits b e c o m e ore deposits w h e n they are rich and v a l u a b l e
e n o u g h t o m i n e economically.
H o w d o ore d e p o s i t s o f m e t a l - b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s f o r m ?
Brief answer: M a n y metal ore deposits are f o r m e d by m a g m a t i c a n d h y d r o t h e r m a l
p r o c e s s e s that are closely linked to m o d e r n and ancient plate tectonic b o u n d a r i e s .
Refer to F i g u r e 3.28.
Previewing Tips
Tip 1
To preview a chapter quickly, focus on the figures. It is often p o s s i b l e to get a g o o d
o v e r v i e w j u s t by e x a m i n i n g the figures and c a p t i o n s . N o t e that preview q u e s t i o n s often
refer you to specific figures. As little as 5 or 10 m i n u t e s p r e v i e w i n g t h e figures before
lecture will i m p r o v e the quality of y o u r n o t e taking.
Tip 2
T h e m o r e material a c h a p t e r contains the m o r e i m p o r t a n t it b e c o m e s to chunk
material into a s c h e m a that is meaningful to you and is s i m p l e e n o u g h to r e m e m b e r .
E x a m p l e : T h i n k of C h a p t e r 3 as a n s w e r i n g three simple q u e s t i o n s : (1) W h a t is a
m i n e r a l ? (2) H o w is a m i n e r a l related to a r o c k ? (3) H o w do the three k i n d s of r o c k s
interact with each other in the system called t h e rock c y c l e ? If you can r e m e m b e r those
three questions and use t h e m to tie the details of the c h a p t e r together, y o u are likely
to find that the c h a p t e r suddenly s e e m s m u c h simpler and that the material s e e m s m u c h
easier to r e m e m b e r . H i n t : R e a d the section on P r e v i e w i n g in C h a p t e r 3 of Part I of
this Study G u i d e .
Minerals are
the
words.
T O M DILLEY
During Lecture
Do a learning w a r m - u p . A r r i v e early. L o o k for pictures in the text that catch y o u r interest.
L o o k over the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s and k e e p t h e m h a n d y for e a s y reference.
Your b a s i c goal d u r i n g lecture is to take g o o d notes. T h e notes should contain i n - d e p t h
a n s w e r s to the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s . To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the " b i g p i c t u r e " in
mind. C h a p t e r 3 e x p l a i n s h o w r o c k s are built out of m i n e r a l s a n d h o w m i n e r a l s are built out
of a t o m s .
K e e p in m i n d the typical g e o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s n e e d e d for the formation of the t h r e e m a j o r
rock t y p e s . T h i s is nicely s u m m a r i z e d in F i g u r e 3.22. O p e n y o u r b o o k to this figure a n d put
a b o o k m a r k there. You w o n ' t h a v e t i m e d u r i n g lecture.
T h e lecturer m a y s h o w slides of m i n e r a l crystals and m a y pass a r o u n d s p e c i m e n s of particular m i n e r a l s a n d r o c k s . You will get m o r e out of the s a m p l e s if y o u sit c l o s e to the front
of the r o o m w h e r e y o u c a n see the s a m p l e s as they are d i s c u s s e d . R e m e m b e r to focus on clues
the lecturer p r o v i d e s for r e c o g n i z i n g a particular s a m p l e in the field. As y o u listen, try to formulate at least o n e g o o d q u e s t i o n y o u can ask d u r i n g the lecture.
The
important thing
is not to stop
questioning.
A L B E R T EINSTEIN
After Lecture
Review Notes
Right after lecture w h i l e the material is fresh in y o u r m i n d is the perfect t i m e to review y o u r
notes. R e v i e w to be sure you u n d e r s t a n d all the key points and w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a form
that will be r e a d a b l e later. O n e g o o d c h e c k is that y o u r notes should p r o v i d e detailed a n s w e r s
37
MCDONALD
Here are a few suggestions for h o w you might do an intensive study session for this chapter.
R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Start y o u r study session by d e t e r m i n i n g h o w m u c h y o u
already k n o w . Try a n s w e r i n g the S t u d y G u i d e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . N o t i c e that
you can c h e c k the a n s w e r s to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Often w e p r o v i d e s o m e additional information with a n answer. T h e R e v i e w
Q u e s t i o n s are a great w a y to start studying b e c a u s e trying to a n s w e r t h e m will
help you focus on w h a t y o u n e e d to w o r k on. Afterward y o u can go b a c k a n d
read the text c o n c e r n i n g any p o i n t s y o u m i s s e d .
Practice E x e r c i s e s . I m m e d i a t e l y before the R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s you will find
Practice E x e r c i s e s . T h e s e exercises a l w a y s focus o n s o m e key material that
you will learn best by an interactive a p p r o a c h that requires y o u to think. F o r
C h a p t e r 3 the exercises deal with u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w the structure of a m i n e r a l
d e t e r m i n e s its p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s .
Text. W o r k on E x e r c i s e s 5 a n d 12 at the e n d of the chapter. A l s o w o r k on
T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s 4, 8, 11 (see F i g u r e 3.26), a n d 13.
W e b Site S t u d y R e s o u r c e s
http://www.whfreeman.com/understandingearth5e
A lot of the fun of g e o l o g y h a s to do with figuring out the h o w s and w h y s of
interesting and beautiful natural p h e n o m e n a . Go online and explore h o w the
wondrous blue color of the H o p e D i a m o n d is related to its atomic structure and
composition by d o i n g the G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercises. T h e Rock Cycle
Review Online Review Exercise provides an excellent tour through the rock
cycle and h o w it w o r k s in the context of plate tectonics. O t h e r useful study aids
on the W e b site:
F l a s h c a r d s to h e l p y o u learn n e w t e r m s
An online C h e m i s t r y R e v i e w containing an interactive periodic table of the
elements
Additional C h a p t e r R e v i e w q u e s t i o n s
Obviously you d o n ' t have time to do all these things for every chapter. T h e idea is to try out
some of the tools and then decide w h i c h will be m o s t helpful given your personal learning style.
" C r y s t a l " c o m e s f r o m t h e G r e e k w o r d krustallos,
w h i c h m e a n s ice. I s i c e w a t e r
Exam Prep
Materials i n this s e c t i o n a r e m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for m i d t e r m a n d final
examinations. T h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s
should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It
provides a helpful o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
39
M e l t i n g of r o c k s in
crust and m a n t l e
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
High temperatures
and p r e s s u r e s in
d e e p crust and u p p e r
m a n t l e , b r e a k s from
faulting or i m p a c t
R o c k - f o r m i n g process
Crystallization
(solidification of
melt)
Sedimentation, burial,
and lithification
( c o m p a c t i o n and
cementation)
40
PART II
CHAPTER 3
Chapter Summary
What are minerals?
M i n e r a l s are naturally o c c u r r i n g inorganic solids with a specific crystal structure and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
Composition
Temperature
Pressure
Crystal structure
the way atoms are packed together
+
Type of chemical b o n d s ionic vs. covalent bonds
Physical
properties of
minerals:
Crystal shape
Hardness
Cleavage
Color
Electrical
Optical
For fun and profit. G e m s t o n e s are treasured for their beauty, color, and rarity.
M a n y m i n e r a l s are used in industrial p r o c e s s e s and manufacturing.
41
Silicate structure B
B a s i c crystal s t r u c t u r e
Example mineral
Silicate structure C
B a s i c crystal s t r u c t u r e
Example mineral
silicate
13. graphite
Hint: an a m p h i b o l e
2. spinel
14. p y r i t e .
3. clay minerals
15. m u s c o v i t e
Hint: a mica
4. calcite
16. anhydrite
5. g y p s u m
17. enstatite
6. quartz_
18. pyrite
7. d i a m o n d
19. s a p p h i r e .
8. dolomite
2 0 . orthoclase
.
H i n t : typically a tan-to-pink feldspar
9. plagioclase
2 1 . silver
Hint: a pyroxene
Hint: a feldspar
10. ruby
2 2 . albite
11. halite
2 3 . olivine
12. hematite
24. biotite
H i n t : typically a w h i t e feldspar
H i n t : a black mica
.
.
43
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and explanations are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Geology Puns
W h y did the geologist skip the m i n e r a l o g y l u n c h e o n ?
She d i d n ' t have any apatite.
T h e g e o l o g y teacher asks a student if he can n a m e t h e felsic m i n e r a l w i t h crystal faces,
c o n c h o i d a l fracture, and a h a r d n e s s of 7 on the M o h s ' scale.
"Of quartz I can," says the student.
T h e geologist is at the eye doctor, being fitted for a n e w pair of glasses. " D o y o u ever
see d o u b l e ? " asks the doctor.
" O n l y w h e n I look t h r o u g h calcite s a m p l e s in lab," says the geologist.
Mineral S a m p l e A
T h i s mineral is colorless and has a silvery shine. It separates into thin sheets or flakes
that can b e n d w i t h o u t b r e a k i n g . It is within a rock that c o n t a i n s large crystals of q u a r t z
and feldspar. H i n t : T h i s mineral is n a m e d after M o s c o w w h e r e it w a s c o m m o n l y u s e d
as a substitute for w i n d o w glass.
Mineral n a m e :
Mineral Sample B
This mineral sample is pale yellow and occurs as a vein within a rock fracture. M a n y small
cubic crystals of this mineral were exposed in the vein when the rock broke apart along the
fracture. T h e powdered form (streak) of the mineral is black and has a sulfurlike smell. It
is a c o m m o n metal sulfide ore mineral.
H i n t : A c o m m o n n a m e for this mineral is "fool's gold."
Mineral name:
Mineral S a m p l e C
T h i s mineral is on display at a mineral exhibition both as a mineral s p e c i m e n and cut
and polished in pieces of jewelry. It consists of beautiful c o n c e n t r i c b a n d s of various
shades of green. A knife blade can easily p o w d e r its surface but my fingernail c a n n o t
scratch it. Acid reacts with the mineral, especially if p o w d e r e d . T h e s p e c i m e n w a s
labeled as c o m i n g from a c o p p e r m i n e in Bisbee, A r i z o n a .
H i n t : T h e mineral is a c o p p e r carbonate.
Mineral n a m e :
Mineral S a m p l e D
T h i s tan-to-pink s a m p l e o c c u r s as m a n y 5- to 7-centimeter crystals s u r r o u n d e d by
flakes of m i c a a n d g r a i n s of w h i t e - t o - c l e a r q u a r t z . T h e t a n - t o - p i n k c r y s t a l s are p r i s m a t i c r e c t a n g u l a r or b o x shaped. It has a h a r d n e s s b e t w e e n that of a knife b l a d e and
that of a steel file.
H i n t : It is o n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n m i n e r a l s in t h e E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t a l c r u s t . A
s e m i p r e c i o u s variety, called m o o n s t o n e , is used in j e w e l r y . Refer to F i g u r e 3 . 2 1 .
Mineral name:
Mineral S a m p l e E
Exhibiting excellent cleavage in three directions, this mineral breaks into beautiful
r h o m b o h e d r a l - s h a p e d p i e c e s . S a m p l e s vary in color from clear to w h i t e to tan. A fingernail does not scratch the surface, but a knife blade easily p o w d e r s the surface. W e a k
acid readily reacts with the surface of the m i n e r a l .
Hint: M a r i n e o r g a n i s m s typically p r o d u c e this mineral from seawater to g e n e r a t e their
s k e l e t o n s s e a s h e l l s . Refer to F i g u r e 3.16.
Mineral n a m e :
Mineral S a m p l e F
This s a m p l e w a s found as a series of thin layers with other layers of m u d and silt. My
fingernail can easily scratch its surface and form a w h i t e powder. Water dissolves the
powder, but the s a m p l e d o e s not react with acid. S a m p l e s c o m m o n l y exhibit a splintery
aspect but do not separate into individual fibers, such as asbestos d o e s . T h e s a m p l e easily breaks (cleaves) along o n e plane but d o e s not form the thin sheets typical of mica.
Hint: T h i s mineral is a major constituent of plaster of Paris and w a l l b o a r d u s e d in
buildings and h o u s e s . Refer to Table 3.2.
Mineral n a m e :
like
Hawaii
B. Given the t w o types of i g n e o u s r o c k s , intrusive and extrusive, fill in the table with their
characteristic c o o l i n g rates (fast vs. slow) and textures (fine grained vs. coarse grained).
Cooling rates
Textures
Extrusive
Intrusive
45
Type of sediment
H i n t : Refer to p a g e 65 in t h e textbook.
G . A r e m e t a m o r p h i c rocks f o r m e d b y m e l t i n g ? A n s w e r yes o r n o .
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. T h e b o n d s b e t w e e n Na and CI in halite are strongly ionic. In ion form, CI h a s seven
electrons in its outer shell and Na has one. After these t w o e l e m e n t s b o n d , CI has
electrons in its outer shell and Na has
electrons in its outer shell.
A. six, t w o
C.
o n e , seven
B. four, four
D.
eight, eight
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 3.4.
2.
and
are e x a m p l e s of minerals with identical c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s but
different crystal structures.
A . Calcite, d o l o m i t e
B. Hematite, magnetite
C . Pyrite, g y p s u m
D. Graphite, diamond
C. compound.
D. crystal.
C. crystalline.
D . liquid.
They
They
They
They
are crystalline.
p o s s e s s a definite c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
are naturally occurring.
are organic.
48
PART II C H A P T E R 3
16. C h e m i c a l b o n d i n g a l o n g c l e a v a g e p l a n e s w i t h i n t h e c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e of a m i n e r a l
typically
A. is m o r e covalent.
B. is m o r e ionic.
C. is m o r e m a g n e t i c .
D . involves electron sharing b e t w e e n a t o m s .
Form?
C.
metallic.
B . ionic.
D.
nuclear.
19. W h i c h of the following rocks forms from molten material c o o l i n g and solidifying within the E a r t h ' s crust?
A. volcanic
C.
sedimentary
B . plutonic
D.
metamorphic
C.
magma.
B . lava.
D.
mica.
subduction.
D . c e m e n t a t i o n and c o m p a c t i o n .
2 3 . B e d d i n g (layering) is a major identifying characteristic of
A. s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s .
C.
intrusive r o c k s .
B. metamorphic rocks.
D.
n o n e o f the a b o v e .
C.
creates m o u n t a i n s .
D.
can c a u s e m e t a m o r p h i s m .
C.
s e d i m e n t a t i o n piling u p rock.
B. metamorphism.
D.
s u b d u c t i o n and c o n t i n e n t s colliding.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 3.26.
C.
B. glass
D. water ice
diamond
7. T h e most c o m m o n m i n e r a l g r o u p on Earth is
A. carbonates.
C. oxides.
B. silicates.
D. halides.
9. Micas are k n o w n for their t e n d e n c y to split into thin sheets; their silicate c r y s t a l :
ture is
A.
B.
C.
D.
C. d o l o m i t e
D. aragonite
C.
B. feldspar
D. graphite
amphibole
chain silicates.
framework silicates.
sulfide m i n e r a l s .
sheet silicates.
C. h a r d n e s s .
D. luster.
15. Graphite and d i a m o n d are t w o very different minerals. W h y are the physical p r o p erties of graphite and d i a m o n d so different even though they are both m a d e from
pure c a r b o n ?
A. T h e c h e m i c a l b o n d s b e t w e e n the carbon a t o m s and their crystal structures are
significantly different.
B. G r a p h i t e h a s strikingly different physical properties from d i a m o n d b e c a u s e
of impurities within its crystal structure, w h e r e a s d i a m o n d is p u r e carbon.
C. Actually, g r a p h i t e and d i a m o n d are not m i n e r a l s b e c a u s e they are m a d e from
carbon and all m a t t e r m a d e from carbon is organic. Their physical properties
are different b e c a u s e they w e r e p r o d u c e d by very different living o r g a n i s m s .
D. N o n e of the a b o v e .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e Story 3.11 (a a n d b).
47
49
CHAPTER
Igneous Rocks:
Solids from Melts
50
Before Lecture
Before you go to lecture, s p e n d s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g C h a p t e r 4. We have m a d e it easier by
identifying the five key q u e s t i o n s on i g n e o u s r o c k s for y o u (see C h a p t e r P r e v i e w ) . T h e s e
questions constitute the f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g this chapter. W o r k i n g with the C h a p t e r
Preview questions before lecture a n d c o m m i t t i n g t h e m to m e m o r y should h e l p you understand the lecture better and take excellent notes. N e e d a refresher on p r e v i e w i n g ? See C h a p t e r
3 of Part I, H o w to Be Successful in Geology, in this Study G u i d e .
Chapter Preview
H o w are i g n e o u s r o c k s classified?
Brief answer: C o m p o s i t i o n and texture (cooling history). Preview F i g u r e s 4 . 1 , 4 . 3 ,
and 4.4 and Tables 4.1 a n d 4.2. H i n t : Table 4.2 s u m m a r i z e s t h e crucial information,
but you will n e e d to l o o k at the figures in order to u n d e r s t a n d it.
How and where do m a g m a s form?
Hint: Table 4.3 a n d F i g u r e 4.11 in t h e t e x t b o o k p r o v i d e an overview.
How does m a g m a t i c differentiation a c c o u n t for the great variety of i g n e o u s rocks?
Hint: Figure 4.5 tells the classic differentiation story. Figure 4.6 adds important details.
W h a t are t h e f o r m s of i n t r u s i v e a n d extrusive i g n e o u s r o c k s ?
Hint: Figures 4.7 and 4 . 1 0 show t h e basic intrusive and extrusive igneous rock bodies.
H o w do i g n e o u s r o c k s relate to plate t e c t o n i c s ?
Brief answer: M a g m a s t e n d to form at divergent and convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s a n d
hot spots. H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 4 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 3 , and 4 . 1 4 and the Activity, R o c k
Composition, a n d Types of M a g m a s section of C h a p t e r 4 for m o r e details.
Spreading c e n t e r s
oceanic ridge ( M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e )
mafic (basalt)
Subduction z o n e s
oceanic island arc (Japan)
mafic to i n t e r m e d i a t e
Note: N o t m u c h v o l c a n i s m occurs in
association with collision plate b o u n d a r i e s .
Intraplate m a n t l e p l u m e s ("hot spots")
oceanic hot spots ( H a w a i i )
mafic (basalt)
51
During Lecture
A lot of i m p o r t a n t visual material will be covered in this lecture. Be sure you p r e v i e w the
c h a p t e r before lecture. B e c a u s e the material is s o m e w h a t technical, y o u will want to take
notes in as organized a m a n n e r as possible. F o l l o w i n g are s o m e ideas you m a y find helpful.
B i g picture for C h a p t e r 4. To avoid getting lost in details, keep the big picture
in m i n d t h r o u g h o u t the lecture.
Chapter 5 explains how plate tectonics drives the formation of magma and
how igneous rocks of varying composition and texture are produced at particular plate locations. For
example, fine, textured volcanic rock of basaltic
composition
is produced at a diverging ocean plate (see Figure 4.13).
K e y figures for lecture. T h i s c h a p t e r introduces m a n y n e w w o r d s and c o n cepts to learn. It m a y be helpful to b o o k m a r k o n e or t w o of the m o s t i m p o r tant t e x t b o o k figures you p r e v i e w e d before c o m i n g to lecture. F i g u r e 4 . 3 will
h e l p you with igneous rock classification. F i g u r e s 3.26, 4 . 1 1 , 4 . 1 3 , a n d 4 . 1 4
s u m m a r i z e w h e r e and h o w m a g m a s are formed.
You will also be developing a new skill: identifying igneous r o c k s . Often lecturers use slides or rock s a m p l e s to h e l p you learn this skill. T h e following tip
and chart tool will h e l p you master this skill efficiently.
53
Rock name
(Example)
Granite
Texture clues
(coarse,
fine, etc.)
Coarse
Composition
clues (mineral
clues, color,
dark/light, etc.)
I could m a k e out crystals
of black h o r n b l e n d e ,
w h i t e and pink feldspars,
and thin, shiny sheets
of m i c a in a light gray
matrix (quartz).
Other notes
Crystals w e r e clearly
visible in the slide.
Crystals w e r e m o s t l y
feldspar and m u s c o v i t e
mica! What I thought was
h o r n b l e n d e turned out to
be biotite. I tried to scratch
t h e r o c k with a p e n n y ; no
luck, m u s t be k i n d of h a r d
( a b o v e 3 on the M o h s '
scale). M i n e r a l s in granite
average greater than 5 on
the M o h s ' scale. T o o b a d
I d i d n ' t b r i n g my b o w i e
knife to class.
Sample 1
Sample 2 and so on
After Lecture
Review Notes
Chapter 4 is a bit technical, so it will be particularly important to r e w o r k and i m p r o v e y o u r
notes after lecture.
54
PART II
CHAPTER 4
N e x t use the S t u d y G u i d e
the
online
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . T h e following
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify y o u r
c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y first. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d
refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Chapter Summary
How are igneous rocks classified?
Igneous r o c k s can be divided into t w o b r o a d textural classes: (1) coarsely c r y s talline r o c k s , w h i c h are intrusive (plutonic) and therefore cooled slowly, and
(2) finely crystalline r o c k s , w h i c h are extrusive (volcanic) and cooled rapidly.
Within each of these b r o a d textual classes, the rocks are subdivided according
to their composition. General compositional classes of igneous rocks are felsic,
intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic, with d e c r e a s i n g silica and increasing iron
and m a g n e s i u m content.
55
56
PART II C H A P T E R 4
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the Study G u i d e .
phaneritic
N a m e of texture
N a m e of texture
begun to crystallize.
N a m e of texture
any crystallization.
N a m e of texture
57
58
P A R T II
CHAPTER 4
Major layer
in the Earth
Continental crust
Example
igneous rock
General
compositional group
General
chemical composition
Granite
(For c o n t i n e n t a l crust, t h e r e
are t w o a p p r o p r i a t e a n s w e r s . )
Intermediate
Ocean crust
Mantle
E x a m p l e i g n e o u s rocks
granite/rhyolite
ultramafic
basalt/gabbro
felsic
andesite/diorite
intermediate
peridotite
mafic
granodiorite/dacit
Sandstone
Basalt
Mostly sodium-rich
plagioclase feldspar;
no olivine
Calcium-rich plagiocla
feldspar and pyroxene
no olivine
Olivine
Basalt
Sandstone
Explanation:
B. Calcium-rich p l a g i o c l a s e -> s o d i u m - r i c h p l a g i o c l a s e feldspar and no olivine
1. Silica content: i n c r e a s e d / d e c r e a s e d / stay the s a m e
2.
Explanation:
59
A
B.
C.
D
h a v e M O R E / L E S S silica,
have M O R E / L E S S iron and m a g n e s i u m ,
have M O R E / L E S S s o d i u m and p o t a s s i u m ,
b e M O R E / L E S S mafic.
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. I g n e o u s r o c k n a m e s are b a s e d on
A.
B.
C.
D.
texture and c o m p o s i t i o n .
f i n e grain and coarse grain.
intrusive and extrusive.
w h e r e the m a g m a c h a m b e r erupts.
C.
obsidian
B . basalt
D.
rhyolite
C. fissure e r u p t i o n s
D. dacite
4. W h i c h of the following pairs of intrusive and extrusive rocks are m a d e from the s a m e
mineralsi.e., have the s a m e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ?
A. g a b b r o and basalt
B. diorite and basalt
C. fissure eruptions
D. g a b b r o and rhyolite
C.
D.
muscovite
Na-plagioclase
7. Granite is m a d e up mainly of
A. quartz, o r t h o c l a s e (K-feldspar), and N a - p l a g i o c l a s e .
B. quartz, C a - p l a g i o c l a s e , N a - p l a g i o c l a s e , and a m p h i b o l e .
C. quartz, p y r o x e n e , and m u s c o v i t e .
D. quartz, orthoclase (K-feldspar), C a - p l a g i o c l a s e , and olivine.
Hint: Refer to Table 4.1 and Figure 4.4.
8. An igneous rock m a d e of a m i x t u r e of both coarse- and fine-grained minerals is called
porphyritic and is f o r m e d by
A. rapid c o o l i n g followed by a period of slow cooling.
B. slow c o o l i n g followed by a period of rapid cooling.
C. very slow c o o l i n g of a water-rich m a g m a .
D. very rapid c o o l i n g in the p r e s e n c e of water.
9. Only iron and m a g n e s i u m - r i c h m i n e r a l s are found in w h i c h of the following lists of
minerals?
A. p y r o x e n e , h o r n b l e n d e , K-feldspar, biotite
B. plagioclase, biotite, p y r o x e n e , clay
C. quartz, m u s c o v i t e , biotite, plagioclase
D . biotite, p y r o x e n e , olivine, h o r n b l e n d e
10. Following B o w e n ' s reaction series, the later, l o w e r - t e m p e r a t u r e fractions of liquid
m a g m a b e c o m e progressively
A. d e p l e t e d in silica.
B. e n r i c h e d in silica.
C. enriched in m a g n e s i u m .
D. depleted in p o t a s s i u m .
Hint: Refer to F i g u r e 4 . 5 .
11. W h i c h of the following m i n e r a l s are the earliest h i g h e s t - t e m p e r a t u r e m i n e r a l s to c r y s tallize in B o w e n ' s R e a c t i o n Series?
A. quartz and feldspar
B . plagioclase and a m p h i b o l e
C. plagioclase and olivine
D . chert and m i c a
12. T h e formation of granitic batholiths occurs
A. within the o c e a n crust.
B. within the continental crust.
C. along s p r e a d i n g centers in the o c e a n .
D . u n d e r h o t spots.
61
C.
D.
granite.
basalt.
by
by
by
by
Differentiation.
gabbro.
ultramafic r o c k s .
a m i x t u r e of g a b b r o and oceanic s e d i m e n t s .
rhyolite.
63
CHAPTER
Sedimentation:
Rocks Formed by Surface Processes
During Lecture
Note-Taking Tip: Some features to watch for in
sedimentary rock samples and formations
In this lecture you will be introduced to a variety of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s , formations,
and sedimentary e n v i r o n m e n t s . S i n c e they will p r o b a b l y be n e w to you, it is s m a r t to
prepare. Spend a few m i n u t e s of y o u r preview t i m e b e c o m i n g familiar with the m o s t
important sedimentary r o c k features:
Bedding and other s e d i m e n t a r y structures: p a g e s 1 1 1 - 1 1 3
Bedding s e q u e n c e s (stratigraphy): F i g u r e 5.11 on p a g e 114
Grain size: F i g u r e s 5.3 and 5.15 and Table 5.3
Mineral content and major g r o u p s of s a n d s t o n e s : F i g u r e 5.16 on p a g e 118
Chemical and b i o c h e m i c a l s e d i m e n t a r y rocks: F i g u r e 5.17
Fossils: Figure 5.18
One goal for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s to the preview q u e s t i o n s .
To avoid getting lost in the details, k e e p the big picture in mind: C h a p t e r 5 tells the story of
how sedimentary r o c k s are created by the processes of the rock cycle. It m a y be helpful to have
Figure 5.1 with you so that you can refer to it d u r i n g lecture.
lith -+ lithification
sed - s e d i m e n t or s e d i m e n t a r y
sed r -> s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k
c a r b sed -* c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t
sed b a s e -* s e d i m e n t a r y basin
sed env -* s e d i m e n t a r y e n v i r o n m e n t
After Lecture
Review Notes
R i g h t after lecture, while the material is fresh in y o u r m i n d , is the perfect t i m e to review your
notes. R e v i e w to be sure you u n d e r s t o o d all the key points a n d w r o t e t h e m d o w n in a form
that will be r e a d a b l e later.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are most useful during y o u r preparation for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e
Chapter S u m m a r y and the Practice Exercises and Review Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
overview that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
68
PART II C H A P T E R 5
Chapter Summary
What are the major processes in the formation of sedimentary rocks?
W e a t h e r i n g and e r o s i o n p r o d u c e the clastic particles and d i s s o l v e d ions that
c o m p o s e s e d i m e n t . Water, w i n d , and ice transport the s e d i m e n t to w h e r e it is
d e p o s i t e d . Burial and d i a g e n e s i s h a r d e n s e d i m e n t s into s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s .
Refer to F i g u r e 5 . 1 .
70
PART 11 C H A P T E R 5
Sedimentary rocks
. arkose
dolostone
limestone
sandstone
clastic
chert
evaporite
peat
shale
chemical
conglomerate
graywacke
phosphorite
siltstone
Descriptive statement
Sediment type
chemical
dolostone
C o m p o s e d largely of r o c k fragments
P r e c i p i t a t e d in the e n v i r o n m e n t of deposition
I m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of coal
Often f o r m e d by d i a g e n e s i s
F o r m e d from a b u n d a n t skeleton fragments
of m a r i n e or lake o r g a n i s m s , such as coral,
seashells, and foraminifers
Produced by physical weathering
P r o d u c e d from rapidly e r o d i n g granitic and
gneissic terrains in an arid or semi-arid c l i m a t e
and
phosphorite
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Environment of deposition
Sediment deposited
Grain size
Coarse
Common object
Sediment
football or bus
boulder
p l u m or lime
Rock type
gravel
conglomerate
pea or bean
c o a r s e - g r o u n d p e p p e r or salt
fine-ground p e p p e r or salt
Fine
sandstone
69
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. W h i c h of t h e following r o c k g r o u p s includes only clastic s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
d o l o m i t e , g y p s u m , and l i m e s t o n e
cherts, s a n d s t o n e , and shale
d o l o m i t e , coal, and l i m e s t o n e
shale, s a n d s t o n e , and c o n g l o m e r a t e
2. W h i c h s e q u e n c e of r o c k n a m e s h a s t h e c o r r e c t a r r a n g e m e n t in o r d e r of d e c r e a s i n g
particle d i a m e t e r s ?
A. c o n g l o m e r a t e , shale, s a n d s t o n e
B. shale, siltstone, s a n d s t o n e
C. s e d i m e n t a r y breccia, shale, s a n d s t o n e , claystone
D. conglomerate, sandstone, claystone
3. T h e grains in a s a n d s t o n e m a y include
A.
B.
C.
D.
r o c k fragments.
quartz.
feldspar.
all of the a b o v e .
erosion, w e a t h e r i n g ,
weathering, erosion,
erosion, w e a t h e r i n g ,
w e a t h e r i n g , erosion,
5. D o l o m i t e is the p r i m a r y m i n e r a l found in d o l o s t o n e . It is f o r m e d by
A.
B.
C.
D.
72
PART II C H A P T E R 5
s e d i m e n t c o m p o s e d of
R e v i e w C h a p t e r 16,
W e a t h e r i n g , E r o s i o n , and
B.
q u a r t z and c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e .
Mass Wasting.
C.
D.
15. Feldspar is the m o s t a b u n d a n t silicate m i n e r a l in the crust of the Earth; the m o s t c o m mon s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k is
A. s a n d s t o n e .
B. c o n g l o m e r a t e .
C. l i m e s t o n e .
D. shale.
16. A coarse s a n d s t o n e with a s y m m e t r i c a l ripples and s m a l l - s c a l e c r o s s - b e d d i n g is e x p o s e d
in a cliff b e t w e e n layers of siltstone a b o v e and gravels below. W h a t is the e n v i r o n m e n t
of deposition for the c o a r s e s a n d s t o n e layer?
A. b e a c h
B. river c h a n n e l
C. lake
D. offshore.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 .
17. Reefs and atolls are built by coral and algae
A. on s u b s i d i n g o c e a n i c v o l c a n o e s and continental m a r g i n s .
B. on islands in the m i d d l e of lakes.
C. in the d e e p o c e a n floor and later uplifted to sealevel.
D. w h e r e d o l o s t o n e is t r a n s f o r m e d to limestone.
18. As seawater e v a p o r a t e s , precipitation of soluble salts occurs in w h i c h o r d e r ?
A. halite, c a r b o n a t e s , c a l c i u m sulfate
B. calcium sulfate, halite, c a r b o n a t e s
C. iron o x i d e , quartz, peat
D. c a r b o n a t e s , c a l c i u m sulfate, halite
19. M e c h a n i s m s by w h i c h plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s p r o d u c e s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s are
A. rifting, thermal sag, and flexure of the lithosphere.
B. heating and c o m p r e s s i o n of the crust.
C. w e a t h e r i n g and erosion.
D. diagenesis and turbation.
73
CHAPTER
Metamorphism:
Modification of Rocks by
Temperature and Pressure
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
What c a u s e s m e t a m o r p h i s m ?
Brief answer: M e t a m o r p h i s m a l t e r a t i o n of preexisting r o c k s in the solid s t a t e
is caused by increases in pressure and t e m p e r a t u r e and by reaction with c h e m i c a l
components introduced by migrating fluids. See F i g u r e 6 . 1 .
What are t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s of m e t a m o r p h i s m ?
Brief answer: R e g i o n a l and c o n t a c t m e t a m o r p h i s m are the m o s t c o m m o n . See F i g u r e
6.3 and Figure Story 6.4.
What are the chief t y p e s of m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s ?
Brief answer: M e t a m o r p h i c rocks fall into t w o major textural classes called foliated
with minerals oriented in s o m e preferred direction such as the grain in w o o d and
nonfoliated with no preferred m i n e r a l orientation. See Table 6 . 1 .
How is m e t a m o r p h i s m l i n k e d to plate t e c t o n i c s ?
Hint: Refer to F i g u r e 6 . 3 .
During Lecture
Keeping up with a fast-speaking lecturer can be a c h a l l e n g e .
Take as m a n y notes as you can.
D o n ' t stop w r i t i n g w h e n y o u b e c o m e c o n f u s e d a n d y o u w a n t to p o n d e r a
concept. You can do that later.
If you miss s o m e t h i n g , leave a space so that you can fill it in later.
75
76
PART II C H A P T E R 6
After Lecture
Review Notes
R e v i e w y o u r n o t e s right after lecture w h i l e material is fresh in y o u r m i n d . H e r e is some
m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k m a t e r i a l t o add t o y o u r n o t e s .
a d d e d a s u m m a r y of the g r a p h s ? C h a p t e r 6 c o n t a i n s s o m e i m p o r t a n t information in
g r a p h i c form. R e v i e w P - T F i g u r e s 6.2, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, and 6.10. N o t e that all show
different g r a d e s of m e t a m o r p h i s m resulting from increasing p r e s s u r e and temperature.
C a n y o u s u m m a r i z e all t h e s e figures on a single p a g e of y o u r n o t e s ? W h a t d o e s your
s u m m a r y sketch tell y o u about the formation of m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s ?
where?
Metamorphism
and plate
tectonics,
Create
metamorphic
78
PART II C H A P T E R 6
tHow
The
important thing
Figure 6 . 8 . Changes in the mineral composition of mafic rocks, metamorphosed under conditions
ranging from low grade to high grade.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r
Summary and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r chapter
review. Read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin your session. It provides a helpful overview that
should refresh your m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you answer the q u e s t i o n s score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h q u e s t i o n
that you missed. Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What causes metamorphism?
M e t a m o r p h i s m is the alteration in the solid state of preexisting r o c k s , including older m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s . Increases in t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e and reactions with c h e m i c a l - b e a r i n g fluids c a u s e m e t a m o r p h i s m . M e t a m o r p h i s m typically involves a r e a r r a n g e m e n t (recrystallization) of the c h e m i c a l c o m p o n e n t s
within the parent rock. R e a r r a n g e m e n t of c o m p o n e n t s within m i n e r a l s is facilitated by (1) h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s that increase ion mobility in the solid state;
(2) higher confining p r e s s u r e that c o m p a c t s the rock; (3) directed p r e s s u r e
associated with tectonic activity that c a n c a u s e the r o c k to s h e a r ( s m e a r ) ,
which orients m i n e r a l g r a i n s and generates a foliation; and (4) c h e m i c a l reactions with m i g r a t i n g fluids m a y r e m o v e or add materials and i n d u c e the
growth of new m i n e r a l s .
77
79
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the Study G u i d e .
Parent rock
Texture
(foliated/granoblastic)
Metamorphic rock
shale
quartz-rich
foliated
sandstone
granulite
granite
limestone
homfels
amphibolites
and
greenstones
migmatite
Major mineral
composition
Texture
calcium carbonate
nonfoliated
phaneritic
Rock type
(igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic)
Rock name
(granite, sandstone,
marble)
mica, and a m p h i b o l e
clay
fine-grained
clastic
(continued)
80
PART II C H A P T E R 6
Major mineral
composition
Texture
Rock type
(igneous, sedimentary,
metamorphic)
p y r o x e n e , c a l c i u m feldspar,
Rock name
(granite, sandstone,
marble)
basalt
and olivine
quartz
monfoliated
p e b b l e s and c o b b l e s of a
variety of r o c k t y p e s
f r a g m e n t s of seashells and
sedimentary
fine m u d
quartz, m u s c o v i t e , chlorite,
metamorphic
schist
and g a r n e t
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of t h e S t u d y G u i d e .
1 . W h e n existing r o c k s u n d e r g o m e t a m o r p h i s m , they b e c o m e c h a n g e d b y
A. the w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s at or n e a r the surface.
B . color and h a r d n e s s .
C. m e l t i n g and crystallization from the melt.
D. the application of heat and pressure.
2. M e t a m o r p h i c rocks exposed at the surface are mainly products of processes acting on rocks
A. n e a r the E a r t h ' s surface.
B. at d e p t h s r a n g i n g from the u p p e r to l o w e r crust.
C . within the m a n t l e .
D. within the center of continents.
3. G e n e r a l l y there are t w o types of m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s :
A. regional and contact.
B. foliated and g r a n o b l a s t i c .
C . c o m p a c t e d and c e m e n t e d .
D . clastic and porphyritic.
4. Foliated m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s typically o c c u r in association with regional m e t a m o r p h i s m
b e c a u s e the
A. orientation of r o c k s involved in regional m e t a m o r p h i s m favors t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
foliation.
B. r o c k is softened by heat and s q u e e z e d by c o m p r e s s i v e forces.
C. p a r e n t rock is the correct t y p e to p r o d u c e foliation.
D. p r e s s u r e is very low, w h i c h allows foliation to d e v e l o p .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 6.4.
5. Foliation d e v e l o p s
A. p e r p e n d i c u l a r to c o m p r e s s i v e forces.
B . parallel t o c o m p r e s s i v e forces.
C. d u e to high w a t e r content.
D. d u e to low t e m p e r a t u r e s and p r e s s u r e s .
interlock, f o r m i n g a c o n t i n u o u s m o s a i c .
have quite different c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s .
tend to be lined up in a preferred direction.
are r o u n d e d and c e m e n t e d together.
8. M e t a m o r p h i s m affects
A. only older i g n e o u s rock.
B. any y o u n g e r i g n e o u s a n d m e t a m o r p h i c rock.
C. only o l d e r s e d i m e n t a r y rock.
D. any older i g n e o u s , sedimentary, or m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s .
9. Which m e t a m o r p h i c s e q u e n c e correctly s h o w s increasing grain size?
A.
B.
C.
D.
burial.
subduction.
meteor impacts.
very cold t e m p e r a t u r e s .
has a different b u l k c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
shows a distinct foliation.
has a different m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n .
is generally less c o a r s e grained.
c o a r s e grained.
foliated.
c o a r s e grained.
foliated.
81
82
PART II C H A P T E R 6
C.
recrystallization
B . contact m e t a m o r p h i s m
D.
schistosity f o r m a t i o n
18. In the W e b G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e exercise, Gravels to Metaconglomerate, oval quartz pebbles apparently b e c o m e converted into cigar-shaped features within a metaconglomerate.
H o w would y o u explain the transformation?
A. T h e c i g a r - s h a p e d features f o r m e d as larger quartz p e b b l e s w e r e t u m b l e d in a stream
c h a n n e l before m e t a m o r p h i s m .
B . A s the oval quartz p e b b l e s b e c a m e e x p o s e d t o elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s , they softened
and stretched out in r e s p o n s e to directed p r e s s u r e . S o m e of the q u a r t z m a y have also
recrystallized along directions p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the directed p r e s s u r e .
C. Q u a r t z is an index mineral for h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i s m a s s o c i a t e d w i t h burial of
s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s . T h e r e f o r e , this c o n g l o m e r a t e m u s t have b e e n uplifted from near
the b o t t o m of the crust.
D. T h e c o n g l o m e r a t e melted and the large cigar-shaped features are large quartz crystals.
H i n t : T h e b o t t o m of F i g u r e 4.5 p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t c l u e to the t e m p e r a t u r e at which
m i n e r a l s begin to melt and solidify (crystallize).
19. You are on a s u m m e r b a c k p a c k i n g trip in A l a s k a with friends and find an o u t c r o p of mica
schist with large garnet p o r p h y r o b l a s t s , like the s a m p l e shown in F i g u r e 6.6. Your friends
quickly s c r a m b l e to collect s o m e garnet crystals. T h e y then ask y o u a b o u t the conditions
u n d e r w h i c h the beautiful garnet crystals formed. W h a t is y o u r r e s p o n s e to their query?
A. G a r n e t - b e a r i n g schists are formed from iron-rich m a g m a s that solidify underground.
B. Garnet is an index mineral for low-temperature and low-pressure m e t a m o r p h i s m associated with meteor impact craters. So we m u s t be within an ancient i m p a c t crater.
C. G a r n e t c o m m o n l y o c c u r s in m i c a schists and is an index mineral for intermediate- to
h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i s m , associated with regional m e t a m o r p h i s m . T h i s r o c k may
h a v e at o n e t i m e b e e n in the roots of a h u g e m o u n t a i n .
D. Garnets occur only in eclogites. Therefore, this rock m u s t have b e g u n at the base of
the crust and b e e n exposed by extensive uplift and erosion occurring in this region.
2 0 . W h i l e studying s o m e m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s a m p l e s for a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e r e s e a r c h project,
y o u discover e v i d e n c e that the rocks w e r e e x p o s e d t o h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i c c o n d i tions. F u r t h e r study reveals that the garnets within the r o c k s h o w a history of p r o g r a d e
followed b y r e t r o g r a d e P - T p a t h s . You c h e c k the f i e l d n o t e s from the g e o l o g i s t w h o collected the s a m p l e s and are not surprised to find m e n t i o n of ophiolites in the region
(refer to F i g u r e s 4 . 1 2 and 6.9). You c o n c l u d e from this i n f o r m a t i o n that m e t a m o r p h i c
rocks formed when
A . c o n t i n e n t s collided.
B. m a g m a intruded into a v o l c a n o associated with a s u b d u c t i o n z o n e .
C. a m e t e o r i t e hit the Earth.
D. h y d r o t h e r m a l fluids altered r o c k in an area with n u m e r o u s hot springs and g e y s e r s .
R o c k s t r a n s p o r t e d t o similar d e p t h s
and p r e s s u r e s b e n e a t h m o u n t a i n b e l t s b e c o m e m u c h hotter a t a n e q u i v a l e n t d e p t h .
83
CHAPTER
Deformation:
Modification of Rocks by
Folding and Fracturing
Figure 7.19. Last stage in the development of a geologic province. Refer to Figure 7.15 (1)
for a more regional perspective on this type of deformation.
Before Lecture
B e f o r e y o u attend lecture, b e sure t o s p e n d s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g t h e chapter. F o r a n efficient preview, u s e the S t u d y G u i d e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s a s a f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the chapter. P r e v i e w i n g w o r k s b e s t i f y o u d o i t j u s t b e f o r e l e c t u r e . W i t h t h e m a i n
p o i n t s in m i n d , y o u will u n d e r s t a n d t h e lecture better. T h i s in t u r n will r e s u l t in a b e t t e r and
m o r e c o m p l e t e set o f n o t e s .
84
Study Tip
Rock deformation lectures are particularly visual. Slide material on folds and faults can
be confusing if you have never seen these geologic features before. So be sure to preview
the figures before attending lecture. For an overview, start with Figure 7.7. Notice h o w
three kinds of force p r o d u c e three kinds of faults if the material is brittle. W h a t h a p p e n s
if the material is ductile or plastic?
Chapter Preview
W h a t are g e o l o g i c m a p s a n d c r o s s s e c t i o n s ?
Brief a n s w e r : G e o l o g i c m a p s represent the r o c k formations e x p o s e d at the E a r t h ' s
surface. G e o l o g i c cross sections are d i a g r a m s s h o w i n g h o w the geologist interprets or
projects t h e g e o l o g y at t h e surface into the subsurface. Refer to F i g u r e 7.4.
How do rocks deform (break or bend)?
Brief a n s w e r : R o c k s typically break (fault) w h e n the t e m p e r a t u r e is low, burial is
shallow, and the force is applied quickly. R o c k s typically b e n d (fold) w h e n the
temperature is higher, burial is deeper, and the force is applied over a long period.
See Figures 7.7 and 7.10.
W h a t g e o l o g i c features are p r o d u c e d w h e n rocks d e f o r m ?
Brief a n s w e r : F o l d s , faults, and j o i n t s are c o m m o n geologic structures p r o d u c e d w h e n
rocks are d e f o r m e d .
W h a t do g e o l o g i c s t r u c t u r e s p r o d u c e d by rock d e f o r m a t i o n tell geologists a b o u t
the g e o l o g i c h i s t o r y of a r e g i o n ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e type(s) of folds, faults, and j o i n t s a n d their spatial orientation
provide g e o l o g i s t s w i t h clues for d e c i p h e r i n g the k i n d s of forces affecting a region
over t i m e . S e e F i g u r e 7.19.
85
86
PART II
CHAPTER 7
During Lecture
O n e goal for lecture is to leave class with g o o d a n s w e r s to the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s .
To a v o i d g e t t i n g lost in d e t a i l s , k e e p t h e b i g p i c t u r e in m i n d . C h a p t e r 7 tells
t h e s t o r y o f t h r e e k i n d s o f forces ( c o m p r e s s i v e , t e n s i o n a l , a n d s h e a r i n g ) a n d
h o w g e o l o g i s t s find e v i d e n c e o f t h e s e forces i n r o c k s t r u c t u r e s (folds a n d
faults).
D e f o r m a t i o n lectures are particularly visual. Slide material on folds and faults
c a n be confusing if y o u h a v e never seen t h e s e g e o l o g i c features before. K e e p
F i g u r e s 7.7 and 7.10 on h a n d during lecture.
Note-Taking Tip
F i g u r e s of faults and folding can be d r a w n very simply o n c e you u n d e r s t a n d t h e m .
B u t until y o u d o , m a k e it easy on yourself. P h o t o c o p y F i g u r e s 7.7 a n d 7.10. T h r e e - h o l e p u n c h t h e m for easy insertion into y o u r three-ring n o t e b o o k . If they are already in y o u r
n o t e b o o k before lecture, you c a n n o t be distracted d r a w i n g t h e m d u r i n g lecture.
Education
is
voyage
in
self-discovery.
LAURENCE M.
GOULD
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following c h e c k l i s t contains
b o t h g e n e r a l review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r preparation for quizzes and e x a m s . T h e
Chapter S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
overview that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well you have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After you a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review each q u e s tion you missed. Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What are geologic maps and cross sections?
Geologic m a p s represent the r o c k formations e x p o s e d at the E a r t h ' s surface.
The orientation of r o c k layers is m e a s u r e d as strike and dip. Refer to Figure 7.3.
Geologic cross sections are d i a g r a m s s h o w i n g h o w the geologist interprets or
projects the g e o l o g y at the surface into the subsurface. Refer to F i g u r e 7.4.
88
PART II C H A P T E R 7
Figure 7.16. (b) A rift valley results from tensional forces and normal faulting.
The African Plate, on which Egypt rides, and the Arabian Plate, bearing Saudi Arabia,
are drifting apart. The tensional forces have created a rift valley, filled by the Red
Sea. The diagram shows parallel normal faults bounding the rift valley in the crust
beneath the sea.
D)eformation:
eformation
89
Practice Exercises
ly G u i d e .
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
Behavior of
Silly Putty
Behavior of rock
Type of
of force
force
tensional
nal
Bends
ductile
Bounces
elastic
essional
compressional
ill ofofputty
The ball
putty is
essed
by
compressed by hthe
with thej
the floor.
impact t with
R o c k s d o e x h i b i t e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r . M o r e o n this w h e n w e s t u d y e a r t hhquakes.
q u a k e s . ((Earthquakes
E
properties o f r o c k s . )
A. Geologic structure
B. Type of force
C. C o m m o n l y associated plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
D. Geologic structure
E. Type of force
F. C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
90
PART II C H A P T E R 7
G . G e o l o g i c structure
H. T y p e of force
I . C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
J.
G e o l o g i c structure
K. T y p e of force
L . C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
M . G e o l o g i c structure
N . T y p e o f force
O . C o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d plate tectonic b o u n d a r y
91
92
PART II C H A P T E R 7
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
1. A r o c k that b r e a k s suddenly in r e s p o n s e to the application of forces is
A. elastic.
B . plastic.
C. brittle.
D . ductile.
2. T h e t w o m e a s u r e m e n t s that define the orientation of an e x p o s e d r o c k layer are
A. strike and d i p .
B. strike and slip.
C. slip and d i p .
D. fold axis a n d tilt.
3. T h e s e n s e of m o t i o n a l o n g the San A n d r e a s fault in California is
A. left lateral strike slip.
B. right lateral strike slip.
C. dip slip.
D. thrust.
4. As tensional forces are applied to a c o n t i n e n t a l region, t h e resulting g e o l o g i c feature
will be a(n)
A . anticline.
B. rift valley.
C. thrust fault.
D. dome.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 7.7 and 7.15.
5. W h e n no offset can be detected along a fracture in a rock, t h e fracture is called a
A. stress p l a n e .
B. joint.
C.
fault.
D. rupture.
6. W h i c h of the following c o n d i t i o n s p r o m o t e s ductile d e f o r m a t i o n of r o c k s ?
A. old i g n e o u s r o c k s within the interior of a c o n t i n e n t
B. r o c k s d e f o r m i n g at a relatively low t e m p e r a t u r e
C. stress building up rapidly to a very high level
D . r o c k s subjected t o high confining p r e s s u r e s and t e m p e r a t u r e s
7. W h e n d e f o r m e d , w h i c h of the following r o c k s is m o r e likely to fracture brittlely instead
of flow ductilely?
A . basalt
B.
shale
C. p u r e l i m e s t o n e
D. muddy sandstone
8. As m o l t e n r o c k cools n e a r or at the surface, it c a n d e v e l o p s h r i n k a g e fractures that
e x t e n d vertically d o w n into the r o c k body. T h e s e c r i s s c r o s s i n g , regularly p a t t e r n e d fractures create long thin r o d s of r o c k we call
A . s h r i n k a g e palisades.
B. tension faults.
C. columnar joints.
D. elongate joints.
H i n t : Refer to t h e p h o t o at the b e g i n n i n g of C h a p t e r 4.
a r o u n d h o t spots.
w h e r e c o n t i n e n t s are colliding.
w h e r e continents are pulling apart.
a l o n g a t r a n s f o r m fault.
CHAPTER
Clocks in Rocks:
Timing the Geologic Record
Before Lecture
Time-Management Tip:
Something is always better than nothing
How m u c h time should you devote to previewing? Obviously, the more time, the better.
However, even a brief (five or ten m i n u t e s ) preview session j u s t before lecture will
produce n o t i c e a b l e results. Arrive ten m i n u t e s early for lecture. U s e the time to preview
the c h a p t e r for the d a y ' s lecture. E v e n if you have only a m i n u t e or t w o you can read the
preview q u e s t i o n s a n d brief a n s w e r s and gain a r o u g h idea of w h a t t h e c h a p t e r is about.
The t i m e j u s t before lecture is p r e c i o u s , b e c a u s e w h a t e v e r you preview will r e m a i n in
short-term m e m o r y and h e l p y o u u n d e r s t a n d lecture.
Chapter Preview
H o w c a n t h e relative a g e s of rocks be d e t e r m i n e d from rock o u t c r o p s ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e principles of superposition, fossils, and cross-cutting relationships
provide a basis for establishing the relative age of a s e q u e n c e of rocks at an o u t c r o p .
For e x a m p l e , in Figure 8.4 and Eaith Issues 8 . 1 . the y o u n g e s t s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k layers
are on top and the oldest are at the b o t t o m . A n d in Figure 8.10, m a g m a intrusions
and a fault are y o u n g e r than the rock they cut through.
H o w c a n t h e relative a g e s of rock o u t c r o p s at t w o or m o r e l o c a t i o n s be
determined?
Brief a n s w e r : Stratigraphic and fossil succession, plus radiometric dates of rock units,
provide a basis for establishing how rock outcrops at different localities m a y be
related to e a c h other (correlate), even if they are h u n d r e d s or t h o u s a n d s of miles apart.
See Figure 8.5.
W h a t is t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e a n d h o w is it c a l i b r a t e d ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale is the internationally accepted reference
for E a r t h ' s g e o l o g i c history. U s i n g relative and absolute dating m e t h o d s , geologists
have calibrated (divided) E a r t h ' s history into four e o n s : H a d e a n , A r c h e a n , P r o t e r o z o i c ,
and P h a n e r o z o i c . B e c a u s e m o r e e v i d e n c e is available for the m o s t recent eon, the
P h r a n e r o z o i c , it h a s been possible to divide it m o r e finely into eras, p e r i o d s , and
epochs. See F i g u r e s 8.10 and 8.14.
H o w are t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e a n d g e o c h r o n o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s , like r a d i o m e t r i c
dating, a p p l i e d t o g e o l o g i c p r o b l e m s ?
Brief a n s w e r : We u n d e r s t a n d E a r t h ' s history to the degree to w h i c h we can place the
record of g e o l o g i c events in time. T h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale is the accepted standard
for how g e o l o g i c t i m e is subdivided.
95
of keeping
everything
G R A F F I T I ON A WALL
During Lecture
H e r e ' s an overview that should h e l p y o u take g o o d notes for this lecture.
B i g P i c t u r e . T h e big picture for this lecture is t h e entire G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e !
G e o l o g i c t i m e is w o n d r o u s l y h u g e . It is so e x p a n s i v e that at first it s e e m s
i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . T h e lecturer will describe the 4.5-billion-year e x p a n s e of
g e o l o g i c t i m e and m a y u s e e x a m p l e s and exercises d e s i g n e d t o h e l p y o u g r a s p
geologic t i m e .
N e w T e r m s . It is difficult to talk about t h e G e o l o g i c T i m e Scale w i t h o u t referring to its t i m e intervals. So you m a y feel b a r r a g e d with n e w t e r m s : e p o c h s ,
periods, eras, e o n s , H o l o c e n e , P l e i s t o c e n e , P l i o c e n e . To avoid getting lost,
k e e p a copy of Figures 8.11 and 8.14 at h a n d . Refer to F i g u r e 8.14 to c h e c k
t e r m s as needed. N o t e h o w different-sized c h u n k s of t i m e are u s e d for different e o n s : h u g e c h u n k s (eons) are u s e d for events early in E a r t h ' s history w h e n
there is less geological e v i d e n c e for w h a t h a p p e n e d , and smaller c h u n k s
(epochs) are u s e d for intervals of t i m e closer to the present. B e c a u s e m o r e evid e n c e is available for the m o s t recent eon, the P h a n e r o z o i c , it h a s b e e n divided
m o r e finely into eras, periods, and e p o c h s . See F i g u r e 8.14.
S u c c e s s i o n of G e o l o g i c E v e n t s . You will w o r k t h r o u g h h o w t h e relative ages
of r o c k s are d e t e r m i n e d . By the end of lecture y o u will be able to u s e t w o basic
principles (superposition and cross-cutting) to d e t e r m i n e t h e relative a g e of a
s e q u e n c e of r o c k s such as that s h o w n in F i g u r e 8.10.
A b s o l u t e D a t i n g . C a r b o n - 1 4 has a short half-life. It w o r k s for dating y o u n g e r
s a m p l e s of tissue attached to b o n e , charcoal, a n d w o o d b e c a u s e these m a t e r i als all c o n t a i n carbon. O t h e r isotopes ( u r a n i u m - 2 3 8 , p o t a s s i u m - 4 0 , r u b i d i u m 87) h a v e m u c h l o n g e r half-lives and are u s e d to date r o c k s that are g e o l o g i cally older. Table 8.1 shows h o w half-life is related to the effective dating
r a n g e of each m e t h o d .
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both general review tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.
97
No vestige of a beginning,
no prospect of an
end.
JAMES HUTTON
(1726-1797)
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m i n a t i o n s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
overview that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Chapter Summary
How can the relative ages of rocks be determined
from rock outcrops?
T h e principles of superposition and cross-cutting relationships p r o v i d e a basis
for establishing t h e relative age of a s e q u e n c e of r o c k s at an o u t c r o p . U s i n g
these t w o principles, geologists can order ( d e t e r m i n e w h a t h a p p e n e d first, second, third, and so on) the g e o l o g i c events represented by t h e r o c k s a n d g e o logic features in r o c k o u t c r o p s . T h e principle of original horizontality for sedi m e n t a r y layers p r o v i d e s a starting p o i n t for identifying s e q u e n c e s of
s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s affected by tectonic forces after they w e r e deposited.
99
Youngest
Oldest
B. Fill in the n a m e s of eras, periods, and epochs in the correct sequence from oldest at the bottom to youngest at the top. Refer to both Figures 1.13 and 8.11 to complete this exercise.
1 01
100
PART II C H A P T E R 8
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Yes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1
No
12
12
N o t p o s s i b l e to k n o w
2 . E x p l a i n t h e logic y o u u s e d t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n C - l .
Yes
No
N o t p o s s i b l e to k n o w
2 . E x p l a i n the logic y o u u s e d t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n D - l .
N o . Parent atoms
500
500
11
250
750
12
750
250
Period
Epoch
Phanerozoic
Quaternary
Holocene
Humans
Tertiary
Pleistocene
Era
Eon
evolve
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Pennsylvanian
Ordovician
Proterozoic
First
nucleus-bearing
cells
develop
Archeon
Hadean
Earth
accretion
Nothing
begins
BALLARD
Overworked
Contradictory
Student Decks
Test
Monotonous
Physics
Professor
Questions.
E p o c h s of the C e n o z o i c :
Please
Eat
Our Mushroom
Pot Pie
Hot.
To
C l o c k s i n R o c k s : T i m i n g the G e o l o g i c R e c o r d
Review Questions
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. T h e p r i n c i p l e of superposition h o l d s that for any unfolded series of s e d i m e n t a r y layers,
A.
B.
C.
D.
Eocene, Oligocene,
Paleocene, Eocene,
Paleocene, Eocene,
Paleocene, Eocene,
b e t w e e n 3 4 a n d 6 0 million y e a r s .
b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 6 0 million y e a r s .
less t h a n 20 million y e a r s .
more than 60 million years.
their
their
their
their
atomic numbers
n u m b e r of electrons
n u m b e r of n e u t r o n s
n u m b e r of p r o t o n s
1 03
1 04
PART II CHAPTER 8
8. Naturally occurring
that d e c a y ( s ) into other materials at known
rates can be u s e d to estimate the actual age of a rock.
A. organic m a t t e r
B. minerals
C. radioactive e l e m e n t s
D . silicon
9. T h e P h a n e r o z o i c t i m e is divided into three intervals: (1) t h e interval of old life, (2) the
interval of m i d d l e life, and (3) the interval of m o d e r n life. T h e s e intervals correspond
(from oldest to y o u n g e s t ) to the
A . A r c h e a n , M e s o z o i c , and P a l e o z o i c .
B . P a l e o z o i c , P r e c a m b r i a n , and P r o t e r o z o i c .
C. P r e c a m b r i a n , C a m b r i a n , and N e o c a m b r i a n .
D . P a l e o z o i c , M e s o z o i c , and C e n o z o i c .
10. W h i c h r a d i o m e t r i c dating m e t h o d w o u l d be m o s t effective in d e t e r m i n i n g the age of
charcoal at an archeological site?
A. rubidium-strontium
C. uranium-lead
B. radiocarbon
D. potassium-argon
H i n t : Refer to Table 8.1 in y o u r textbook.
1 1 . O n l y geologically y o u n g materials can b e dated using radioactive C - 1 4 isotopes
because
A.
B.
C.
D.
12. If the half-life of s o m e radioactive e l e m e n t is 1 billion years and a m a s s of r o c k originally c o n t a i n e d 1000 a t o m s of the radioactive e l e m e n t , h o w m a n y a t o m s of the radioactive e l e m e n t w o u l d be left after 3 billion years h a d p a s s e d ?
A. 5 0 0 a t o m s
B. 250 atoms
C. 125 a t o m s
D . n o radioactive a t o m s
C. h u m a n s cut t h e w o o d .
D . t h e w o o d died.
14. Radiometric dates have been attached to the Geologic T i m e Scale by the determination of
r a d i o m e t r i c ages of
A.
B.
C.
D.
C. b e c a m e c e m e n t e d ,
D . w a s deposited.
B . w a s eroded.
16. O n e m e t h o d that geologists u s e to study buried s e d i m e n t s and u n c o n f o r m i t i e s is
A. seismic stratigraphy.
B . r a d i o m e t r i c stratigraphy.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 8.15.
C. depositional stratigraphy.
D . m e t a m o r p h i c stratigraphy.
C. the s a m e as
D. n o n e of the a b o v e
A. A
B. B
C.
A.
B.
C.
D.
21. Pieces of c h a r c o a l w e r e found in a paleosoil layer c o v e r i n g an ancient fire pit with stone
tools i n c l u d i n g a r r o w h e a d s and axes. T h e charcoal w a s radiometrically dated u s i n g carb o n - 1 4 and y i e l d e d an a g e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10,500 y e a r s . W h a t c a n y o u infer about the
age of the a r c h e o l o g i c a l site?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The
The
The
The
1 05
CHAPTER
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
H o w did o u r solar s y s t e m f o r m ?
Brief answer: It accreted from gas and dust about 4.5 billion years ago.
Figure 9.2 s h o w s this process beautifully. L o o k it over before lecture.
H o w did the E a r t h form a n d c h a n g e o v e r t i m e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e E a r t h ' s core, mantle, crust, o c e a n s , and a t m o s p h e r e evolved as the
interior of t h e planet heated u p , melted, a n d differentiated. S t u d y F i g u r e s 9.5 a n d 9.6.
106
W h a t a r e s o m e m a j o r e v e n t s i n the h i s t o r y o f o u r s o l a r s y s t e m ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e a g e of the solar s y s t e m as d e t e r m i n e d from meteorites is about
4.56 billion y e a r s . T h e major planets f o r m e d within about 10 million years, and they
differentiated into a c o r e - m a n t l e - c r u s t layering in less than 100 million years. T h e
M o o n formed from a giant impact at about 4.5 Ga. Minerals as old as 4.4 billion years
have survived in t h e E a r t h ' s crust.
W h a t do p l a n e t a r y s u r f a c e s tell us a b o u t their a g e ?
Brief a n s w e r : S a m p l e s from the surface of the M o o n have b e e n dated by isotopic
m e t h o d s . T h e age of other planetary surfaces is estimated from the density of
impact craters.
W h a t have we l e a r n e d f r o m recent p l a n e t a r y p r o b e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Venus is the only planet other than Earth that has active tectonics
controlled by g l o b a l c o n v e c t i o n of its m a n t l e . Water is p r e s e n t on M a r s only as ice at
its poles a n d in the shallow subsurface. In the past, water m a y h a v e b e e n present as
a liquid on t h e M a r i a n surface.
After Lecture
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture, w h i l e the material is still fresh in
your mind. R e v i e w to be sure you noted all the key points and wrote t h e m d o w n in a form that
will be r e a d a b l e later. As y o u review, you can also add useful visual material and a s u m m a r y .
1 07
108
PART II C H A P T E R 9
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . The Chapter
S u m m a r y and P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your chapter
review. B e g i n y o u r review with the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y . It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview that
should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
a n d q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter. After
y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h question you
m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How did our solar system form?
O u r solar system p r o b a b l y formed w h e n a c l o u d of interstellar gas and dust
c o n d e n s e d about 4.5 billion years a g o . T h e planets vary in c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i tion in a c c o r d a n c e with their distance from the Sun and with their size.
What are some major events in the history of our solar system?
T h e a g e of the solar system as d e t e r m i n e d from m e t e o r i t e s is a b o u t 4 . 5 6 billion y e a r s . T h e major planets formed within about 10 million years, and they
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the end of the Study G u i d e .
1 09
110
PART II
CHAPTER 9
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of t h e S t u d y G u i d e .
1. D u r i n g the f o r m a t i o n of o u r solar s y s t e m , w h a t w a s the p r o c e s s that c a u s e d dust and
c o n d e n s i n g m a t e r i a l t o accrete into p l a n e t e s i m a l s ?
A. n u c l e a r fusion
B. rapid spin of the p r o t o s u n
C. h e a t i n g of g a s e s
D . gravitational attraction and m a t e r i a l collisions
2. A major s o u r c e of internal h e a t in the E a r t h today is
A . o c e a n tides.
B . radioactivity.
C. solar energy.
D. volcanoes.
Test-Taking Tip
W h e n taking a test, be alert to items that give away the a n s w e r s to other i t e m s .
E x a m p l e : Q u e s t i o n 12 p r o v i d e s a hint for a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n 3.
111
112
PART II C H A P T E R 9
8. E a r t h ' s M o o n is t h o u g h t to h a v e formed by
A. c a p t u r e of a large planetary object traveling p a s t E a r t h .
B . accretion, j u s t like the p l a n e t s .
C. material ejected from E a r t h by volcanic eruptions.
D. the i m p a c t of a M a r s - s i z e d object on E a r t h very early in E a r t h ' s history.
9. T h e nebular origin of our solar system is characterized as
A. a p r o v e n fact.
B. a theory.
C. a h y p o t h e s i s .
D. pure guesswork.
10. B o m b a r d m e n t from space m a y be disastrous for life, but it is also an essential process
in the history of a planet. W h y ?
A. B o m b a r d m e n t is h o w a planet g r o w s , and residual h e a t from i m p a c t s m a y help to
create a d y n a m i c planet.
B. T h e o c e a n s and a t m o s p h e r e f o r m e d on E a r t h as a result of b o m b a r d m e n t .
C. I m p a c t s drive plate tectonics.
D . I m p a c t s k e e p planets from getting too big.
1 1 . T h e i m p a c t i n g object that c a u s e d the extinction of the d i n o s a u r s 65 million years ago is
e s t i m a t e d to h a v e had a radius of about
A. 100 m e t e r s .
B.
1 kilometer.
C.
10 k i l o m e t e r s .
D . 100 k i l o m e t e r s .
H i n t : Refer t o Table 9.2.
12. O x y g e n r e l e a s e d into E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e by p h o t o s y n t h e s i s is vital for o u r existence
not only b e c a u s e we need it to breathe but also b e c a u s e
A. it is essential for all life on Earth.
B. it c o m b i n e s with free h y d r o g e n gas in o u r a t m o s p h e r e to p r o d u c e water.
C. life w o u l d not h a v e evolved w i t h o u t o x y g e n .
D . i t forms a n o z o n e layer i n the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e that p r o t e c t s u s from U V radiation.
It is in the stars.
The stars above
us,
SHAKESPEARE
King Lear,
IV,
iii
CHAPTER 10
During Lecture
One goal for lecture should be good answers to the preview questions.
To avoid getting lost in t h e details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 10
e x a m i n e s t h e g e o l o g i c history of the continents.
M a k e a copy of Figure 10.18, the Wilson cycle, and have it handy during lecture.
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general review tips a n d specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
115
1 14
PART II C H A P T E R 10
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g the chapter. For an efficient
preview, u s e the following q u e s t i o n s .
Chapter Preview
W h a t are t h e m a j o r g e o l o g i c features of N o r t h A m e r i c a ?
Brief a n s w e r : R e v i e w F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 . Pay particular attention to the location and characteristics of the active tectonic belt in western N o r t h A m e r i c a and the relatively stable
c o n t i n e n t of the ancient o r o g e n i c belts, platform, and shield. L o o k for patterns in age
and location.
H o w do continents grow?
Brief answer: T h e silica-rich, iron-poor rocks in continents are produced mostly in
subduction zones by magmatic differentiation and metamorphism of silica-rich sediments. O n c e produced, the continental rocks are difficult to subduct and recycle into the
mantle because they are more buoyant than mantle material. Rifting and transform
faulting typically break continents into small pieces while terrane accretion and continent
collisions assemble pieces into larger continents. Refer to Figures 10.11 and 10.12.
How does orogeny modify continents?
Brief answer: M u c h as a styrofoam float resists being d r a g g e d under water, silica-rich,
low-density continental crust is m o r e buoyant than the mantle, and therefore continents
resist being subducted. Instead, continental crust is d a m a g e d (deformed) and piles up
(thickens) at convergent plate b o u n d a r i e s . Intense folding, faulting, detachment, and
thrust transport of sedimentary w e d g e s and the formation of h u g e granitic batholiths
thicken the overriding continental lithosphere. T h e s e processes can deform continental
crust h u n d r e d s of kilometers from the convergence z o n e . T h i c k e r continental crust
tends to stand higher.
W h a t is e p e i r o g e n y ?
Brief answer: Gradual d o w n w a r d and upward m o v e m e n t s of broad regions of the crust,
without significant folding or faulting, involves a set of processes called epierogeny.
Heat, loading and unloading, and flow within the m a n t l e m a y all cause epierogeny.
W h a t is the W i l s o n c y c l e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e Wilson cycle characterizes the s e q u e n c e of events in the opening
and closing of an ocean basin. A new o c e a n basin forms w h e n a c o n t i n e n t is rifted
apart. As an ocean basin closes due to s u b d u c t i o n of its o c e a n lithosphere, continents
grow. A few times in E a r t h ' s history, the c l o s u r e of a series of o c e a n b a s i n s resulted
in the formation of a supercontinent, like P a n g a e a in the early P e r m i a n . Refer to
F i g u r e s 10.17 and 10.18.
H o w h a v e t h e A r c h e a n c r a t o n s s u r v i v e d billions o f y e a r s o f p l a t e tectonics?
Brief a n s w e r : L i k e giant sailboats, c o n t i n e n t s h a v e cratonic k e e l s that stabilize the
raft of continental lithosphere against the effects of convective currents in the mantle
and plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s . It is h y p o t h e s i z e d that the keels c o n s i s t e d of somewhat
less d e n s e mantle rocks that are about the s a m e a g e as the A r c h e a n crust above
t h e m . Refer to F i g u r e 10.24.
Study Tip
W h e n confronted with n e w scientific t e r m i n o l o g y , s o m e t i m e s t h e d i c t i o n a r y c a n help.
F o r e x a m p l e , if y o u l o o k up the t e r m s epeirogeny and orogeny y o u will find t h e
following origins for the r o o t s of t h e s e t e r m s :
e p e i r o g e n y G k . epeiros, c o n t i n e n t
o r o g e n y G k . oros, m o u n t a i n
116
PART II C H A P T E R 10
is provided
on the W e b site for Exercises 5 and 6 at the end of Chapter 10 in the textbook.
W e b Site S t u d y R e s o u r c e s
http://www.whfreeman.com/understandingearth5e
C o m p l e t e the C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r and O n l i n e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . Pay particular attention t o the e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e a n s w e r s . T h e G e o l o g y i n P r a c t i c e
E x e r c i s e s a d d r e s s the q u e s t i o n " D o c o n t i n e n t s float o n t h e m a n t l e ? " F l a s h c a r d s will h e l p y o u learn the n e w t e r m i n o l o g y in this chapter.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the Practice Exercises and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify chapter review. B e g i n y o u r session with the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y . It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview
that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w w e l l y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter. After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review each
q u e s t i o n y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering t h e q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What are the major geologic features of North America?
F i g u r e 10.1 s h o w s the m a j o r tectonic features, i n c l u d i n g t h e C a n a d i a n Shield,
interior platform, C o r d i l l e r a a n d A p p a l a c h i a n m o u n t a i n belts, c o a s t a l plain,
and continental shelves.
F i g u r e 10.3 s h o w s the s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n s and d o m e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a .
T h e A p p a l a c h i a n fold belt and w e s t e r n C o r d i l l e r a m o u n t a i n belt are c h a r a c t e r ized in F i g u r e s 10.4, 10.5, and 1 0 . 1 1 .
C o n t i n e n t a l accretion. Plate m o t i o n s accrete buoyant (silica rich) rocks to continental margins by (1) transfer of fragments from a subducting plate to a continental plate, (2) closure of marginal basins to add thickened island-arc crust to
the continent, (3) lateral transport via strike-slip faulting along continental margins, and (4) suturing of t w o continental margins during their collision. Refer
to Figures 1 0 . 1 1 , 10.12, 10.15, 10.17, and 10.18 for illustrations and e x a m p l e s .
117
119
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the end of the Study G u i d e .
118
PART II
C H A P T E R 10
C r a t o n i c keels a p p e a r to consist of s o m e w h a t l o w e r density rock, called peridotite, that is depleted of heavier constituents, s u c h as the e l e m e n t iron and the
m i n e r a l garnet.
Keels a p p e a r to f o r m at a b o u t the s a m e t i m e as t h e c o n t i n e n t a l crust a b o v e it.
It is h y p o t h e s i z e d that the cold, strong, m a n t l e k e e l m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 km thick
h e l p s t o p r e s e r v e t h e c r a t o n s from d i s r u p t i o n b y m a n t l e c o n v e c t i o n and plate
tectonic p r o c e s s e s .
Refer to F i g u r e 10.24 .
120
PART II
C H A P T E R 10
Characteristics
Ocean crust
Continental crust
Composition
Very
R o c k type(s)
heterogeneouscan
contain
any
rock,
Density
3.0
g/cm
Thickness
10 km
4
Topographic
Abyssal
features
Ridge
dominant.
g/cm
The
Age
are
3
2.7
ages
of continental
crust span
billion years.
floor
with axial rift
Trenches
Seamounts
Hot-spot
island
chains
Plateaus
Structure/Architecture
crust is
the
sediments,
ophiolite
basaltic pillow
and gabbro.
(Note:
of the
suite:
ocean
deep-sea
lavas
and dikes,
The
architecture
complex.
It
accreted
of the
consists
microplates,
arcs,
suture zones,
belts
representing
Sediments
Orogenic
existing
plate
cover basement
of the
crustal
boundaries
C. cratons.
B. plateaus.
D. plains.
C . h o t spots.
B. transform margins.
D . divergent plate m a r g i n s .
C.
B . intrusion o f p l u t o n s
D. metamorphism
passive c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n
C.
B.
1 billion y e a r s old.
and
blocks
Review Questions
of t i m e are called
cratons,
volcanic
arcs,
ophiolite suites,
processes
is
island
ancient
interior platform
Origin
continents
of preexisting
orogenic
rock
in
and
zones.
the
continent.
accretion
along
of pre-
convergent
B.
C.
D. all t h e a b o v e
6. T h e W i l s o n cycle is
A.
B.
C.
D.
C . y o u n g e r than
D. the s a m e age as
12
C. ophiolite suites.
D . a n ancient craton.
13. T h e
w e r e p r o d u c e d b y c o n v e r g e n t plate boundary
C. in continental shield r e g i o n s .
D. along the m a r g i n s of the c o n t i n e n t s .
2 1 . T h e g r o w t h o f continents occurs a t
A. hot spots.
B. s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s .
C. rift z o n e s .
D. transform faults.
22. W h e r e on Earth could you go today to find an orogenic system with strong similarities
to the Cordillera of N o r t h A m e r i c a ? T h e study of this active orogenic s y s t e m w o u l d provide you with a better understanding of the geologic history of western N o r t h A m e r i c a .
A. Andes
B. H i m a l a y a s
C. Appalachians
D. E a s t Africa Rift
2 3 . E p e i r o g e n y is associated with
A. s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s w h e r e c o n v e r g e n c e causes rapid vertical uplift.
B. stable interior platforms within continents w h e r e isostatic adjustments result in gradual uplift or s u b s i d e n c e .
C. continental collisions w h e r e the highest m o u n t a i n s form.
D. t h e W i l s o n cycle for the evolution of continents.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 10.20.
24. Continental cratons s e e m relatively i m m u n e from deformation by plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s
because
A. of d e e p , strong, m a n t l e keels b e n e a t h t h e m .
B. they are always located at the center of the continent far from active plate b o u n d a r i e s .
C. t h e continental crust is very strong.
D. they are covered with s e d i m e n t s .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 10.24.
25. A modern example of how crust can be transported laterally along a continental margin is the
A. a m a l g a m a t i o n of the s o u t h w e s t e r n
Pacific islands.
B. mid-Atlantic Ridge.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 10.6.
C. A p p a l a c h i a n orogeny.
D. San A n d r e a s strike-slip fault.
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PART II C H A P T E R 11
During Lecture
T h i s lecture is likely to c o v e r a series of p r o c e s s e s . Listen carefully and try to get the key
inputs and outputs of e a c h p r o c e s s into y o u r n o t e s .
Note-Taking Tip
C o p y F i g u r e 11.13 and paste it at the b e g i n n i n g of y o u r C h a p t e r 11 lecture notes. Refer
to it to h e l p y o u stay oriented in geological time. D o n ' t get b o g g e d d o w n w i t h specific
dates of events. W h e n we are talking about a billion years, a difference of a few million
years isn't worth worrying about. Instead, think in t e r m of landmarks, and try to place them
in the correct order. For e x a m p l e , single-celled life occurred a l o n g t i m e before multicelled life. O x y g e n h a d to be present before multicelled life occurred. All extinctions are
in the last 5 0 0 million years.
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s is right after lecture. T h e following c h e c k l i s t contains
b o t h general review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
Output
For cycles such as the sulfur cycle (Figure 11.11), it m a y help you to reduce the figure to a very
simple version that will help you r e m e m b e r the essential b i o s p h e r e part of the cycle elements.
D e c o m p o s e r m i c r o o r g a n i s m s digest d e c a y i n g animal/plant matter - h y d r o g e n
sulfide + iron in t h e soil iron pyrite
Be sure to add the figure n u m b e r (in this c a s e F i g u r e 11.11) so that you can review t h e p r o c e s s
in its entirety.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during preparation for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e C h a p ter S u m m a r y and P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. Read the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w
that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next w o r k o n t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e t h e exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d the chapter.
After you a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t of all, review e a c h
question that y o u m i s s e d . Identify a n d correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r
answering the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What is the biosphere?
T h e E a r t h ' s b i o s p h e r e i s t h e p a r t o f o u r p l a n e t t h a t c o n t a i n s all its l i v i n g
o r g a n i s m s . I t i n c l u d e s all t h e p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s a s w e l l a s w h o l e k i n g d o m s o f n e a r l y i n v i s i b l e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s s u c h a s fungi a n d b a c t e r i a t h a t
1 27
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PART II C H A P T E R 11
1 29
130
PART II C H A P T E R 11
Practice Exercise
T h e a n s w e r and an e x p l a n a t i o n are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Life's impact
on Earth
Life process(es)
generating the impact
Description of the
interaction and impact
0 i n Earth's
2
atmosphere
Greenhouse
Extraction
effect: C o o l i n g
oceans
of carbon from
and
atmosphere
by
shell-producing
and
photo synthetic
organisms
Greenhouse
Respiration
and
effect:
of anaerobic
microbes
Warming
Table
in
metabolism
Refer
to
textbook.
Mineral
precipitation
Mineral
dissolution
"Sulfate-eating
"
microbes
Hydrogen,
methane
hydrogen
gases
may
sulfide,
and
be produced.
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. A u t o t r o p h s are o r g a n i s m s that
A.
B.
C.
D.
m a k e their o w n food.
get food by feeding directly or indirectly on p r o d u c e r s .
are multicellular.
live only in a n a e r o b i c (oxygen-free) e n v i r o n m e n t s .
4. E u k a r y o t i c cells are
A. very s i m p l e cells w i t h o u t nuclei.
B. cells with a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d internal structure, including a nucleus.
C. the earliest life form to a p p e a r in the fossil record.
D. p h o t o s y n t h e s i z i n g .
5. The earliest r e c o r d of e u k a r y o t e s o c c u r r e d during the
A. P h a n e r o z o i c .
B. P r o t e r o z o i c .
C. Late A r c h e a n .
D. Early A r c h e a n .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e s 8.14 and 11.6, and the section C h e m o f o s s i l s and E u k a r y o t e s in
Chapter 1 1 .
6. Deposition of s e d i m e n t a r y b a n d e d iron formations correlates with the a p p e a r a n c e of
A. iron-rich basaltic lavas.
B. animal life.
C. coal s w a m p s .
D. a b u n d a n t stromatolites.
H i n t : Refer to t h e t e x t b o o k sections M i c r o b i a l M a t s , Stromatolites, and Origin of
Earth's O x y g e n a t e d A t m o s p h e r e .
7. Banded iron f o r m a t i o n s ( B I F s ) are
A.
B.
C.
D.
a b u n d a n t in the P h a n e r o z o i c .
precipitated by reacting with nitrogen.
rare in the A r c h e a n .
precipitated by reacting with o x y g e n .
131
132
PART II C H A P T E R 11
Figure 11.14. This simple experiment design was used to convert ammonia ( N H ) , hydrogen ( H ) , water vapor ( H 0 ) , and small carbon-bearing
molecules such as methane ( C H ) into amino acidsa key component of
living organisms.
3
12. T h e C a m b r i a n E x p l o s i o n is
A. the greatest m a s s extinction event in Earth history.
B. a surprising r a p i d radiation of every m a j o r a n i m a l g r o u p .
C. the first a p p e a r a n c e of life on Earth.
D. t h e rapid radiation of stromatolites a c r o s s t h e E a r t h ' s surface.
13. As a planetary scientist studying potentially h a b i t a b l e planets outside o u r solar system,
y o u w o u l d get very excited about finding e v i d e n c e for
A. a p l a n e t a r y a t m o s p h e r e rich in nitrogen and a m m o n i a g a s e s .
B. a b u n d a n t o x y g e n gas and traces of m e t h a n e in a p l a n e t ' s a t m o s p h e r e p l u s w a t e r ice
on the surface.
C. an a t m o s p h e r e rich in h y d r o g e n and h y d r o g e n sulfide g a s .
D. a surface c o v e r e d with lava flows and few i m p a c t craters.
CHAPTER 12
Volcanoes
136
PART II C H A P T E R 12
Motivation Tip
C h a p t e r 12 c o n t a i n s material that should be of c o n s i d e r a b l e interest to a n y o n e living or
p l a n n i n g to live in the n o r t h w e s t e r n U n i t e d States. T h e r e is i n f o r m a t i o n in this chapter
that c o u l d literally save y o u r life. A l s o illustrated are l a n d f o r m s in H a w a i i a n d s o m e of
o u r w e s t e r n national p a r k s , for e x a m p l e , M o u n t Rainier, C r a t e r L a k e , and Yellowstone.
Q u i t e possibly y o u have visited o n e of t h e s e p l a c e s and w o n d e r e d at its b e a u t y .
Give yourself permission to enjoy this particularly interesting chapter! B e g i n your
study session by j u s t browsing the artwork in Chapter 12 for ideas that interest you. Start
reading wherever your interest takes you. Give yourself fifteen or twenty m i n u t e s just to
enjoy the interesting illustrations before y o u p l u n g e into studying text and d o i n g exercises
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
chapter review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t w o r k o n t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w w e l l y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t of all, review each
q u e s t i o n that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that c a u s e d y o u to answer
the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
Why does volcanism occur?
V o l c a n i s m o c c u r s w h e n m o l t e n r o c k inside the Earth rises b u o y a n t l y to the
surface b e c a u s e it is less d e n s e than the s u r r o u n d i n g rock. V o l c a n i s m is a surface e x p r e s s i o n o f m a g m a g e n e r a t i o n w i t h i n the E a r t h .
Volcanoes
Practice Exercises
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
137
1 38
PART II C H A P T E R 12
Lava types
Characteristics
Basalt (mafic)
Andesite (intermediate)
Rhyolite (felsic)
intermediate
intermediate
high (~ 70%)
Properties
silica c o n t e n t
gas c o n t e n t
low,
viscosity
low-fluid
t y p i c a l flow velocity
0.7 to
typical flow l e n g t h
10 to 160 km
8 km
typical flow t h i c k n e s s
5 to 15 m
30 m
200 m
eruption temperature
up to a few percent
E r u p t i o n styles
typically
Deposits
flood
magma
30 m/minute
not
basalt
very
explosive
variable
intermediate
m/day
lava
obsidian
flow
dome
pyroclastic
tuff and
summit
plate t e c t o n i c s
Hazards
welded
composite
Landforms
A s s o c i a t i o n with
flow
cone
caldera
small
caldera
cinder
hot
spots
tuff
volcano
crater
cinder
explosive
flow
pyroclastic/ash
explosive
hot
cone
lava
dome
flow
blast
gases
hot
blast
gases
mudflow
Volcanoes
Volcano or
volcanic area
Type of volcano
(shield, composite,
caldera)
Magma type
(mafic, intermediate,
felsic)
Magmatic
(plate tectonic)
settingdivergent,
convergent, hot spot
composite
intermediate
convergent/'subduction
Hawaii
Tonga Islands
and felsic
mafic
Columbia Plateau
Santorini ( T h e r a ) , G r e e c e
hot
spot
caldera
Mayon, P h i l i p p i n e s
divergent and
Iceland
Yellowstone
Krakatoa, I n d o n e s i a
North Island, N e w Z e a l a n d
Crater L a k e , O r e g o n
Japan
Aleutian Islands, A l a s k a
Mariana Islands
Kilimanjaro, Africa
Pinatubo, P h i l i p p i n e s
Katmai, A l a s k a
composite
and
caldera
Mount Rainier, W a s h i n g t o n
Tambora, I n d o n e s i a
Vesuvius, Italy
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. Lavas are a l m o s t a l w a y s fine-grained r o c k s b e c a u s e
A. t h e m i n e r a l s they are m a d e up of do not form large crystals.
B. very little w a t e r is in the extruded m a g m a .
C. the lava crystallizes u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o o l o w for large crystals to grow.
D. they cool t o o rapidly for large crystals to grow.
2. W h i c h extrusive r o c k s contain t h e m o s t silica?
A.
B.
C.
D.
andesite
rhyolite
granite
basalt
hydrogen.
water.
nitrogen.
carbon dioxide.
139
convergent
hot
spot
140
PART II C H A P T E R 12
C . volcanic b o m b s .
B. a pyroclastic flow.
D. a cinder flow.
5. A g o o d e x a m p l e of shield v o l c a n o e s c a n be found in
A. n o r t h e r n California, W a s h i n g t o n , and O r e g o n .
B . the H a w a i i a n islands.
C. the C a r i b b e a n islands, such as M t . P e l e e on M a r t i n i q u e .
D. western South America.
6. C o m p o s i t e v o l c a n o e s (stratovolcanoes) are c o m p o s e d largely of
A. basalt lava flows and basaltic c i n d e r s .
B . pillow a n d p a h o e h o e lava flows.
C. rhyolitic and i n t e r m e d i a t e lavas and pyroclastic flows.
D. dikes and sills.
7. C o m p a r e d to basalt, rhyolite lava flows are very thick and tend to form d o m e s because
rhyolite lava
A. c o n t a i n s less gas than basalt lava and is therefore m o r e fluid.
B. is richer in silica than basalt lava and is therefore less fluid.
C. c o o l s m o r e q u i c k l y than basalt lava.
D. is less d e n s e than basalt lava.
8. On a recent three-day hike up a gently sloping m o u n t a i n , y o u r friends describe to you
features they e n c o u n t e r e d . F r e q u e n t l y they c r o s s e d lava flows and fissures, and occasionally they h a d to d e t o u r a r o u n d large cinder c o n e s . F r o m y o u r f r i e n d s ' description,
y o u tell t h e m they w e r e h i k i n g on a
A . caldera.
C.
g a b b r o pluton.
B. composite volcano.
D . shield v o l c a n o .
C.
Oregon
B. Hawaii
D.
California
Volcanoes
C. basalt.
D . rhyolite.
15. You h a v e b e e n i n f o r m e d that an explosive volcanic eruption h a s t a k e n p l a c e at an u n d i s c l o s e d location and that a h u g e n u e e a r d e n t e (pyroclastic flow) flowed off t h e steepsided v o l c a n o . You c o u l d r e s p o n d that the m a g m a t y p e is likely to be
A. basaltic.
B . rhyolitic.
C. ultramafic.
D. gabbroic.
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PART II C H A P T E R 12
17. A large resort located on a beautiful lake and k n o w n for its hot springs is experiencing
a d r o p in b u s i n e s s d u e to publicity about the recent s w a r m of s m a l l e a r t h q u a k e s in the
area. T h e lake is actually located within a caldera, and beautiful r o c k t o w e r s and spires
of w e a t h e r e d volcanic tuff are found all a l o n g the e d g e of the lake. As the director of
the resort, y o u ' r e c o n c e r n e d about the c h a n g e in b u s i n e s s and the potential risk to your
g u e s t s . W h a t should y o u d o ?
A. You c a n n o t be w o r r i e d b e c a u s e y o u k n o w a v o l c a n o c a n ' t b l o w up on you.
B. You k n o w that e a r t h q u a k e s w a r m s can be a p r e c u r s o r to volcanic e r u p t i o n s and that
very explosive eruptions h a v e h a p p e n e d at the p l a c e in the recent g e o l o g i c past, so
y o u d e c i d e that the resort should c l o s e until the situation is safe.
C. A d v e r t i s e the resort as the best p l a c e to see beautiful basalt lava fountains.
D. E a r t h q u a k e s have o c c u r r e d occasionally a l o n g a nearby k n o w n fault, and there have
b e e n n o historic volcanic e r u p t i o n s , s o y o u ' r e not c o n c e r n e d .
18. W h i c h t y p e of lava is m o s t likely to erupt at the m i d - o c e a n r i d g e ? Refer to F i g u r e 12.20.
A . basalt
C.
B . andesite
D . diorite
rhyolite
C. rhyolite
B . andesite
D . diorite.
C. rhyolite
B . andesite
D . diorite
Volcanoes
C.
D.
volcanic d o m e
shield v o l c a n o
22. If lava flows of progressively y o u n g e r ages all erupted from a single large m a g m a c h a m ber, h o w w o u l d y o u e x p e c t their c o m p o s i t i o n t o h a v e progressively c h a n g e d ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Mafic
Mafic
Mafic
Mafic
rocks
rocks
rocks
rocks
143
CHAPTER 13
Earthquakes
Figure 13.12. Earthquakes indicate how tectonic plates interact at their boundaries.
144
Earthquakes
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g the c h a p t e r with the following q u e s t i o n s .
Chapter Preview
W h a t is an e a r t h q u a k e ?
Brief a n s w e r : an e a r t h q u a k e is a shaking of the g r o u n d c a u s e d by seismic w a v e s that
radiate out from a fault that m o v e s suddenly. Elastic r e b o u n d explains w h y
e a r t h q u a k e s occur. Refer to F i g u r e 13.1.
W h a t are t h e three t y p e s of s e i s m i c w a v e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : P ( p r i m a r y / c o m p r e s s i o n a l ) w a v e s , S ( s e c o n d a r y / s h e a r ) w a v e s , and
surface w a v e s . Refer to F i g u r e 13.5.
W h a t is earthquake magnitude and how is it measured?
Brief a n s w e r : E a r t h q u a k e m a g n i t u d e is a m e a s u r e of the size of the e a r t h q u a k e .
T h e R i c h t e r m a g n i t u d e is d e t e r m i n e d from the a m p l i t u d e of the g r o u n d m o t i o n .
T h e m o m e n t m a g n i t u d e is closely related to the a m o u n t of e n e r g y radiated by the
e a r t h q u a k e . T h e Mercalli Intensity Scale is a m o r e qualitative m e a s u r e of the
d a m a g e d o n e by an e a r t h q u a k e .
W h e r e do most earthquakes occur?
Brief answer: M o s t but not all earthquakes occur along active plate tectonic boundaries.
Refer to F i g u r e 13.12.
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PART II
C H A P T E R 13
During Lecture
O n e goal for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with good answers to the preview questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 13 tells
t h e story of e a r t h q u a k e s : h o w e a r t h q u a k e activity is m e a s u r e d , t h e seismic
w a v e s that are g e n e r a t e d by e a r t h q u a k e s , and h o w e a r t h q u a k e activity is driven
by plate t e c t o n i c s t h e location and characteristics of e a r t h q u a k e s is greatly
influenced by the t y p e of plate b o u n d a r y .
F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g the differences b e t w e e n the three k i n d s of seismic (P,
S, surface) w a v e s .
( F S 13.5)
P (primary) w a v e
F i n a l M a y 10!
S (secondary) w a v e
surface w a v e s
Earthquakes
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general r e v i e w tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.
147
1 48
PART II C H A P T E R 13
to
Earthquakes
Earthquakes
at
at
Plate
Convergent
Boundaries
Plate
and
Boundaries
Identify
are
Factors
Contributing
interactive
exercises
w o r t h d o i n g . A l s o , c o m p l e t e the G e o l o g y i n P r a c t i c e e x e r c i s e s t o l e a r n
more about earthquakes.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e Chapter S u m m a r y and the Practice E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify y o u r chapter
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview that
should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . To d e t e r m i n e h o w well you
have m a s t e r e d this chapter, c o m p l e t e the exercises and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d a midterm.
After y o u a n s w e r the questions, score t h e m . Finally, review any question y o u missed. Identify
and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What is an earthquake?
An e a r t h q u a k e is a s h a k i n g of the g r o u n d c a u s e d by s e i s m i c w a v e s that
e m a n a t e from a fault that m o v e s suddenly. W h e n the fault m o v e s , the strain
built up over years of slow d e f o r m a t i o n by tectonic forces is r e l e a s e d in a few
m i n u t e s as s e i s m i c w a v e s .
Elastic r e b o u n d theory explains w h y e a r t h q u a k e s occur. O v e r a p e r i o d of t i m e ,
t h e application of stress c a u s e s r o c k to slowly d e f o r m (bend) elastically until
it b r e a k s , and the r o c k snaps b a c k as the fault m o v e s . T h i s stretching a n d
b r e a k i n g is a n a l o g o u s to stretching a r u b b e r b a n d until it b r e a k s and s n a p s
b a c k t o sting y o u r hand.
Earthquakes
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PART II C H A P T E R 13
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of this S t u d y G u i d e .
Earthquakes
151
Characteristic
Relative speed
P (primary) waves
S (secondary) waves
second
Surface waves
fastest
Motion of m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h
rolling/elliptical
which w a v e p r o p a g a t e s
sideways
confined to
surface
Analogy with c o m m o n
wave propagation
is
wave forms
difficult to visualize. It is
somewhat analogous to the
way cards in a deck of playing
cards slide over each other
as you shuffle the deck.
and
motions
the
Earth's
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PART II C H A P T E R 13
2.
3.
4.
5.
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of this S t u d y G u i d e .
1. Elastic r e b o u n d t h e o r y says that e a r t h q u a k e s are p r o d u c e d w h e n
A. r o c k s d e f o r m plastically a l o n g a fault to p r o d u c e anticlines a n d s y n c l i n e s .
B. r o c k s abruptly slip past e a c h other after an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h elastic
d e f o r m a t i o n is built up in the r o c k s .
C. m a g m a w i t h i n the Earth abruptly b e g i n s to flow and elastically d e f o r m s the surrounding rocks.
D . abrupt m o v e m e n t along faults are c a u s e d b y tidal forces.
2. T h e actual r u p t u r e p o i n t within the crust that results in an e a r t h q u a k e is called t h e
A. tsunami.
B.
focus.
C.
epicenter.
D . static release.
3. T h e o r d e r of arrival of seismic w a v e s at a r e c o r d i n g station is
A. P w a v e s , S w a v e s , surface w a v e s .
B. S w a v e s , surface w a v e s , P w a v e s .
C. P w a v e s , surface w a v e s , S w a v e s .
D . simultaneous.
4. To locate an e a r t h q u a k e epicenter, a m i n i m u m of
s e i s m i c stations is r e q u i r e d .
A. one
B. two
C. three
D . b e t w e e n f i v e and t w e l v e , d e p e n d i n g o n the location o f the e a r t h q u a k e
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 13.6.
Earthquakes
5. T h e R i c h t e r scale for e a r t h q u a k e m a g n i t u d e m e a s u r e s t h e
A. damage caused by the earthquake.
B. a m o u n t of e n e r g y released by the e a r t h q u a k e .
C. amount of ground motion.
D. d u r a t i o n of t h e e a r t h q u a k e .
6. T h e g r o u n d m o t i o n g e n e r a t e d by a R i c h t e r m a g n i t u d e 8 e a r t h q u a k e is a factor of
t i m e s greater than a R i c h t e r 4 e a r t h q u a k e .
A. 2
B.
C.
D.
100
1000
10,000
7. P r i m a r y seismic w a v e s (P w a v e s ) , like s o u n d w a v e s ,
A. travel only t h r o u g h solid material.
B. travel only t h r o u g h liquids and gas.
C. travel t h r o u g h solid, liquid, and gas.
D. are t h e slowest seismic w a v e s .
8. S e c o n d a r y seismic w a v e s (S waves)
A.
B.
C.
D.
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PART II C H A P T E R 13
Utah
C. Texas
D . N e w York
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 13.18.
15. T h e first m o t i o n s of an e a r t h q u a k e as r e c o r d e d at four different stations are displayed
on the strike-slip fault s h o w n below. U s i n g this first m o t i o n data and Figure 13.11,
d e t e r m i n e the direction of relative m o t i o n along the fault at the t i m e of the earthquake.
Bird's-eye view of a fault zone with the first motion data for P waves
arriving at four seismograph stations during an earthquake. The star
marks the epicenter. The dashed line is a north-south reference line
plotted perpendicular to the fault (solid line).
A. T h e north side m o v e d east (right) and south side m o v e d w e s t (left).
B . T h e n o r t h side m o v e d w e s t (left) and south side m o v e d east (right).
C . T h e north side m o v e d d o w n and south side m o v e d u p .
D . T h e north side m o v e d u p and south side m o v e d d o w n .
16. W h a t t y p e of fault p r o d u c e d the first m o t i o n s h o w n in q u e s t i o n 15?
H i n t : M a t c h the illustrations in F i g u r e 13.10 and 13.11 to d e t e r m i n e the t y p e of fault.
CHAPTER 14
Before Lecture
P r e v i e w i n g will greatly increase y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture. F o r an efficient p r e v i e w
u s e the following q u e s t i o n s .
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PART II C H A P T E R 14
Chapter Preview
W h a t d o s e i s m i c w a v e s reveal a b o u t t h e E a r t h ' s i n t e r i o r ?
Brief a n s w e r : S e i s m i c w a v e s reveal that the E a r t h has a c o n c e n t r i c a l l y z o n e d internal
structure. T h e felsic crust lies on a d e n s e r ultramafic m a n t l e c o m p o s e d mostly of
peridotite. T h e crust and u p p e r m a n t l e m a k e u p t h e rigid lithosphere. B e n e a t h the
lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, the w e a k layer of the m a n t l e across w h i c h the lithos p h e r e slides in plate tectonics. T h e liquid outer c o r e and solid i n n e r c o r e are mostly
iron. Refer to F i g u r e s 1.7 and 14.6.
W h a t has seismic tomography revealed about structures in the mantle?
T o m o g r a p h i c i m a g e s s h o w h o w tectonic plates vary from very thin u n d e r the
m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s to very thick u n d e r continental c r a t o n s . M a n y features of mantle
c o n v e c t i o n a r e also revealed. Refer to F i g u r e 14.9.
H o w h o t d o e s it get in E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r ?
Refer to F i g u r e 14.8.
W h a t d o e s E a r t h ' s gravity field a n d isostatic r e b o u n d tell us a b o u t t h e interior?
Brief answer: T h e o b s e r v e d gravity field is in a g r e e m e n t with the pattern of mantle
convection inferred from seismic t o m o g r a p h y . M e a s u r i n g the rate of post-glacial
isostatic r e b o u n d provides information on the viscosity of the m a n t l e a n d h o w it affects
rates of uplift and subsidence of the b u o y a n t lithosphere. Refer to E a r t h Issues 14.1.
W h a t d o e s E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field tell us a b o u t t h e fluid o u t e r c o r e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field is p r o d u c e d by convective m o t i o n s of
electrically c o n d u c t i n g iron-rich fluid in the outer c o r e .
W h a t is p a l e o m a g n e t i s m a n d w h a t is its i m p o r t a n c e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d flips b a c k a n d forth over g e o l o g i c time.
P r e s e r v e d in s o m e r o c k s is a r e c o r d of past c h a n g e s in the orientation of E a r t h ' s
m a g n e t i c f i e l d . Refer t o F i g u r e 14.15.
During Lecture
O n e goal for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with good answers to the preview questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the b i g p i c t u r e in m i n d : C h a p t e r 14 tells
the story of the interior of the Earth, its structure and c o m p o s i t i o n , and h o w
E a r t h ' s interior supplies h e a t energy to drive g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . Key p o i n t s :
E a r t h ' s interior is a concentrically z o n e d structure.
C o n t i n e n t s float on the m a n t l e .
M a n t l e b e h a v e s like a v i s c o u s fluid.
P and S w a v e s reveal a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
H e a t transfer o c c u r s via convection.
E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field is best u n d e r s t o o d as a g e o d y n a m o : C o n v e c t i v e m o v e m e n t (driven by E a r t h ' s internal heat) generates an e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c field.
Note-Taking Tip
We all have m o m e n t s when we d o n ' t understand a point being m a d e in lecture. W h e n
momentarily confused, continue taking notes. Hopefully, the necessary insight will
c o m e to you. If it does not, the notes you take will provide a clue to what you need to
investigate further in y o u r text or in a conversation with y o u r instructor.
After Lecture
Review Notes
Check Your Notes: Have y o u . . .
a n n o t a t e d figures in the text with important material discussed by y o u r instructor?
Figures 14.2, 14.5, 14.6, and 14.8 are the important figures in C h a p t e r 14.
a d d e d visual m a t e r i a l ? Since this c h a p t e r d e p e n d s heavily on material from
C h a p t e r s 1, 2, and 13, it m a y be useful to quickly sketch key ideas about P and S
w a v e s and m a n t l e convection in y o u r n o t e s . See the Vital Information from O t h e r
C h a p t e r s section on Study G u i d e p a g e 156 for suggested material.
n a d d e d a brief big picture overview of this lecture in y o u r o w n w o r d s ?
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PART II C H A P T E R 14
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y
and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r chapter review. Read
the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w that should
refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the questions, score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h question
y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What do seismic waves reveal about the layering of Earth's
crust and mantle?
S e i s m i c w a v e s reveal that t h e E a r t h h a s a c o n c e n t r i cally z o n e d internal structure. Felsic c o n t i n e n t a l and
mafic o c e a n crusts lie on a d e n s e r ultramafic m a n t l e
consisting of iron-rich silicates, like peridotite. Refer
to F i g u r e 14.6.
T h e M o h o o r M o h o r o v i c i c discontinuity i n s e i s m i c
w a v e velocities m a r k s the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e crust
and t h e m a n t l e . Refer to F i g u r e s 1.7 and 14.5.
E a r t h ' s tectonic plates are large fragments of t h e lithosphere, w h i c h i n c l u d e s the crust and the u p p e r m o s t ,
rigid m a n t l e . B e l o w the l i t h o s p h e r e in the u p p e r
m a n t l e is a w e a k (soft) z o n e called the a s t h e n o s p h e r e .
Refer to F i g u r e 14.6.
A b r u p t increases i n s e i s m i c w a v e velocities c o u p l e d
with laboratory studies on h i g h - p r e s s u r e m i n e r a l s suggest that there are zones at progressively greater d e p t h s
within the mantle where the crystal structures of
m i n e r a l s c o l l a p s e ( c h a n g e p h a s e ) u n d e r t h e intense
p r e s s u r e t o f o r m m o r e c o m p a c t a t o m i c structures and
therefore different m i n e r a l s .
of i r o n in n a t u r e , t h e e x i s t e n c e of i r o n - n i c k e l m e t e o r i t e s , t h e E a r t h ' s s t r o n g m a g n e t i c field, a n d t h e n e e d
for a v e r y d e n s e c o r e to a c c o u n t for t h e o v e r a l l m a s s
p r e s s u r e f o r c e s a r e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e a t o m s into d e n s e r
o f the E a r t h all s u p p o r t a n i r o n - n i c k e l c o m p o s i t i o n
for t h e E a r t h ' s c o r e .
CHAPTER 11
Geobiology:
Life Interacts with the Earth
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture be sure to spend s o m e t i m e previewing the chapter. For an efficient
preview use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions, w h i c h constitute the framework for understanding the chapter. P r e v i e w i n g w o r k s best if you do it j u s t before lecture. With the main points in
mind you will u n d e r s t a n d the lecture better. T h i s in turn will result in g o o d and c o m p l e t e notes.
Study Tip
To u n d e r s t a n d this chapter, focus on s y s t e m s and cycles. Study inputs and outputs:
w h a t g o e s into a n d w h a t c o m e s out o f e a c h p r o c e s s described.
Chapter Preview
H o w do organisms and the Earth interact?
Brief answer: Life processes influence weathering, precipitate minerals, and modify the
composition of the atmosphere and oceans. Geobiology is the study of these interactions.
W h a t is t h e b i o s p h e r e ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e b i o s p h e r e is t h e part of o u r planet that c o n t a i n s all living
o r g a n i s m s . It is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m e t a b o l i c p r o c e s s e s that influence and even control
geologic processes.
W h a t is m e t a b o l i s m ?
Brief a n s w e r : M e t a b o l i s m is the process that all o r g a n i s m s use to convert inputs into
o u t p u t s . F o r e x a m p l e , p h o t o s y n t h e s i s by plants u s e s three inputs (sunlight, c a r b o n
d i o x i d e , a n d water) t o p r o d u c e t w o outputs, sugar and o x y g e n gas.
H o w i m p o r t a n t are m i c r o b e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : M i c r o b e s are the m u s t a b u n d a n t and diverse o r g a n i s m s on Earth. T h e y
regulate g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s such as w e a t h e r i n g of m i n e r a l s and r o c k s , precipitation of
certain s e d i m e n t a r y m i n e r a l s , and p r o d u c t i o n of gases such as o x y g e n and c a r b o n
dioxide.
H o w d i d life o r i g i n a t e , a n d w h a t signs d o w e h a v e o f life o n the y o u n g E a r t h ?
Brief a n s w e r : S i m p l e m o l e c u l e s o f m e t h a n e , a m m o n i a , and water o n t h e primitive
Earth are t h o u g h t to have c o m b i n e d to form a m i n o acids, w h i c h then c o m b i n e d to
form p r o t e i n s . T h e oldest signs of life on E a r t h are s h o w n in F i g u r e 11.15.
W h a t is t h e difference b e t w e e n r a d i a t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n ?
Brief answer: R a d i a t i o n is the relatively rapid d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w types of organisms.
W h e n g r o u p s of o r g a n i s m s are no longer able to adapt to c h a n g i n g environmental
conditions or to c o m p e t e with a superior g r o u p of o r g a n i s m s , they b e c o m e extinct.
C a n life exist on o t h e r p l a n e t s ?
Brief a n s w e r : F o r every star, there is a habitable z o n e w h e r e w a t e r will be stable.
If a p l a n e t is within a h a b i t a b l e z o n e , there is a c h a n c e that life m i g h t h a v e originated
there. Refer to F i g u r e 11.25.
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PART II C H A P T E R 12
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
W h y d o e s v o l c a n i s m o c c u r ? S e e F i g u r e 12.1 ( S t u d y G u i d e p a g e 1 3 3 ) .
Volcanism o c c u r s w h e n m a g m a rises b u o y a n t l y t o the surface.
W h a t a r e t h e t h r e e m a j o r l a v a t y p e s a n d h o w d o t h e y relate t o e r u p t i v e style and
volcanic landforms?
Mafic (basalt), i n t e r m e d i a t e (andesite), and felsic (rhyolite) lava t y p e s p r o d u c e
e r u p t i o n s that r a n g e from relatively gentle basaltic flows to h i g h l y e x p l o s i v e rhyolitic
eruptions. See Figure 12.11.
H o w is v o l c a n i s m related to p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ?
Volcanism is c o n c e n t r a t e d at convergent and divergent plate b o u n d a r i e s and hot spots.
S e e F i g u r e 12.20.
W h a t are s o m e of t h e beneficial effects of v o l c a n i s m ?
Volcanic p r o c e s s e s create new o c e a n floor, o u r o c e a n s a n d a t m o s p h e r e , o r e deposits,
and g e o t h e r m a l energy.
Previewing Tip
S e e the flowchart H o w to S t u d y G e o l o g y on S t u d y G u i d e p a g e 3 for a d d i t i o n a l ideas on
p r e v i e w i n g . T h e m o s t useful a n s w e r to a p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n is o n e that y o u will actually
r e m e m b e r d u r i n g lecture. Simplify t o s o m e t h i n g y o u c a n c o m m i t t o m e m o r y .
P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s are like a fresh, u n d e c o r a t e d C h r i s t m a s tree. D u r i n g lecture you
d e c o r a t e the tree.
During Lecture
O n e g o a l for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s to the p r e v i e w questions.
F o c u s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w v o l c a n o e s w o r k . W h e r e the m a g m a c o m e s from
(for e x a m p l e , iron-rich o c e a n crust or silica-rich c o n t i n e n t a l crust) h a s everything to do with the explosiveness of the eruption and the s h a p e of t h e resulting volcanic landform.
F o c u s particularly on u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e s 12.1 ( h o w a v o l c a n o s y s t e m
w o r k s ) and 12.11 (volcanic eruptive styles and l a n d f o r m s ) . It m a y be helpful
to b o o k m a r k t h e s e figures and have t h e m h a n d y d u r i n g lecture for q u i c k refe r e n c e . D o a n n o t a t e text figures w i t h c o m m e n t s m a d e b y y o u r instructor.
W a n t ideas on taking g o o d n o t e s ? If y o u h a v e n ' t already d o n e so, r e a d t h e d i s c u s s i o n of n o t e taking in Part I, C h a p t e r 3, of the S t u d y G u i d e . You c a n u s e the
N o t e - T a k i n g C h e c k l i s t before y o u go to lecture as a o n e - m i n u t e r e m i n d e r of
w h a t to do to i m p r o v e y o u r note-taking skill. After lecture, u s e the c h e c k l i s t as
a quality c h e c k .
Volcanoes
After Lecture
Review Notes
Right after lecture, w h i l e t h e material is fresh in y o u r m i n d , is the perfect t i m e to review and
improve y o u r n o t e s .
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PART II C H A P T E R 14
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
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PART II C H A P T E R 14
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. E a r t h ' s c o r e has a r a d i u s that is about
A.
B.
1/8
1/4
of the E a r t h ' s r a d i u s .
C. 1/2
D . 3/4
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 14.5.
2. T h e t h i c k n e s s of E a r t h ' s tectonic plates is
A. the s a m e on the continents as u n d e r the o c e a n s .
B. at its thinnest u n d e r the o c e a n s .
C. at its thinnest in the c o n t i n e n t s .
D. completely unknown.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 1.7 and 14.6.
3. T h e likely c o m p o s i t i o n of the u p p e r m a n t l e is
A. felsic.
C.
B . mafic.
D. carbon (diamonds).
ultramafic.
4. W h i c h of the following constitutes the rigid, outer layer of E a r t h ' s tectonic plates?
A. a s t h e n o s p h e r e
C. crust
B. lithosphere
D. mantle
C.
B . mafic.
D . peridotite.
6. T h e lithosphere is a
felsic to i n t e r m e d i a t e .
layer, as o p p o s e d to the a s t h e n o s p h e r e .
A. plastic
C.
B . fluid
D . rigid
weak
C . the c o r e .
B . continental crust.
D . the w h o l e Earth.
1 1 . As o p p o s e d to t h e lithosphere, the a s t h e n o s p h e r e is a
A. brittle
B. weak
layer.
C. m o l t e n
D . rigid
C.
mantle
B. asthenosphere
D.
liquid outer c o r e
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 14.8.
14. On w h i c h b o u n d a r y in the E a r t h ' s interior does the greatest c h a n g e in composition occur?
A.
B.
C.
D.
lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary
crust-mantle boundary
mantle-core boundary
b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the outer and inner c o r e
163
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PART II C H A P T E R 14
as
they m i g r a t e t h r o u g h t h e m .
A. travel faster
B . travel s l o w e r
C. travel at the s a m e velocity
D. rapidly die out
2 0 . W h e n a reversal of the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c field o c c u r s ,
A. the sense of rotation of the Earth is also reversed.
B. the Earth flips over in its orbit.
C. the m a g n e t i c polarity of the E a r t h reverses so that the north e n d of a m a g n e t i c c o m p a s s n e e d l e p o i n t s toward the south g e o g r a p h i c p o l e .
D. a l m o s t all the i g n e o u s s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s of the o c e a n floor reverses in m a g n e t i z a tion to m a t c h the n e w orientation of the m a g n e t i c field.
2 1 . T h e M o h o , o r M o h o r o v i c i c discontinuity b e t w e e n t h e crust and t h e m a n t l e , w a s f i r s t
detected from
A. the abrupt d e c r e a s e in seismic velocities as they cross the discontinuity.
B. the abrupt increase in seismic velocities as they cross the discontinuity.
C. the S-wave s h a d o w z o n e t h r o u g h w h i c h S w a v e s do not p a s s .
D . the o b s e r v a t i o n that n o e a r t h q u a k e s o c c u r b e l o w the M o h o .
165
CHAPTER 15
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, spend s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g the chapter. For an efficient preview,
use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions.
Chapter Preview
W h a t is t h e c l i m a t e s y s t e m ?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e major c o m p o n e n t s of the climate system are the a t m o s p h e r e ,
h y d r o s p h e r e , lithosphere, and b i o s p h e r e . It is important to understand how these
s y s t e m s interact with each other via feedback m e c h a n i s m s . Refer to Figure 15.1.
W h a t is t h e g r e e n h o u s e effect?
Brief a n s w e r : C a r b o n d i o x i d e and other trace a t m o s p h e r i c gases are transparent to
sunlight but a b s o r b heat (infrared radiation), which w a r m s E a r t h ' s surface
e n v i r o n m e n t s . Refer to Figure 15.7.
How has Earth's climate changed over time?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e largest c h a n g e s are the 100,000-year glacial cycles. But there are
also significant short-term climate cycles that average 1.000 and 10,000 years. Refer
to F i g u r e 15.10. T h e r e are also r a n d o m c l i m a t e events, like El N i n o . N o t e that we are
currently living in an exceptional t i m e , the m o s t p r o l o n g e d stable w a r m period in the
last 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s .
W h a t is t h e c a r b o n c y c l e ?
Brief a n s w e r : G e o c h e m i c a l cycles trace the flux of E a r t h ' s e l e m e n t s like carbon
from o n e reservoir to another. T h e carbon cycle describes the m o v e m e n t of carbon
b e t w e e n four m a i n reservoirs: (1) the a t m o s p h e r e ; (2) the global ocean, including
m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s ; (3) t h e land surface, including terrestrial a n i m a l s , plants, and soils;
and (4) t h e d e e p e r lithosphere. T h e carbon cycle is particularly i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e of
its strong link to life p r o c e s s e s and climate c h a n g e . Refer to Figure 15.14.
H o w c a n internal g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s c a u s e c l i m a t e c h a n g e ?
Brief a n s w e r : O v e r the short t e r m of a few years, sulfuric acid aerosols and volcanic
ash ejected from large volcanic eruptions can absorb solar radiation before it r e a c h e s
the l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e a n d thus d e c r e a s e global t e m p e r a t u r e s . O v e r the long term of
millions of years, plate tectonic m o v e m e n t s can shift continents over the poles,
stabilizing p o l a r ice c a p s ; b l o c k or o p e n g a t e w a y s to o c e a n currents; and c a u s e uplift,
which alters w e a t h e r i n g s y s t e m s and rates of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g that d r a w d o w n
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Was the t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y w a r m i n g c a u s e d by h u m a n activities?
Brief a n s w e r : Global w a r m i n g of about 0.6C d u r i n g the twentieth century correlates
with the significant rise i n a t m o s p h e r i c C 0 and other g r e e n h o u s e gases caused b y
fossil-fuel b u r n i n g , deforestation, and other h u m a n activities.
2
167
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PART II C H A P T E R 15
During Lecture
K e e p t h e b i g picture in m i n d as y o u take notes. C h a p t e r 15 tells the story of
E a r t h ' s c l i m a t e s y s t e m and h o w global c l i m a t e results from interactions
b e t w e e n four E a r t h s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s : a t m o s p h e r e , h y d r o s p h e r e , b i o s p h e r e ,
a n d lithosphere. H u m a n activities are b e c o m i n g a n increasingly i m p o r t a n t factor influencing h o w E a r t h s y s t e m s function. F o c u s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the c o m p o n e n t s , fluxes, and f e e d b a c k s in e a c h s y s t e m .
B e c a u s e of the social i m p o r t a n c e of global c l i m a t e , there m a y be o p p o r t u n i t i e s
for d i s c u s s i o n / d e b a t e activities. P r e v i e w i n g the c h a p t e r will p r e p a r e y o u to
take part in t h e s e activities.
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
b o t h g e n e r a l review tips a n d specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r preparation for e x a m s . T h e C h a p t e r
S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r c h a p t e r
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful o v e r v i e w
that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w well you have m a s t e r e d this c h a p ter. After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h
question y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r ing the question incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What is the climate system?
M a j o r c o m p o n e n t s of the E a r t h ' s c l i m a t e s y s t e m are the a t m o s p h e r e , h y d r o sphere, lithosphere, and b i o s p h e r e . Refer to F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 .
E a r t h ' s surface w o u l d be m u c h c o l d e r w i t h o u t the p r e s e n c e of g r e e n h o u s e
g a s e s like water and carbon d i o x i d e in the a t m o s p h e r e .
O c e a n currents play a major role in distributing heat across the E a r t h b e c a u s e
w a t e r h a s a very h i g h capacity for storing heat.
T o p o g r a p h y affects c l i m a t e by influencing the flow of our a t m o s p h e r e .
Volcanic eruptions affect climate by changing the composition of the atmospheric
gases and by adding dust and haze that increase the albedo of the atmosphere.
Various factors m a y exert a positive or negative feedback on the climate syst e m . In s o m e c a s e s , f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m s can act to stabilize E a r t h ' s climate,
and in o t h e r cases they m a y destabilize it by amplifying c l i m a t e c h a n g e .
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PART II C H A P T E R 15
irregular but steady global c o o l i n g of a b o u t 0.2C and the m a x i m u m fluctuation in m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g any o n e of the n i n e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r i e s w a s
p r o b a b l y less than 0 . 3 C .
C l i m a t e m o d e l s that include c h a n g e s in a t m o s p h e r i c g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s as a
factor m a t c h the global t e m p e r a t u r e rise and also r e p r o d u c e the pattern of t e m perature c h a n g e b o t h g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and w i t h altitude in the a t m o s p h e r e .
in a complex
often
in as yet
ways.
ANONYMOUS
How hard to realize that every camp of men or beast has this glorious
starry firmament for a
without
any
alone
on
the mountain
sailing
the
celestial
track.
JOHNMUIR, 1890
Practice Exercises
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
E x a m p l e : T h e following c o n c e p t u a l m a p / f l o w c h a r t s h o w s h o w c l o u d s i m p a c t c l i m a t e .
Climate C h a n g e F a c t o r : C l o u d s
Explanation o f flow c h a r t
In a simple model, as air temperature increases, more moisture is evaporated and held in
the atmosphere. This usually leads to more cloud cover. Clouds increase the albedo of the
atmosphere and may cool the Earth's surface by reducing the amount of sunlight reaching
the surface. Increasing cloud cover potentially would have a negative effect on global warming. Clouds may also have a warming effect on the Earth's surface by reducing the loss of
heat to space during the night.
Note: How clouds affect climate is still debated. High clouds have been shown to cause
warming and low clouds cooling at the Earth's surface. There is growing evidence that
clouds have an overall but not very great net cooling effect.
1 71
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PART II C H A P T E R 15
impacts climate
Explanation
The balance
influence on
of evidence suggests
global climate.
discernible
1 73
human
U N CLIMATE COMMITTEE, I P C C ,
1995, p . 4
Carbon fluxes
Photosynthesis
and precipitation
of carbonates
Brief description
of flux
Carbon
is fixed in
organisms,
contribute
sediments,
Sedimentation
which
to
ultimately
and
combine
to produce
carbonate
into
which
ions
can
precipitate
limestone
help
rock particles.
other
Climate
cools.
Carbon dioxide is drawn out
of the oceans and atmosphere.
The loss of CO from the
oceans results in a reduction
of CO in the atmosphere.
calcium
and oil.
Calcium
carbonate,
living
organic matter in
coal,
Climatic impact/
implications
Direction of flux
or
Volcanism
Chemical
weathering
Metamorphism
Heating,
recystallization,
and
decomposition
of rocks
during
metamorphism can release large
amounts of C0
Carbon flows from the lithosphere (coal, oil, and gas) into
the oceans and atmosphere.
into
Human activities:
Combustion of
fossil fuels
Climate
cools.
Carbon is being drawn out of
surface
environments
and
stored in the crust. Uplift of
high plateaus
and mountains
may enhance this flux.
Climate
warms.
Increased levels of C0 in
the atmosphere enhance the
greenhouse effect,
which acts
to trap heat energy and slow
down the loss of heat to space.
2
1 74
PART II C H A P T E R 15
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of this S t u d y G u i d e .
1. W h i c h of the following gases is m o s t a b u n d a n t in the E a r t h ' s p r e s e n t atmosphere?
A . nitrogen
B. carbon dioxide
C.
water
D. oxygen
2. W h y is c a r b o n d i o x i d e c o n s i d e r e d a g r e e n h o u s e g a s ?
A. It a b s o r b s heat.
B. It reflects radioactivity.
C. It a b s o r b s UV light.
D. It reflects sunlight.
3. E a r t h ' s global t e m p e r a t u r e trend is clearly
A. u p w a r d over the last century.
B. d o w n w a r d over the last century.
C. u n c h a n g e d over the last few d e c a d e s .
D . variable, but there has b e e n n o overall c h a n g e .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 15.16.
4. It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the uplift of the H i m a l a y a n m o u n t a i n s a n d the Tibetan plateau
c o u l d h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to or even c a u s e d a global c o o l i n g . T h e link b e t w e e n the
H i m a l a y a n m o u n t a i n s and climatic c o o l i n g is p r o b a b l y related to
A . t h e collision o f I n d i a with Asia, triggering v o l c a n i s m and i n c r e a s i n g the C 0 con2
centration in t h e a t m o s p h e r e .
B. the uplift intensifying the m o n s o o n and a s s o c i a t e d p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l weathering, w h i c h resulted in a d r a w - d o w n of c a r b o n d i o x i d e from the a t m o s p h e r e .
C. t h e fact that h i g h m o u n t a i n s generate m o r e c l o u d s , a n d their a l b e d o (reflectivity)
cools t h e E a r t h ' s surface.
D . E l N i n o and the N o r t h Atlantic d e e p - w a t e r current.
5. W h i c h of the following is N O T a s s o c i a t e d with El N i n o e v e n t s ?
A. trade w i n d s s l a c k e n i n g or reversing direction
B . volcanic activity
C. c h a n g e in o c e a n circulation p a t t e r n s
D . w o r l d w i d e a n o m a l o u s w e a t h e r patterns
H i n t : Refer to Earth Issues 15.2.
6 . A s the o c e a n s b e c o m e w a r m e r ,
C0
a t m o s p h e r e , resulting in a
effect.
A. more/positive
C.
B . less/negative
D . less/positive
more/negative
S e d i m e n t a t i o n , and F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 4 .
7. T h e increase of the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e on E a r t h is linked to b u r n i n g fossil fuels
b e c a u s e the
A. burning process consumes oxygen.
B. burning process consumes C 0 .
2
C . b u r n i n g p r o c e s s generates C 0 .
2
lakes.
rivers and s t r e a m s .
caves.
continental glaciers a n d ice sheets.
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PART II C H A P T E R 16
everything
else
in
the
universe.
J O H N MUIR
Learning Warm-Up
S c i e n c e and art are synergistic; that is, e a c h e n h a n c e s the other. F o r e x a m p l e , m a n y
a s p e c t s of n a t u r e that we c o n s i d e r beautiful are the p r o d u c t of a w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s .
B e f o r e lecture s p e n d five m i n u t e s s c a n n i n g t h e text p h o t o s for beautiful features
a n d effects created b y w e a t h e r i n g . A s y o u enjoy the p h o t o s , y o u m i g h t a s k yourself,
" H o w did w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s e s create the c o l o r s and s h a p e s i n this p h o t o ? "
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
Previewing Tip
It will be very helpful to w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e 2 before g o i n g to lecture.
C o m p l e t e t h e exercise and take it to class w i t h y o u . Your lecturer will p r o b a b l y s h o w
slides to h e l p y o u u n d e r s t a n d the different k i n d s of m a s s w a s t i n g . You will u n d e r s t a n d
these differences better if you h a v e w o r k e d on t h e m before lecture.
During Lecture
As you take n o t e s d u r i n g this lecture, be sure to get details on h o w w e a t h e r i n g w o r k s . O n e
goal for lecture should be to leave class w i t h g o o d a n s w e r s to the C h a p t e r Preview questions.
F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g specific c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s e s such as oxidation and dissolution. Be sure to distinguish clearly b e t w e e n t h e c h e m i c a l
p r o c e s s e s (for e x a m p l e , dissolution, oxidation) and the physical p r o c e s s e s (for
e x a m p l e , frost w e d g i n g , exfoliation, etc).
F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e 16.12, w h i c h s h o w s the t w o basic soil-forming
p r o c e s s e s , translocation and transformation.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p t h e big picture in mind. C h a p t e r 16 tells
the story of w h a t c a u s e s m a s s w a s t i n g . M a s s wasting is about classification,
and y o u r j o b is to u n d e r s t a n d the differences b e t w e e n the types of w a s t i n g . Be
sure to p a y close attention to c o m m e n t s t h e lecturer m a y m a k e about h o w each
k i n d of m a s s w a s t i n g differs from the others. H i n t : In general these differences
will be a b o u t the steepness of t h e slope, the kind of rock in the slope b e i n g
m o v e d , and t h e water content of t h e slope material.
You m a y not be familiar with the k i n d s of m a s s wasting (rock avalanche, creep,
earthflows, and so o n ) . To help y o u visualize this process, the lecturer m a y
s h o w slides of various kinds of m a s s wasting. S o m e of the slides m a y be very
dramatic (for e x a m p l e , pictures of landslides). Enjoy the d r a m a and excitement!
If y o u c o m p l e t e d P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e 2 before class, y o u can refer to it as the
lecturer talks a b o u t the different k i n d s of m a s s w a s t i n g .
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. If you wait even o n e day m o s t
(80 p e r c e n t ) of w h a t y o u h e a r d will h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d from m e m o r y .
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PART II
C H A P T E R 16
Exam Prep
O r g a n i z a t i o n is key to successful e x a m p r e p a r a t i o n . It b e g i n s with n o t e t a k i n g and t i m e m a n a g e m e n t . Start t h i n k i n g n o w a b o u t h o w to o r g a n i z e y o u r t i m e for y o u r next e x a m . H e r e are a
few tips that s h o u l d m a k e y o u r e x a m p r e p m o r e efficient.
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
181
1 82
PART II C H A P T E R 16
Chapter Summary
What is weathering?
Physical weathering breaks rock into smaller pieces, and chemical weathering
alters and dissolves the minerals in the rock. T h e principal factors that influence
weathering are the composition of the parent rock, topography (stability of the
land surface), and climate. T h e r e is a positive feedback b e t w e e n physical and
chemical weathering, w h e r e o n e enhances the other if conditions are favorable.
A g o o d e x a m p l e of this positive feedback is soil formation. As physical and
chemical weathering proceed to alter a stable surface of r o c k material, a soil
forms. T h e formation of soil p r o m o t e s weathering by increasing the availability
of moisture and producing acidic chemical conditions. Soils also p r o m o t e the
growth of plants, w h i c h aid both physical and chemical weathering.
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
s l o p e , a n d t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t o f t h e s l o p e m a t e r i a l . S e e Table 16.4. A l t h o u g h
steep s l o p e s are p r o n e to m a s s m o v e m e n t s , s l o p e s of o n l y a few d e g r e e s can
also fail c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y b e c a u s e of t h e s e o t h e r factors.
Slopes b e c o m e unstable w h e n they b e c o m e steeper than the angle of repose (the
m a x i m u m slope angle that unconsolidated material will assume). Slopes in consolidated material m a y also b e c o m e unstable w h e n they are oversteepened or
d e n u d e d of vegetation. Erosion by rivers and glaciers and h u m a n activities can
oversteepen slopes and thereby increase the potential for m a s s movement.
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n , texture, and g e o l o g i c structure of the slope material is another i m p o r t a n t factor influencing the potential for slope failure. F o r e x a m p l e ,
rocks with h i g h clay c o n t e n t t e n d to be w e a k and m a y liquefy. Tilted layers of
s e d i m e n t a r y or v o l c a n i c r o c k s are m o r e likely to fail along b e d d i n g planes
w h e n the b e d d i n g parallels the slope. Failure of foliated m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s is
m o r e likely to o c c u r parallel to the direction of foliation.
Water a b s o r b e d by t h e slope material contributes to instability in t w o w a y s : (1)
by l o w e r i n g internal friction (and thus resistance to flow) a n d (2) by lubricating p l a n e s of w e a k n e s s in the slope.
Water content
UNCONSOLIDATED
Loose sand or s a n d y silt
Unconsolidated m i x t u r e of sand,
silt, soil, and r o c k fragments
CONSOLIDATED
Rock, j o i n t e d and d e f o r m e d
Rock, m a s s i v e
Steepness
of slope
Stability
of slope
dry
wet
angle of repose
high
moderate
dry
wet
moderate
high
low
dry
wet
steep
high
low
dry or w e t
m o d e r a t e to steep
moderate
dry or w e t
dry or wet
moderate
steep
high
moderate
1 83
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PART II C H A P T E R 16
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
Kind of mass
wasting
Rock
Composition of slope
(consolidated vs. unconsolidated
and wet vs. dry)
185
Characteristics
Speed: Running or a speeding auto
Slope angle: Steep slopes
Triggering event(s): Earthquakes
N o t e s : Occur in mountainous regions where rock
is weakened by weathering,
structural deformation,
weak bedding, or cleavage planes
avalanche
Speed:
Creep
Speed:
S l o p e angle: Any angle
Triggering event(s): Intense rainfall
N o t e s : Fluidlike movement
Debris
Speed:
S l o p e angle: Any angle
Triggering event(s):
Notes:
flow
Debris
avalanche
Speed:
Slope angle:
Triggering event(s): Intense rainfall or catastrophic
melting of ice and snow by a volcanic eruption.
N o t e s : Contains large amounts of water
Water-saturated
Speed:
Slope angle:
Triggering event(s):
Notes:
soil
and
rock
Speed: Walking
S l o p e angle: Any angle
Triggering event(s): Rainfall
Notes:
Slump
Speed: Walking
S l o p e angle: Any angle
Triggering event(s):
N o t e s : Occurs only in cold regions when water in the
surface layers of the soil alternately freezes and
thaws; water cannot seep into the ground because
deeper layers are frozen.
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PART II C H A P T E R 16
2.
2.
B. Given that the h o u s e is already built on this site, briefly discuss t w o p o s s i b l e ways
of r e d u c i n g the risk of d a m a g e to the h o u s e d u e to slope failure.
1.
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
2.
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of t h e Study G u i d e .
1. Of t h e following a g e n t s , w h i c h is N O T involved in the p r o c e s s of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g ?
A. water
B. oxygen
C. carbon d i o x i d e
D . nitrogen
C. silica in solution.
D . clay m i n e r a l s .
C. pyroxene
D . quartz
limestone
shale
granite
s a n d s t o n e c e m e n t e d with c a l c i u m carbonate.
5. An e x a m p l e of c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is
A.
B.
C.
D.
dry
dry
wet
wet
/
/
/
/
climate d u e to
oxidation
hydrolysis
p h y s i c a l w e a t h e r i n g reaction
dissolution p r o m o t e d by c a r b o n i c acid
C. feldspar.
D . clay m i n e r a l s .
187
1 88
PART II C H A P T E R 16
w e a t h e r i n g of
minerals
A. c h e m i c a l / silicate / pottery
B. p h y s i c a l / sulfate / c e m e n t
C. c h e m i c a l / sulfide / asphalt
D. physical / c a r b o n a t e / fertilizers
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 16.4.
11. W h i c h of the following climatic regions experiences the m o s t rapid chemical weathering?
A. hot, low precipitation
B. e x t r e m e l y cold, low precipitation
C. hot, high precipitation
D. e x t r e m e l y cold, high precipitation
12. Soil p r o d u c t i o n is often d e s c r i b e d as a "positive f e e d b a c k " p r o c e s s . W h y ?
A. C a r b o n d i o x i d e in r a i n w a t e r is u s e d up by o r g a n i s m s , so w e a t h e r i n g of underlying
r o c k is i m p e d e d .
B. R a i n w a t e r b e c o m e s m o r e acidic as it percolates t h r o u g h t h e soil, so weathering of
u n d e r l y i n g rock is p r o m o t e d .
C. O n c e a l a y e r of soil is f o r m e d , t h e u n d e r l y i n g r o c k is p r o t e c t e d f r o m further
weathering.
D. P l a n t g r o w t h r e d u c e s the potential for w e a t h e r i n g and therefore of soil development.
13. Of the following minerals, the o n e m o s t rapidly altered by c h e m i c a l weathering would be
A. m i c a (sheet silicate), such as biotite.
B . a m p h i b o l e ( d o u b l e chain silicate), s u c h a s h o r n b l e n d e .
C. p y r o x e n e (single chain silicate), such as augite.
D. isolated silica t e t r a h e d r a m i n e r a l , such as olivine.
H i n t : Refer to Table 16.2.
14. A c i d rain
A. neutralizes
C.
B. d o e s not affect
D. d e c r e a s e s
increases
weathered.
A. not at all
B . very w e a k l y
C.
moderately
D . intensely
17. P h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g in the w a r m , w e t climates of the E a r t h ' s surface alter
e x p o s e d granite to
A. q u a r t z and feldspar sand.
B. olivine sand.
C. iron-rich soil.
D. quartz sand and clay.
Weathering, Erosion, and Mass Wasting: Interface Between Climate and Tectonics
A. site A
B. siteB
C. s i t e C
D. siteD
20. W h a t force drives m a s s w a s t i n g ?
A.
B.
C.
D.
heat
gravity
friction
convection
2 1 . M a s s w a s t i n g tends t o o c c u r w h e n
A.
B.
C.
D.
a n g l e at w h i c h r o c k material is m o s t stable.
a n g l e at w h i c h lava flows solidify w i t h o u t spreading out.
a n g l e of a slope that will no longer support large b o u l d e r s a n d r o c k pillars.
m a x i m u m slope at which loose material lies without cascading down.
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PART II C H A P T E R 16
2 4 . An i m p o r t a n t factor in m a s s w a s t i n g is the orientation of r o c k layers, foliation, or jointing. For layered s e d i m e n t a r y and volcanic r o c k s , w h i c h c o n d i t i o n is the least stable?
A. R o c k layers are at right a n g l e s to t h e slope.
B. R o c k layers are parallel to the slope.
C. R o c k layers are horizontal to the slope.
D . R o c k layers stand vertical.
Test-Taking Tip
T i m e p e r m i t t i n g , it is s o m e t i m e s helpful to sketch the alternatives to a test question.
For e x a m p l e , if you a r e n ' t sure about the a n s w e r to R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n 2 4 , then y o u could
sketch r o c k layers at right a n g l e s to the slope, r o c k layers parallel to the slope, and so
o n . S k e t c h i n g can be particularly useful if y o u are a kinesthetic learner, as t h e action
o f d r a w i n g m a y j o g o r u n l o c k y o u r m e m o r y w h e n y o u are stuck.
CHAPTER 17
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e time previewing the chapter. For an efficient preview use the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions, a framework for understanding the chapter. Previewing
works best if you do it just before lecture. With the main points in mind, you will understand the
lecture better and take better notes.
H o w m u c h t i m e s h o u l d y o u devote t o p r e v i e w ? O b v i o u s l y , m o r e t i m e i s better than less.
B u t even a brief (five- or t e n - m i n u t e ) p r e v i e w session j u s t before lecture b e g i n s will p r o d u c e
191
192
PART li C H A P T E R 17
a result y o u will notice. For a refresher on w h y previewing is important, see Part I, Chapter 3,
H o w t o B e Successful i n G e o l o g y .
Chapter Preview
H o w d o e s w a t e r m o v e a r o u n d a n d i n the E a r t h ?
Brief answer: T h e h y d r o l o g i c cycle is a m o d e l for the m o v e m e n t of water on Earth.
Refer to Figure 17.2.
During Lecture
Warm-Up Activity
S p e n d 5 to 10 m i n u t e s j u s t before lecture b r o w s i n g Earth I s s u e s 1 7 . 1 , W a t e r Is a
P r e c i o u s R e s o u r c e : W h o S h o u l d G e t It? and 17.2, W h e n D o e s G r o u n d w a t e r B e c o m e
a N o n r e n e w a b l e R e s o u r c e ? W h i c h issue interests y o u the m o s t ? After b r o w s i n g ,
ask yourself w h a t y o u w o u l d m o s t like to learn from this c h a p t e r and lecture.
O n e goal for lecture should be to leave the r o o m with good answers to the preview questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 17 is a
survey of w a t e r in and a r o u n d the Earth. It tells the story of the h y d r o l o g i c
cycle: h o w w a t e r m o v e s a r o u n d and in the Earth and m a i n t a i n s a b a l a n c e d
waterflow budget.
First focus on u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e 17.2 (the h y d r o l o g i c cycle).
T h e n w o r k on u n d e r s t a n d i n g the factors that govern the flow of g r o u n d w a t e r ,
illustrated in the figures on p a g e s 4 0 8 ^ 1 1 1 .
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to r e v i e w y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both general r e v i e w tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r preparation for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . T h e
Chapter S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
overview that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
Next, w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well you have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
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PART II C H A P T E R 17
Chapter Summary
How does water move around and in the Earth?
T h e h y d r o l o g i c c y c l e is a flowchart or m o d e l for the distribution and m o v e m e n t s of w a t e r on and b e l o w the surface of the Earth. T h e major reservoirs of
the h y d r o l o g i c cycle are o c e a n s , glaciers, g r o u n d w a t e r , lakes and rivers, the
a t m o s p h e r e , and the b i o s p h e r e , in d e c r e a s i n g v o l u m e s . W a t e r m o v e s in a n d out
of t h e s e reservoirs by various p a t h w a y s and at varying r a t e s . O v e r the short
t e r m a b a l a n c e is m a i n t a i n e d a m o n g the major reservoirs at and n e a r the
E a r t h ' s surface. However, c l i m a t e c h a n g e and l o n g e r - t e r m tectonic p r o c e s s e s
such as m o u n t a i n building and h u m a n activity c a n alter the rate of w a t e r m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n reservoirs and c a n affect the size of the r e s e r v o i r s .
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
Rock material
Porosity (high,
medium, low)
Potential as an aquifer
(good, moderate, poor)
Loose, w e l l - s o r t e d , c o a r s e sand
Silt and clay
Low
Granite and g n e i s s
Poor
Medium
Shale
Highly j o i n t e d l i m e s t o n e
Moderate
to
good
1 95
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PART II C H A P T E R 17
low,
or
none.
1. pollution
2. artesian flow
3. discharge
Well B p o t e n t i a l for
4. pollution
5. artesian flow
6. d i s c h a r g e
7. l o n g - t e r m supply
Well C p o t e n t i a l for
8. pollution
9. artesian flow
10. discharge
Americans
now
47 gallons
of soda pop
drink
more
to
only
soda
pop
than
water from
the
kitchen
tap
each year.
WORLD
WATCH,
1990
Review Questions
A n s w e r s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of the S t u d y G u i d e .
1. In the h y d r o l o g i c cycle, h o w d o e s the evaporation rate from the l a n d surface c o m p a r e
with t h e evaporation rate from the o c e a n s ?
A . T h e evaporation rate i s m u c h greater from the l a n d t h a n f r o m t h e o c e a n s .
B . T h e evaporation rate i s m u c h greater from the o c e a n s t h a n f r o m t h e land.
C. E v a p o r a t i o n rates from the land and o c e a n s are e q u a l .
D. T h e r e is no r e a s o n a b l e c o m p a r i s o n b e c a u s e it is t o o w e t over the o c e a n s for evaporation to occur.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 .
2. T h e o c e a n s c o n t a i n by far the m o s t a m o u n t of w a t e r on E a r t h . W h a t is the s e c o n d largest
reservoir for w a t e r on E a r t h ?
A. lakes
C. rivers
B. groundwater
D. 3 5 %
C. p e r m e a b i l i t y
D . porosity.
C. l i m e s t o n e
D . shale
a q u i c l u d e is
a confined aquifer.
a l w a y s located at the t o p of t h e water table.
a r o c k layer that p r o v i d e s a g o o d flow of water into a well.
an i m p e r m e a b l e r o c k layer that d o e s not allow water to flow t h r o u g h it.
A.
B.
C.
D.
rock A
rockB
rockC
rock D
Porosity
Permeability
5%
10%
30%
35%
high
medium
low
medium
C. w e l l s .
D . karst conditions.
197
198
PART II C H A P T E R 17
Test-Taking Tip
W h e n you are u n s u r e about an answer, you c a n s o m e t i m e s m a k e a correct g u e s s just
by looking at the r e s p o n s e s . L o n g r e s p o n s e s are m o r e likely to be correct than short
o n e s . T h i s o c c u r s b e c a u s e p e o p l e w h o write test i t e m s have t o b e sure that t h e correct
alternative is clear and accurate, and that m a y s o m e t i m e s take m o r e w o r d s . Obviously,
this is a strategy to use only as a last resort, w h e n y o u h a v e no c l u e w h a t the correct
a n s w e r is. T h e safer strategy is to learn the material thoroughly.
C.
D . highly c e m e n t e d s a n d s t o n e
unfractured granite
1 99
200
PART II C H A P T E R 17
A. the spring
B.
wellB
C.
wellC
D . the s t r e a m
2 4 . A s s u m e that y o u are dealing with the s a m e aquifer at four different localities and that the
cross-sectional area t h r o u g h w h i c h the w a t e r flows (A) and the h y d r a u l i c conductivity
(K) are the s a m e for e a c h site. Given the following data on vertical d r o p (h) and flow dist a n c e (1), w h i c h well will p r o d u c e w a t e r at the highest rate ( Q ) ? Refer to F i g u r e 17.15.
A. h = 20 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 5 0 0 m e t e r s
B. h = 30 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 1 k i l o m e t e r
C. h = 3 0 0 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 6 k i l o m e t e r s
D. h = 6 0 0 m e t e r s a n d 1 = 100 k i l o m e t e r s
CHAPTER 18
S. ELIOT,
202
PART II C H A P T E R 18
Before Lecture
As y o u p r e v i e w this chapter, k e e p in m i n d the o v e r a r c h i n g q u e s t i o n this c h a p t e r addresses:
H o w d o streams w o r k ?
Chapter Preview
H o w do stream valleys and their channels a n d floodplains evolve?
Brief a n s w e r : As a s t r e a m flows, it c a r v e s a valley. If t h e valley is w i d e e n o u g h , the
c h a n n e l will be s u r r o u n d e d by a floodplain into w h i c h the c h a n n e l will overflow
d u r i n g t i m e s of high water, d r o p p i n g its s e d i m e n t load as the w a t e r s p r e a d s out and
slows. C h a n n e l s m a y be straight, m e a n d e r i n g ( w i n d i n g ) , or b r a i d e d (divided,
interlacing c h a n n e l s ) .
H o w d o d r a i n a g e n e t w o r k s w o r k a s collection s y s t e m s , a n d h o w d o d e l t a s work
a s d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s for w a t e r a n d s e d i m e n t ?
Brief answer: Rivers and tributaries constitute an u p s t r e a m b r a n c h i n g d r a i n a g e network
that collects the runoff for a particular d r a i n a g e basin. T w o notable e x a m p l e s are the
Mississippi River basin and the C o l o r a d o River basin. T h e n a t u r e of a d r a i n a g e pattern
d e p e n d s on the basin topography, r o c k type, and g e o l o g i c structure. S e e F i g u r e 18.7.
Deltas form at the m o u t h s of rivers as the river b r a n c h e s into n u m e r o u s distributaries
and d r o p s (distributes) its load of sediment. S e e Figures 18.7, 18.17, and 18.18.
H o w d o e s f l o w i n g w a t e r in s t r e a m s e r o d e solid rock a n d t r a n s p o r t a n d
deposit sediments?
Brief answer: F l o w i n g w a t e r e r o d e s rock by physical and c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g
p r o c e s s e s . Turbulent flow is r e s p o n s i b l e for transporting s e d i m e n t s . W h e n a stream
flow s l o w s , the stream loses its c o m p e t e n c e to carry s e d i m e n t and d e p o s i t s it. Refer
to F i g u r e 18.15.
H o w d o e s a s t r e a m ' s l o n g i t u d i n a l profile r e p r e s e n t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n
erosion and sedimentation?
Brief a n s w e r : A s t r e a m ' s gradient (slope or longitudinal profile), base level, velocity
( s p e e d ) , d i s c h a r g e ( a m o u n t of water), and the availability of s e d i m e n t (load)
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a stream e r o d e s , d e p o s i t s , or r e a c h e s a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n erosion
and d e p o s i t i o n a n e q u i l i b r i u m , called a graded stream. C h a n g e s in these s t r e a m
characteristics can be used to predict the b e h a v i o r of a stream w h e n it is d a m m e d or
there is s o m e other c h a n g e in the d r a i n a g e .
During Lecture
K e e p the big picture in m i n d . D u r i n g this lecture y o u w a n t to learn h o w
s t r e a m s work. You will learn h o w w a t e r flows in c u r r e n t s , h o w s t r e a m s b r e a k
u p and e r o d e solid rock, a n d h o w s t r e a m s , c h a n n e l s , and entire d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s evolve over t i m e .
In this lecture it will be particularly helpful to k e e p the p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s in
front of y o u d u r i n g the lecture. N o t i c e w h i c h p r e v i e w q u e s t i o n is b e i n g
a d d r e s s e d in e a c h s e g m e n t of the lecture.
It m a y be helpful to b o o k m a r k s o m e of the key figures so that y o u c a n refer to
t h e m and a n n o t a t e y o u r t e x t b o o k a s they are d i s c u s s e d d u r i n g lecture. T h e
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both general review tips and specific suggestions for this chapter.
203
204
PART II C H A P T E R 18
Flooding,
and
Create a Flood.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s and e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
o v e r v i e w that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s a n d R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w w e l l have m a s t e r e d this chapter. After
y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review e a c h q u e s t i o n that
y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r i n g the
q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Mark Twain,
proclaimed it
to
cultivate."
Chapter Summary
How do stream valleys and their channels and floodplains evolve?
T h e physical features (drainage pattern, stream channel, floodplain, meand e r b e n d s i n t h e c h a n n e l , a l l u v i a l fans a n d d e l t a s ) o f a s t r e a m s y s t e m e v o l v e
over time.
W h e n s e d i m e n t - l a d e n w a t e r o v e r f l o w s t h e b a n k s of a c h a n n e l d u r i n g flood
stage, the water drops sediment, which builds up natural levees and floodplain deposits.
erode,
transport,
and
deposit
sediments.
205
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the Study G u i d e .
1. W h e r e do rivers obtain the p o w e r to e r o d e and transport s e d i m e n t s ?
A. heat
B. gravity
C. electricity
D. friction
B . discharge.
D . gradient.
increases
decreases
r e m a i n s unaffected
m a y increase o r d e c r e a s e
C. depth.
D. channel shape.
C. 5 feet/mile
D. 10 feet/mile
C. sand, p e b b l e s , c o b b l e s
D. clay, p e b b l e s , sand
d e c r e a s e in stream gradient.
d e c r e a s e in discharge.
c h a n g e such that the river has r e n e w e d ability to e r o d e .
d e c r e a s e in stream velocity.
13. If flood control engineers straighten out a meandering stream channel, the stream probably
A. flows m o r e slowly in the straightened stretch.
B. deposits in t h e straightened stretch.
C. d o w n c u t s in the straightened stretch.
D. d o w n c u t s and flows m o r e rapidly in t h e straightened stretch.
14. If a flood is classified as a fifty-year flood,
A.
B.
C.
D.
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PART II
C H A P T E R 18
CHAPTER 19
1939
212
PART II
C H A P T E R 19
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture be sure to spend s o m e time previewing the chapter. For an efficient
preview, use the questions below. C h a p t e r Preview questions constitute the basic framework
for understanding the chapter. Preview w o r k s best if you do it just before lecture. With the main
points in m i n d , y o u will understand the lecture better. This will in turn result in a better and more
c o m p l e t e set of notes.
Chapter Preview
W h e r e d o w i n d s f o r m a n d h o w d o t h e y flow?
Brief a n s w e r : W a r m air rises at the equator, c a u s i n g c l o u d i n e s s and a b u n d a n t rain in
the tropics. A i r flows t o w a r d t h e p o l e s a n d at a b o u t 30 d e g r e e s n o r t h and 30 degrees
south the c o o l e d air sinks, w a r m s up, a b s o r b s m o i s t u r e , and often p r o d u c e s
d o m i n a n t l y clear skies and deserts. Refer to Figures 19.1 and 19.15.
H o w do winds erode and transport sand and finer-grained sediments?
Brief a n s w e r : Turbulent airflow and forward m o t i o n c o m b i n e to lift finer particles into
t h e w i n d and carry t h e m b y s u s p e n s i o n , sliding, rolling, and saltation.
H o w do winds deposit sand dunes and dust?
Brief a n s w e r : A d e c r e a s e in w i n d velocity and gravity c a u s e s d e p o s i t i o n of sediment
b e i n g transported by w i n d . T h e formation and shape of sand d u n e s d e p e n d s on the
supply of sand and the strength and variability of w i n d direction.
W h a t f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e t o the e x i s t e n c e o f d e s e r t r e g i o n s o n E a r t h ?
Brief a n s w e r : G l o b a l a t m o s p h e r i c circulation patterns, distance from w a t e r (oceans),
t o p o g r a p h i c barriers like m o u n t a i n s , cold o c e a n c u r r e n t s , and polar c l i m a t e s contribute
to the formation of desert c o n d i t i o n s on Earth.
W h a t features are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of d e s e r t l a n d s c a p e s ?
S u g g e s t i o n : M a n y d i a g n o s t i c features of deserts are d e s c r i b e d in this chapter. O n e
q u e s t i o n to ask yourself as you read about t h e s e features is, " W h a t features might a
geologist look for in the rock record that w o u l d serve as e v i d e n c e for past desert
c o n d i t i o n s at localities that are no longer d e s e r t s ? "
How to use it
W i t h this m u c h t i m e y o u c a n dig d e e p into the chapter. D o a s m a n y o f t h e following a s
your time allows.
/ R e a d the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s and brief a n s w e r s .
/ R e a d the D u r i n g L e c t u r e s u g g e s t i o n s .
/ S t u d y the key figure(s) for this chapter (usually s h o w n at the b e g i n n i n g of the S t u d y
Guide chapter).
/ S t u d y a n d a n n o t a t e any additional figures, hints, or s u g g e s t i o n s alluded to in the
C h a p t e r Preview.
/ If t i m e allows, do the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s .
15-20 minutes
5-10 minutes
R e a d the C h a p t e r Preview questions and brief answers. Focus on getting the questions clearly
in mind. Then listen for answers during lecture. Even five minutes of previewing h e l p s !
During Lecture
O n e goal for lecture should b e t o leave the r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s t o the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w
questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 19 tells
t w o related stories. First is the story of w i n d : E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r i c circulation
p a t t e r n a n d h o w w i n d transports s e d i m e n t and creates sand d u n e s . S e c o n d is
t h e story of deserts: h o w E a r t h ' s circulation patterns p r o d u c e deserts 15 to 30
d e g r e e s a w a y from t h e e q u a t o r a n d h o w u n i q u e features of a desert l a n d s c a p e
(for e x a m p l e , desert p a v e m e n t , sand d u n e s , and p e d i m e n t s ) evolve.
F o c u s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i g u r e 19.1 ( a t m o s p h e r i c circulation) and F i g u r e
19.12 ( d u n e t y p e s ) .
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both g e n e r a l r e v i e w tips a n d specific suggestions for this chapter.
213
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PART II C H A P T E R 19
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s i n this s e c t i o n are m o s t useful d u r i n g y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for e x a m s . T h e Chapter
S u m m a r y a n d the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify y o u r chapter
review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful overview
that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and questions j u s t as y o u w o u l d for an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u have m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the questions, score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review each question
that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering the
q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
Where do winds form and how do they flow?
Prevailing w i n d s on Earth are largely controlled by z o n e s of rising and sinking air and the Coriolis effect. H o t (less d e n s e ) air rises and carries m o i s t u r e
up to w h e r e it c o n d e n s e s and falls as precipitation. As air radiates heat to s p a c e
in the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e , it cools, b e c o m e s denser, sinks to the surface, and
flows b a c k t o w a r d the equator. S i n k i n g air is typically very dry b e c a u s e it
c o m e s from the cold and dry u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e . B e c a u s e of t h e rotation of
Earth, the Coriolis effect deflects air flow in b o t h h e m i s p h e r e s .
215
Practice Exercise
The a n s w e r a n d an e x p l a n a t i o n is provided at the end of this Study G u i d e .
Dune type
Characteristics
Sand supply
Wind direction/strength
Barchan
Transverse
Blowout
Limited to moderate
Linear
(See F i g u r e 19.8.)
Review Questions
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e end of this St
Study G u i d e ,
1. W i n d belts on E a r t h are largely controlled
rolled by
A. r e g i o n s of sinking air.
B. r e g i o n s of rising air.
C. the Coriolis effect.
D. all of the a b o v e .
2 . D e s e r t s m a y b e c a u s e d b y all o f the following
following E X C
CEEP T
A. rising air.
B . p r o x i m i t y t o cold o c e a n currents.
C. great d i s t a n c e from the o c e a n .
D. d e s c e n d i n g air.
3. As
A.
B.
C.
D.
a dune advances,
sand e r o d e s from the w i n d w a r d slope.
s a n d is deposited on the leeward slope.
particles m o v e over t h e crest by saltation.
all of t h e a b o v e occur.
4. As
the
A.
B.
C.
D.
C . playa.
D . o x b o w lake.
6. L o e s s is
A. fine dust transported by w i n d in s u s p e n s i o n
and d e p o s i t e d on land.
B . dust transported b y w i n d , deposited, and then
later e r o d e d a n d r e d e p o s i t e d by water.
C. fine sand transported and deposited by w i n d .
D. fine-grained salt particles e r o d e d by w i n d off
a p l a y a surface.
Unidirectional/gusty
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C H A P T E R 19
7. D e s e r t p a v e m e n t m a y be the p r o d u c t of
A. deposition of gravel by flash floods.
B. concentration of coarser particles as w i n d r e m o v e s finer m a t e r i a l .
C. deposition of m u d by flash floods.
D . desert varnish.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 19.7.
8. R o c k material carried in s u s p e n s i o n by w i n d is mostly the size of
A. sand.
C. gravel.
D. p e b b l e s .
C.
north.
B . right ( e a s t w a r d ) . D .
south.
11. W h i l e hiking through a dune-filled coastal plain on a w i n d l e s s m o r n i n g , y o u b e c o m e surr o u n d e d by a d e n s e fog and realize that you are lost. You k n o w y o u are near a shoreline
and that the b e a c h will lead y o u b a c k to c a m p , but y o u d o n ' t k n o w w h i c h direction it is
in. You r e c o g n i z e the crescent-shaped d u n e s that w r a p m o d e r a t e d e p r e s s i o n s as blow-out
d u n e s . A c c o r d i n g to your c o m p a s s , the tapered a r m s of the d u n e s p o i n t south. Then,
r e m e m b e r i n g that in this region strong, gusty w i n d s c o m e onto the coastal plain off the
ocean, y o u i m m e d i a t e l y r e m e m b e r w h i c h direction you should head to get to the beach:
A. n o r t h
C.
B . south
D . west
east
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 19.12.
12. W h y are evaporites significant geological d e p o s i t s ?
A. T h e y are a g o o d p a l e o e n v i r o n m e n t a l indicator of ancient desert c o n d i t i o n s .
B. T h e y are a major source of c h e m i c a l s like b o r a x .
C. T h e y are a source of salt for the d i n n e r table.
D. all of the a b o v e
13. P e t r o g l y p h s , early Native A m e r i c a n
artwork, is scratched t h r o u g h
CHAPTER 20
B O O K V I I , LL. 2 7 8 - 2 8 0
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PART II
C H A P T E R 20
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
H o w d o e s the g e o l o g y of the o c e a n s differ f r o m that of t h e c o n t i n e n t s ?
Brief answer: O c e a n basins are created at o c e a n ridges (diverging m a r g i n s ) by
volcanism and are destroyed in the brief period of several h u n d r e d million years by
s u b d u c t i o n at converging m a r g i n s .
W h a t processes shape the shoreline?
Brief answer: Waves and tides interact with tectonics to shape the shoreline. W i n d s
blowing over the sea create waves. Waves approaching shallow water along the shoreline
are transformed into breakers and refracted into longshore currents and longshore drift,
w h i c h transports sand along the beach. Tides deposit sediment on longshore flats.
Tectonic uplift creates cliffs and headlands, which are smashed by w a v e action, leaving
behind cliff remnants called seastacks. Tectonic subsidence creates areas of long, wide
beaches and low-lying coastal plains and sandbars, w h i c h m a y evolve into barrier islands.
H o w do h u r r i c a n e s affect c o a s t a l a r e a s ?
Brief a n s w e r : E x t r e m e l y high w i n d s and a s t o r m surge are characteristic of hurricanes.
T h e storm surge can flood low-lying areas up to depths of 10 m and c a n be devastating
over a very broad area of the coastline.
W h a t are the m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s o f the c o n t i n e n t a l m a r g i n s a n d a d j a c e n t
o c e a n floor?
Brief a n s w e r : Continental m a r g i n s are flooded p o r t i o n s of t h e c o n t i n e n t . T h e c o n tinental slope m a r k s t h e e d g e of the c o n t i n e n t and a transition to d e e p e r w a t e r and the
o c e a n floor. Turbidity currents transport fine s e d i m e n t s off t h e c o n t i n e n t a l shelf and
o n t o the adjacent a b y s s a l o c e a n floor.
H o w is d e e p seafloor f o r m e d ?
Brief answer: T h e d e e p seafloor is constructed by basaltic volcanism at o c e a n ridges and
o c e a n hot spots and by deposition of fine-grained clastic and biochemically precipitated
sediments. P r o m i n e n t features of the d e e p seafloor landscape include s e a m o u n t s , guyots,
and abyssal plains and hills. Refer to Figures 20.20 and 20.22. O c e a n i c trenches (Figure
20.22) are formed w h e r e ocean plates converge.
W h a t are the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e ?
Brief answer: A rift valley runs along the crest, basaltic volcanism and e a r t h q u a k e
activity are c o m m o n along the ridge crest, and s m o k e r s (hydrothermal springs) percolate
through cracks on the flanks of the ridges. Refer to Figures 20.19(b) and 2 0 . 2 1 .
W h a t k i n d s of s e d i m e n t a t i o n o c c u r in a n d n e a r the o c e a n s ?
Terrigenous (note the similarity to the w o r d terrain) sediments are m u d s and sands
e r o d e d from the c o n t i n e n t and d e p o s i t e d b y turbidity c u r r e n t s a l o n g t h e c o n t i n e n t a l
shelf. Biochemical sediments result from deposition of c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e from shells
and coral reefs. Open-ocean (pelagic) sediments result from clays and o o z e s of
c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e and silica shells of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s (see Figure 2 0 . 2 3 ) . Evaporite
sediments result from intense evaporation in shallow tropical seas. S e d i m e n t s derived
from volcanic ash and lava flows are deposited near s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s . T h e c a r b o n a t e
c o m p e n s a t i o n depth ( C C D ) is the level in the o c e a n b e l o w w h i c h c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e
d i s s o l v e s . Refer t o F i g u r e 2 0 . 2 4 .
During Lecture
One goal for lecture s h o u l d be to leave the r o o m w i t h g o o d a n s w e r s to the C h a p t e r P r e v i e w
questions. To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the big picture in mind: C h a p t e r 20 tells the
story of t h e o c e a n d e p t h s . You will learn about various landform features of the d e e p o c e a n ,
continental m a r g i n s , and shoreline a n d learn about t h e geological p r o c e s s e s that create t h e m .
Note-Taking Tip
There is a lot of n e w t e r m i n o l o g y in this chapter. B e c a u s e t h e c h a p t e r is so t e r m i n o l o g y rich, the lecturer m a y use t e r m s you are not familiar with. M a r k , circle, or u n d e r l i n e
them in y o u r notes so that you can c h e c k t h e m out later. Put the abbreviation def.
{define) in the margin to r e m i n d yourself to do this.
MELVILLE,
MOBY-DICK
(1851)
After Lecture
Review Notes
The perfect t i m e to r e v i e w y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist c o n t a i n s
both general review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
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PART II
C H A P T E R 20
Study Tip
N o w is the t i m e to look up the terms you d i d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d . S k i m the margin of your
notes. (You did m a r k unfamiliar terms def d i d n ' t y o u ? ) T h e text p r o v i d e s t w o helpful
aids for dealing w i t h t e r m s y o u d o n ' t know. Key T e r m s and C o n c e p t s at t h e e n d of each
text c h a p t e r lists all n e w t e r m s a n d h a n d i l y p r o v i d e s the p a g e n u m b e r of a t e r m so that
y o u c a n look it u p . Alternatively, use the G l o s s a r y at the e n d of the text.
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful during y o u r p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d the C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It p r o v i d e s a helpful
o v e r v i e w that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , s c o r e t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review e a c h question that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering the q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How does the geology of the oceans differ from that of the continents?
V o l c a n i s m and s e d i m e n t a t i o n s h a p e the o c e a n floor. In contrast, folding, faulting, w e a t h e r i n g , and e r o s i o n play i m p o r t a n t parts in s h a p i n g the c o n t i n e n t s .
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PART II
C H A P T E R 20
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of this S t u d y G u i d e .
Review Questions
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are provided at the e n d of this Study G u i d e .
1. O c e a n w a v e s are g e n e r a t e d m o s t l y by
A. tides.
B . ships.
C. the wind.
D. earthquakes.
w a v e reflection.
wave erosion.
l o n g s h o r e drift.
w a v e refraction.
basalt and p e l a g i c s e d i m e n t s .
granite and g n e i s s .
o b s i d i a n a n d sand.
rhyolite and c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s .
7. T h e r o c k that m a k e s up a s e a m o u n t is
A. basalt.
B. limestone.
C. granite.
D . m a r i n e s e d i m e n t a r y rock.
8. S e a stacks are
A. piles of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s near the shore.
B. the e r o s i o n a l r e m n a n t s of sea cliffs.
C. f o r m e d w h e r e a river drains o n t o the coastline.
D. f o r m e d by rapidly g r o w i n g corals on a reef.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 2 0 . 1 .
9. T h e d e e p abyssal o c e a n plain lies at a water d e p t h of
A.
B.
C.
D.
b e t w e e n 100 and 5 0 0 m e t e r s .
6 0 0 t o 1000 m e t e r s .
2000 to 3000meters.
4000 to 6000 meters.
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PART II
C H A P T E R 20
C. tidal current
D. tsunami
225
CHAPTER 21
Before Lecture
Before you attend lecture, be sure to spend s o m e time previewing the chapter. For an efficient
preview, use t h e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w q u e s t i o n s .
226
Chapter Preview
H o w d o g l a c i e r s f o r m a n d h o w d o they m o v e ?
Brief a n s w e r : G l a c i e r s form w h e r e snow a c c u m u l a t i o n e x c e e d s snow melting. Refer to
F i g u r e 2 1 . 9 . G l a c i e r s m o v e by a c o m b i n a t i o n of plastic flow and slip at the b a s e of the
ice. S e e Figure 2 1 . 1 1 .
W h y do ice s h e l v e s float?
Brief a n s w e r : Ice floats on the ocean in exactly the s a m e way that ice c u b e s float in a
glass of water. Ice is less d e n s e than water. See Earth Issues 2 1 . 1 .
H o w do glaciers erode bedrock, transport and deposit sediments, and shape
the landscape?
Brief a n s w e r : G l a c i e r s e r o d e by scraping, p l u c k i n g , and grinding rock. Refer to F i g u r e
2 1 . 1 6 . T h e rock debris deposited by a glacier is called till. Till may contain debris
from the size of rock flour to giant b o u l d e r s . Glaciers sculpt a distinctive l a n d s c a p e
with U - s h a p e d a n d h a n g i n g valleys, aretes, cirques, m o r a i n e s , d r u m l i n s , k a m e s , and
other features. Refer to Figures 2 1 . 1 5 , 2 1 . 1 7 , 2 1 . 1 8 , and 21.19.
W h a t a r e t h e ice a g e s a n d w h a t c a u s e d t h e m ?
Brief a n s w e r : D u r i n g the Pleistocene e p o c h , m a n y cycles of a d v a n c e and retreat of
continental ice sheets occurred. T h e ice sheets of the last major a d v a n c e w e r e g o n e by
about 10,000 years a g o , the b e g i n n i n g of the H o l o c e n e e p o c h . A p o p u l a r theory for
the c a u s e of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e ice ages relies on h o w variations in the E a r t h ' s orbit effect
the intensity of the solar e n e r g y reaching Earth. Refer to F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 1 .
During Lecture
K e e p the big p i c t u r e in m i n d to h e l p with n o t e taking. T h i s c h a p t e r tells the
story of ice: h o w glaciers form, m o v e , a n d create a l a n d s c a p e of u n i q u e features. T h i s story h a s a l o n g history: the m a n y ice ages of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e epoch.
T h e c h a p t e r s u g g e s t s a future w h e n our d e s c e n d e n t s will a l m o s t certainly have
to face the return of ice and m a s s i v e glaciation.
Understanding glacial landscapes is one of the main goals for this lecture. Take
notes that will help you understand key landscape features such as the following.
Glacial features f o r m e d by the erosive p o w e r of glacial ice (see E a r t h
Issues 2 1 . 1 a n d F i g u r e s 2 1 . 1 6 and 21.17)
S t r i a t i o n s s c r a t c h e s and g r o o v e s c a r v e d in b e d r o c k over w h i c h
t h e glacier flowed
Cirque
U - s h a p e d valley
H a n g i n g valley
Fjord
Arete
Glacial features f o r m e d by deposition of r o c k material by glacial ice (see
Figures 21.18 and 21.19):
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PART II
C H A P T E R 21
Kame
Glacial erratic
Kettle
Varves
After Lecture
Review Notes
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d e x a m s . T h e
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s should simplify y o u r
chapter review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to b e g i n y o u r session. It provides a helpful
overview that should refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k o n t h e P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t important, review e a c h q u e s tion that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that resulted in y o u r a n s w e r ing t h e q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
How do glaciers form and how do they move?
G l a c i e r s form in c o l d and s n o w y climates w h e r e snow a c c u m u l a t i o n e x c e e d s
t h e ablation of ice d u e to m e l t i n g , sublimation, w i n d erosion, and iceberg calving. Glacial ice m o v e s by plastic flow and slip along the base, w h i c h m a y be
lubricated by m e l t water. T h e rate of ice flow typically varies from m e t e r s p e r
year to meters per week.
G l a c i e r s are d e s c r i b e d as a d v a n c i n g or retreating d e p e n d i n g on the b a l a n c e
b e t w e e n s n o w a c c u m u l a t i o n and ablation. W h e n ablation e x c e e d s a c c u m u l a tion, t h e shrinking glacier " r e t r e a t s " as the toe or t e r m i n u s m o v e s u p s l o p e .
W h e n a c c u m u l a t i o n e x c e e d s ablation, the e x p a n d i n g glacier " a d v a n c e s " as its
toe or terminus moves downslope.
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PART II C H A P T E R 21
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the end of this Study G u i d e .
1.
2.
3.
5.
1 76
PART II C H A P T E R IS
15. G l o b a l w a r m i n g of a b o u t
C.
B.
D. 2.6C
1.6C
2.0C
C.
B . C 0 i n the a t m o s p h e r e .
D . cloud cover.
17. M i l a n k o v i t c h cycles correlate strongly with Pleistocene glacial cycles (ice ages) b e c a u s e
A. eccentricity, w o b b l e , and p r e c e s s i o n c a n all influence E a r t h ' s a l b e d o .
B . solar o u t p u t c h a n g e s d u r i n g t h e s e cycles.
C. ice cores show that the a m o u n t of C 0 in the a t m o s p h e r e is higher during the ice ages.
2
CHAPTER 16
Figure 16.3. As a rock mass breaks into smaller pieces, more of its surface becomes available for the
chemical reactions of weathering.
Before Lecture
Chapter Preview
W h a t is w e a t h e r i n g ?
Brief a n s w e r : W e a t h e r i n g is the b r e a k d o w n of r o c k s by c h e m i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l
processes.
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PART II C H A P T E R 18
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of this S t u d y G u i d e .
Variable affecting
stream velocity
Relationship of variable
to stream velocity
Analogy
G r a d i e n t t h e slope
of t h e s t r e a m c h a n n e l
steeper slope.
Dischargethe amount
W i l l y o u m o v e into a n e w h o u s e slower
of w a t e r in t h e s t r e a m c h a n n e l
or faster if y o u h a v e m o r e p e o p l e
helping you?faster.
Sediment load
C h a n n e l characteristics
Channel roughness
Channel shape
Cross-country
velocity decreases.
hiking
without
trail
ground surfaces
move
is
walking,
with
the
and
decreases
channel
increases
slower
than
slower.
drag
velocity.
Figure 18.14. A current flowing over a bed of sand, silt, and clay transports particles in two ways: as bed load, the material
sliding and rolling along the bottom; and as suspended load, the material temporarily or permanently suspended in the flow
itself. Saltation is an intermittent jumping motion of grains. In general, the smaller the particle, the higher it jumps and the
farther it travels.
Crawling
B.
207
A glacier a d v a n c e s , halts, and retreats. Will the glacier c o n t i n u e to deposit material at its snout
while it is h a l t e d and even w h i l e it is retreating? D i s c u s s .
Review Questions
Answers a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of this Study G u i d e .
1. Glacial ice is m o s t like a(n)
A . i g n e o u s rock.
C . m e t a m o r p h i c rock.
B . s e d i m e n t a r y rock.
D . sediment.
C. lubrication.
D . gravity.
231
5. M o r a i n e s are
A. erosional glacial features carved in b e d r o c k over w h i c h the ice flowed.
B . m a d e from glacial o u t w a s h s e d i m e n t s .
C. deposits of loess carried by w i n d from recently glaciated r e g i o n s .
D. deposits of glacial till.
6. A d r u m l i n is a
A. block of b e d r o c k not quarried a w a y by the b o t t o m of a glacier.
B. sinuous ridge of water-deposited glacial debris.
C. a small depression formed from the melting of a b l o c k of ice buried beneath till.
D. streamlined hill c o n s t r u c t e d of glacial till.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 1 9 .
7. R a g g e d , knife-edged ridges are c o m m o n l y found in glaciated m o u n t a i n s . Such a ridge
line is called a(n)
A. horn.
C. col.
B . cirque.
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 1 7 .
D . arete.
t h e sea level l o w e r s .
the sea level rises.
plate tectonic p r o c e s s e s are especially active.
E u r o p e is significantly warmer.
C. 4 1 , 0 0 0
D . 100,000
10. Orbital factors that affect the E a r t h ' s heat b u d g e t primarily affect the
A. reflectivity of the E a r t h ' s u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
B. a m o u n t of solar energy r e a c h i n g our planet.
C. c o m p o s i t i o n of the a t m o s p h e r i c g a s e s .
D. distribution of heat over the g l o b e .
H i n t : Refer to F i g u r e 15.11 and associated text.
1 1 . W h i c h of the following features of a glacial l a n d s c a p e is the p r o d u c t of depositional
p r o c e s s rather than e r o s i o n ?
A. fjord
B. kames
C. h a n g i n g valley
D . cirque
C. advance.
D . retreat.
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CHAPTER 22
Landscapes: Tectonic
and Climate Interaction
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend the lecture, be sure to s p e n d s o m e t i m e previewing t h e chapter. F o r an efficient preview, u s e t h e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions.
Chapter Preview
W h a t are the p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s of l a n d s c a p e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : L a n d s c a p e s are described in t e r m s of their t o p o g r a p h y : elevation, the
altitude of the surface of the E a r t h above sea level; and relief, the difference b e t w e e n
t h e h i g h e s t a n d the l o w e s t spots in a region. L a n d s c a p e s also consist of the varied
l a n d f o r m s p r o d u c e d by g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s such as erosion and s e d i m e n t a t i o n by
rivers, glaciers, m a s s w a s t i n g , and wind.
H o w do t h e c l i m a t e a n d plate tectonic s y s t e m s i n t e r a c t to control l a n d s c a p e ?
Brief a n s w e r : Tectonics affects the height and distribution of the crust and its
c o m p o s i t i o n . C l i m a t e affects w e a t h e r i n g and erosion. Characteristics of the b e d r o c k
influence w e a t h e r i n g and erosion rates.
H o w d o l a n d s c a p e s evolve?
Brief a n s w e r : T h e evolution of l a n d s c a p e s d e p e n d s strongly on the c o m p e t i t i o n
b e t w e e n uplift and erosion. F o r e x a m p l e , a l a n d s c a p e with high relief will form if
tectonic activity is high, which in turn stimulates erosion. Erosion will at first e n h a n c e
relief, but o v e r time, water, w i n d , and ice will w e a r d o w n t h e high spots and fill in
the low spots with s e d i m e n t .
W h y don't mountains sink?
Brief a n s w e r : Like icebergs, m o u n t a i n s float. T h e y float on Earth's mantle, w h i c h
exerts a b u o y a n t force and c o u n t e r s the force of gravity. D u r i n g rapid erosion of
m o u n t a i n r a n g e s , s u m m i t s m a y b e uplifted t o even greater heights b e c a u s e the m a s s
of the m o u n t a i n is reduced d u r i n g erosion, resulting in isostatic uplift. Refer to
F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 7 b and Earth Issues 2 1 . 1 .
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PART II
C H A P T E R 22
North America's
Landforms
and
Understanding
Landscape
Evolution
are
Interactive
During Lecture
O n e g o a l for lecture should b e t o leave t h e r o o m with g o o d a n s w e r s t o the C h a p t e r Preview
questions.
To avoid getting lost in details, k e e p the b i g picture in m i n d . C h a p t e r 22 tells
the story of h o w l a n d s c a p e s form. "Uplift p r o p o s e s and e r o s i o n d i s p o s e s . "
C h a p t e r 22 p r o v i d e s a virtual t o u r of l a n d f o r m s created by g e o l o g i c a l
p r o c e s s e s . D u r i n g lecture, be alert to tips that will h e l p y o u sort o u t links
b e t w e e n a l a n d s c a p e and a certain set of g e o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t than the l a n d s c a p e features t h e m s e l v e s are t h e p r o c e s s e s
that form e a c h feature. You already k n o w the p r o c e s s e s . Your goal in this c h a p ter is to u n d e r s t a n d h o w g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s w o r k t o g e t h e r to f o r m a particular
k i n d o f l a n d s c a p e . E x a m p l e : T h e Tibetan plateau and the H i m a l a y a n M o u n tains are supported by b u o y a n t continental crust, t h i c k e n e d during c o n t i n e n t a l
collision. E r o s i o n a l u n l o a d i n g of the s o u t h e r n m a r g i n of the T i b e t a n plateau
m a y c o n t r i b u t e to the height of the p e a k s in the H i m a l a y a n r a n g e .
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r notes is right after lecture. T h e following checklist contains
both g e n e r a l review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
created a brief big picture overview of this lecture (using a sketch or written outline)?
H i n t : S e e Practice Exercise 1.
Take the visual field tour of l a n d f o r m s . Be sure y o u u n d e r s t a n d these landforms and k n o w w h a t they l o o k like: aretes (Figure 22.6), m e s a s (Figure 22.8),
valley a n d r i d g e t o p o g r a p h y (22.10 and 2 2 . 1 1 ) , cuestas (Figure 22.14), h o g backs (Figure 22.15).
S o m e t i m e before y o u r e x a m , a n s w e r the exercises at the end of this chapter.
They are s h o r t - a n s w e r questions and will not take long to c o m p l e t e if you
k n o w t h e material. A n i m a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d on the W e b site for E x e r c i s e s 4,
6, 8, and 9. We also r e c o m m e n d w o r k i n g on T h o u g h t Q u e s t i o n s 1, 3, 4, 8.
C o m p l e t e Practice E x e r c i s e s 1 a n d 2. You will get the greatest return on y o u r
study t i m e by w o r k i n g on these exercises b e c a u s e they will h e l p you r e m e m ber the m o s t i m p o r t a n t ideas in the chapter.
A n s w e r t h e R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s to c h e c k y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the lecture.
C h e c k y o u r a n s w e r s as y o u g o , but try to a n s w e r the question before you l o o k
at the answer. P a y attention to the test-taking tips. T h e y will h e l p y o u do better on y o u r e x a m s .
W e b Site S t u d y R e s o u r c e s
http://www.whfreeman.com/understandingearth5e
C o m p l e t e t h e C o n c e p t S e l f - C h e c k e r and W e b R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . P a y particular attention to t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a n s w e r s . T h e G e o l o g y in P r a c t i c e
exercise C a n E r o s i o n M a k e M o u n t a i n s H i g h e r ? is a g o o d review and will reinforce information p r e s e n t e d in this chapter.
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PART II C H A P T E R 22
Exam Prep
M a t e r i a l s in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for q u i z z e s a n d exams. The
C h a p t e r S u m m a r y and the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d simplify your
c h a p t e r review. R e a d t h e C h a p t e r S u m m a r y to begin y o u r session. It provides a helpful
o v e r v i e w that s h o u l d refresh y o u r m e m o r y .
N e x t , w o r k on the P r a c t i c e E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s . C o m p l e t e the exercises
and q u e s t i o n s j u s t as y o u w o u l d an e x a m , to see h o w well y o u h a v e m a s t e r e d this chapter.
After y o u a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n s , score t h e m . Finally, and m o s t i m p o r t a n t , review any question
that y o u m i s s e d . Identify and correct the m i s c o n c e p t i o n ( s ) that r e s u l t e d in y o u r answering the
q u e s t i o n incorrectly.
Chapter Summary
What are the principal components of landscapes?
L a n d s c a p e s are described in t e r m s of their t o p o g r a p h y : e l e v a t i o n , the altitude
of the surface of the E a r t h a b o v e sea level; relief, t h e difference b e t w e e n the
h i g h e s t and the lowest spots in a r e g i o n ; and the varied l a n d f o r m s p r o d u c e d
b y e r o s i o n and s e d i m e n t a t i o n b y rivers, glaciers, m a s s w a s t i n g , and w i n d . E l e vation is a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n tectonic activity and e r o s i o n rate.
Figure 2 2 . 3 . Relief is the difference between the highest and lowest elevations in a region.
Three types of relief can be defined for a typical mountainous area.
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PART II C H A P T E R 22
Practice Exercises
A n s w e r s and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of this S t u d y G u i d e .
Landform
Important feature(s)
Mesa
(See F i g u r e 22.8.)
Cuesta
(See F i g u r e 22.14.)
Hogback
(See F i g u r e 22.15.)
Valley r i d g e
topography
(See Figures 2 2 . 1 0
and 22.11.)
) form
In y o u n g m o u n t a i n s , upfolds (_
J form valleys.
ridges and d o w n f o l d s (
As tectonic activity moderates and erosion digs
d e e p e r into t h e structures, the
may
form valleys and syncline ridges.
. slopes on all
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at t h e e n d of this S t u d y G u i d e .
1. D u r i n g t h e earliest stages of d e v e l o p m e n t of a river valley, the valley w o u l d h a v e a
A. s i m p l e V-shaped profile.
B . s i m p l e U - s h a p e d profile.
C. low s t r e a m gradient.
D. w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d floodplain.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 2 2 . 1 2 .
2. Elevation is t h e result of
A. tectonic activity.
B. the b a l a n c e b e t w e e n tectonic activity and erosion.
C. erosion and deposition.
D . deposition.
3. Relief is t h e
A. difference b e t w e e n the h i g h e s t point and the lowest point in a region.
B. difference b e t w e e n t h e h i g h e s t point in a region a n d sea level.
C. a v e r a g e h e i g h t of a l a n d s c a p e .
D. steepness of t h e slopes.
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PART II
C H A P T E R 22
C.
B. c l i m a t e
D. all of t h e a b o v e
t y p e of b e d r o c k
C.
B. convergent boundaries.
D. mid-ocean ridges.
transform faults.
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CHAPTER 23
Before Lecture
Before y o u attend lecture, be sure to s p e n d s o m e t i m e p r e v i e w i n g t h e chapter. F o r an efficient
preview, u s e t h e C h a p t e r P r e v i e w questions.
Chapter Preview
W h a t is t h e o r i g i n of oil a n d natural g a s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Oil and natural gas form from organic matter deposited in marine
s e d i m e n t s . T h e organic matter is pressure c o o k e d as the s e d i m e n t s are buried, and the
organic materials are transformed into liquid and g a s e o u s h y d r o c a r b o n s . Figure 23.6
illustrates h o w the organic fluids migrate and a c c u m u l a t e in geologic traps.
W h y is t h e r e c o n c e r n a b o u t the w o r l d ' s oil s u p p l y ?
Brief a n s w e r : Oil is a n o n r e n e w a b l e r e s o u r c e and it is being used faster than natural
p r o c e s s e s g e n e r a t e it. T h e key issue is not w h e n oil runs out but w h e n oil production
stops rising. Refer to Figure 2 3 . 1 0 and the a c c o m p a n y i n g discussion of the
controversy c o n c e r n i n g H u b b e r t ' s peak.
W h a t is the origin of coal a n d h o w big a resource is it?
Brief a n s w e r : C o a l is formed by the c o m p a c t i o n and mild m e t a m o r p h i s m of buried
terrestrial w e t l a n d vegetation. C o a l has supplied an increasing proportion of U . S .
energy n e e d s since 1975. Refer to Figures 23.12 and 2 3 . 1 3 .
W h a t a r e t h e p r o s p e c t s for alternative e n e r g y s o u r c e s ?
Brief a n s w e r : Alternative sources include nuclear, hydroelectric, wind, solar, b i o m a s s ,
and g c o t h c r m a l . Taken together, these sources currently provide only about 14 percent
of w o r l d e n e r g y n e e d s . W i t h a d v a n c e s in t e c h n o l o g y and safety plus reductions in
cost, r e n e w a b l e sources of e n e r g y and nuclear p o w e r can b e c o m e major sources of
energy in this century.
W h a t is a c i d r a i n ?
Brief a n s w e r : A c i d rain is rain that contains sulfuric a n d / o r nitric acid and is f o r m e d
w h e n e m i s s i o n s from the burning of fossil fuels react with rainwater.
W h a t is o z o n e d e p l e t i o n , a n d w h y s h o u l d it c o n c e r n u s ?
Brief a n s w e r : O z o n e a b s o r b s harmful ultraviolet radiation s t r e a m i n g in from the Sun.
U s e d as refrigerants and in industrial p r o c e s s e s , C F C s are c h e m i c a l s that r e a c h the
upper a t m o s p h e r e a n d react w i t h o z o n e faster than o z o n e is generated. F i g u r e 23.21
shows h o w levels of o z o n e in the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e have d e c r e a s e d relative to 1980.
H o w m u c h g l o b a l w a r m i n g will there b e i n t h e twenty-first century, a n d w h a t
will be t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of it?
T h e r a n g e accepted by m o s t experts is from 1.4 to 5.6 degrees centigrade. C o n s e q u e n c e s
will i n c l u d e rising sea level and shrinking ice caps at t h e poles, as well as species
extinction and shifts in habitat and e c o s y s t e m s . Refer to Figures 2 3 . 2 2 and 23.23 and
Table 2 3 . 1 .
W h a t s h o u l d be t h e g o a l of e n e r g y a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l policies?
Brief a n s w e r : Policies should g u i d e the nations of t h e world t h r o u g h the transition
from h y d r o c a r b o n fuels to less polluting, sustainable e n e r g y sources. In particular,
carbon d i o x i d e e m i s s i o n s should be r e d u c e d to d e c r e a s e t h e i m p a c t of global c l i m a t e
c h a n g e . Refer to E a r t h Policy 2 3 . 2 .
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PART II
C H A P T E R 23
During Lecture
K e e p the big picture in m i n d as y o u t a k e notes. C h a p t e r 23 tells the story of
e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s that p o w e r o u r e c o n o m y and h o w the activities of o u r civilization affect o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . P r o b l e m s s u c h as the d e p l e t i o n of p e t r o l e u m
as an energy r e s o u r c e and the potential for c l i m a t e c h a n g e that arises from
e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n are explored. H u m a n activities are b e c o m i n g a n increasingly i m p o r t a n t factor influencing the functions of E a r t h s y s t e m s , so m u c h so
that s o m e scientists a r g u e that we are p l u n g i n g o u r w o r l d into a n e w g e o l o g i cal e p o c h , the A n t h r o p o c e n e . F o c u s on u n d e r s t a n d i n g the c o m p o n e n t s , fluxes,
a n d f e e d b a c k s within e a c h s y s t e m .
B e c a u s e this c h a p t e r covers the h u m a n i m p a c t on E a r t h ' s e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i c h
is linked to cultural, social, and e c o n o m i c i s s u e s , there m a y be opportunities
for discussion or for d e b a t e activities. P r e v i e w i n g the c h a p t e r will p r e p a r e y o u
to t a k e part in these activities.
T h e instructor m a y m a k e use of a discussion or debate to address s o m e of these
issues. S u m m a r i z e the important social issues and arguments in your notes. Pay
particular attention to capturing arguments that contradict your own. Circle these
arguments and return to t h e m later for study and consideration. True learning
often involves changing our conceptions (and particularly our misconceptions).
We Americans
think we
really are.
W I L L ROGERS
After Lecture
Review Notes
T h e perfect t i m e to review y o u r n o t e s is right after lecture. T h e following c h e c k l i s t contains
both general review tips and specific s u g g e s t i o n s for this chapter.
Exam Prep
Materials in this section are m o s t useful d u r i n g preparation for e x a m s .
247
248
PART II
C H A P T E R 23
Our entire
society
rests
our land,
our forests,
influences
our health,
is
dependent
uponour
water,
uponand
How we
use
resources
security,
economy,
and
these
well-being.
Chapter Summary
What is the origin of oil and natural gas?
O i l a n d natural gas f o r m from organic m a t t e r d e p o s i t e d in m a r i n e s e d i m e n t s .
T h e o r g a n i c materials are b u r i e d as the s e d i m e n t a r y layers g r o w in t h i c k n e s s .
Heat, p r e s s u r e , and bacterial action transform the o r g a n i c m a t t e r into fluid
h y d r o c a r b o n s . T h e fluid h y d r o c a r b o n s tend to m i g r a t e out of the s o u r c e r o c k
and a c c u m u l a t e in g e o l o g i c traps that confine the fluids w i t h i n i m p e r m e a b l e
barriers. Refer to F i g u r e 2 3 . 6 .
Review Questions
Answers and e x p l a n a t i o n s are p r o v i d e d at the e n d of the S t u d y G u i d e .
1. W h a t is t h e s e q u e n c e from low to h i g h g r a d e for t h e transformation of plant matter into
hard coal?
A. plants, peat, lignite
B . peat, lignite, b i t u m i n o u s , anthracite
C. b i t u m i n o u s , anthracite, peat, lignite
D . anthracite, b i t u m i n o u s , lignite, peat
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 1 2 .
249
250
PART II
C H A P T E R 23
Test-Taking Tip: Use what you know to guess what you don't know
W h e n confronted with an e x a m item like Review Q u e s t i o n 1, y o u often d o n ' t have
to r e m e m b e r the entire s e q u e n c e to a n s w e r the item correctly. S u p p o s e , for example,
that y o u r e m e m b e r for sure that anthracite is the final h i g h - g r a d e p r o d u c t in the series
In that c a s e you c a n c h e c k B with confidence even if y o u c a n ' t r e m e m b e r the rest of
the sequence.
C. uranium
B. coal
D . oil
C.
B . 1970.
D . 1990.
1980.
7. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of U . S . e n e r g y is
A. coal.
C. oil.
B . n u c l e a r power.
D . h y d r o e l e c t r i c power.
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 3 .
8. H o w m a n y U . S . gallons are c o n t a i n e d in o n e barrel of oil?
A. 16 gallons
C.
B . 2 5 gallons
D . 5 5 gallons
42 gallons
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 2 3 . 5 .
9. T h e U n i t e d States r a n k s
in oil r e s e r v e s .
A. first
C.
B. second
D . tenth
eighth
b i n e s w i t h rainwater.
A. hydrogen
C.
B. sulfur d i o x i d e
D. nitrogen
oxygen
by acid rain.
A. not effected
C.
increased
B. decreased
D . neutralized
Test-Taking Tip: Use what you know to guess what you don't know
The p r e s e n c e of t w o alternatives d e a l i n g with the s a m e thing (in this c a s e "sulfur c o a l s " )
is a hint that o n e of t h e m is p r o b a b l y the correct answer.
15. Predict w h i c h well w o u l d give the best potential for oil and gas p r o d u c t i o n .
A. well A
B. well B
C.
wellC
D. well D
H i n t : Refer t o F i g u r e 23.6.
251
252
PART II
C H A P T E R 23
16. W h y do scientists suspect that C F C s are the source of o z o n e depletion in the stratosphere?
A . C F C s c o n t a i n c h l o r i n e , w h i c h reacts v i g o r o u s l y w i t h o z o n e , w h i l e measurements
of o z o n e in t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e s h o w it d e c r e a s i n g at the s a m e t i m e that C F C s are
increasing.
B. C F C s f o r m a m i x t u r e with volcanic g a s e s in t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e , w h i c h rises to
t h e stratosphere a n d reacts with o z o n e .
C . C F C s c o n c e n t r a t e U V radiation, splitting apart o z o n e m o l e c u l e s .
D. C F C s i n c r e a s e the a l b e d o of the stratosphere, w h i c h r e d u c e s the solar radiation
r e q u i r e d for the p r o d u c t i o n of o z o n e .
17. O z o n e is a very reactive g a s , so as a pollutant in t h e l o w e r a t m o s p h e r e , o z o n e presents
a significant health hazard. W h y d o e s o z o n e exist in the s t r a t o s p h e r e ?
A. It constantly is leaking from the t r o p o s p h e r e , w h e r e it is p r o d u c e d , up to the stratosphere.
B. It is f o r m e d from the r e l e a s e of gases out of the m i c r o m e t e o r i c dusts that bombard
the u p p e r a t m o s p h e r e .
C. It is f o r m e d c o n t i n u o u s l y in the stratosphere by solar radiation, a n d it c a n n o t mix or
react with other gases b e c a u s e of the thin a t m o s p h e r e at that altitude.
D. It is p r o d u c e d constantly from the o c e a n s and rises t h r o u g h t h e t r o p o s p h e r e to the
stratosphere.
18. T h e increase of the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e on Earth
linked to b u r n i n g fossil fuels b e c a u s e the
A. burning process consumes oxygen.
B . burning process consumes C 0 .
2
and the
APPENDIX A
M u l t i p l e choice
True-false
Essay
Thought problems
O t h e r (specify)
'Adapted with permission from the University Learning Center, University of Arizona.
253
254
4. Review session is scheduled for (enter date here and be sure to attend):
S t e p 2 : D i v i d e t h e m a t e r i a l y o u m u s t review into four e q u a l Parts: A , B , C , and D .
R e p e a t t h e instructions for D a y 7.
I f ' y o u h a v e p r o b l e m s with the material, see the instructor at the next o p e n office hour.
R e v i e w Parts A , B , C, and
R e v i e w Parts A, B , C, and
Zero Hour:
APPENDIX B
'Adapted with permission from the University Learning Center, University of Arizona.
255
256
Handouts?
C h a p t e r s ? ( W h i c h ones?)
Lectures?
Discussions?
Other?
W h i c h chapters do y o u still h a v e to p r e v i e w ?
W h i c h Practice E x e r c i s e s and R e v i e w Q u e s t i o n s do y o u n e e d to c o m p l e t e ?
W h a t p a p e r s do y o u still h a v e to w r i t e ?
9. D r a w a n o t h e r line. N o w list the test p r e p a r a t i o n strategies y o u will use to study for the
e x a m s t u d y g r o u p s or study patterns, self-questioning u s i n g the annotations, mapping,
charting, q u e s t i o n s and a n s w e r s , c o n c e p t cards, g o i n g o v e r old tests and quizzes, and
making up your own problems.
10. N o w fill in the c a l e n d a r by identifying e x a m s , finals, and d u e dates for p a p e r s . Each day
y o u n e e d to do s o m e t h i n g from n o . 8, but y o u will also n e e d to study and review for the
finals at least t w o h o u r s a day. Be sure to use all of y o u r available timesweekends,
waiting t i m e , and so on.
Finish all w o r k u n d e r n o . 8 (Chapter P r e v i e w s , Practice E x e r c i s e s , Review Questions, and so on) o n e w e e k prior to y o u r first final. R e v i e w all lecture notes by asking yourself the questions out loud or by h a v i n g s o m e o n e quiz y o u five days prior to
y o u r first final (allow t w o to three hours).
CHAPTER 1
258
CHAPTER 2
Divergent
Ocean/
See Figures 2.5,
Characteristics 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8. Ocean
Examples
Convergent
See Figures 2.5 and 2. 6.
Ocean/
Continental
Collision
Transform
See Figures 2.5,
2.6, and 2.9.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
J a p a n e s e islands
Peru-Chile Trench
H i m a l a y a s and
Marinas Trench
Andes Mountains
Tibetan P l a t e a u
San A n d r e a s Fault
R e d Sea, and
Aleutian Trench
Cascade Range
trench,
trench, volcanic
very high
offset
plateau and
beds
mountains
mountains
topographic
G u l f of California
Topography
oceanic
rift
ridge,
valley,
ocean
basins,
ocean
offset
island
floor
by
arc
of creek
and
features
features
cross
transforms,
other
that
the fault
seamounts
Volcanism
present
present
present
not
characteristic
not
characteristic
259
260
CHAPTER 3
(double-chain)
2. o x i d e o f m a g n e s i u m and a l u m i n u m
3. silicate (sheet)
4. c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e
16. c a l c i u m sulfate
5. h y d r a t e d c a l c i u m sulfate
6. silicate ( f r a m e w o r k )
7. native e l e m e n t ( c a r b o n )
19. o x i d e of a l u m i n u m
8. c a l c i u m / m a g n e s i u m c a r b o n a t e
9. silicate ( f r a m e w o r k )
2 1 . native e l e m e n t (silver)
10. o x i d e of a l u m i n u m
11. s o d i u m halide
12. iron o x i d e
D. orthoclase
B. pyrite
E. calcite
C. m a l a c h i t e
F. g y p s u m
plumes
divergent b o u n d a r i e s
convergent boundaries
B. Types of i g n e o u s r o c k s
E x t r u s i v e : Fast c o o l i n g , f i n e g r a i n e d
Intrusive: Slow cooling, coarse grained
C. R o c k a n d m i n e r a l particles are transported and laid d o w n as s e d i m e n t s by r u n n i n g
water, w i n d , and ice.
D. T w o p r o c e s s e s that convert l o o s e s e d i m e n t s into r o c k are c o m p a c t i o n (burial) and
cementation.
E. T h e t w o m a i n t y p e s of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s and their constituents are:
Siliclastic: R o c k and m i n e r a l fragments
Chemical/biochemical: precipitation of minerals previously dissolved during weathering
F. F o l l o w i n g are the four major conditions (geologic settings) that result in m e t a m o r p h i c
rocks:
C o n t a c t m e t a m o r p h i s m a s s o c i a t e d with intrusions o f m a g m a
R e g i o n a l m e t a m o r p h i s m a s s o c i a t e d with plate collisions
U l t r a - h i g h - p r e s s u r e m e t a m o r p h i s m d e e p w i t h i n the lithosphere
H i g h - p r e s s u r e , l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e m e t a m o r p h i s m associated with s u b d u c t i o n z o n e s
G. N o . T h e r o c k is n o t m e l t e d d u r i n g m e t a m o r p h i s m , a l t h o u g h a m i n o r a m o u n t of m e l t
" s w e a t " m a y b e g e n e r a t e d during h i g h - g r a d e m e t a m o r p h i s m . I g n e o u s r o c k s are f o r m e d
from t h e solidification of melts ( m a g m a s ) .
261
262
263
CHAPTER 4
Example
igneous rock
General
compositional group
Continental crust
Granite
Felsic
M o r e Si, Na, K
Less Fe, Mg, Ca
are t w o a p p r o p r i a t e a n s w e r s . )
Ocean crust
General
chemical composition
Andesite/diorite
Intermediate
Intermediate
Basalt/gabbro
Mafic
Mantle
Peridotite
Ultramafic
264
265
266
CHAPTER 5
C o m m o n Object
Sediment
Coarse
football or b u s
boulder
p l u m or lime
gravel
conglomerate
pea or bean
gravel
conglomerate
c o a r s e - g r o u n d p e p p e r or salt
sand
sandstone
fine-ground p e p p e r or salt
sand
sandstone
m u d , silt, clay
siltstone, mudstone
Fine
Rock type
gravel
conglomerate
shale, claystone
Sediment type
C o m p o s e d largely of r o c k fragments
clastic
P r e c i p i t a t e d in the e n v i r o n m e n t of d e p o s i t i o n
chemical
evaporite, p h o s p h o r i t e
I m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of c o a l
biochemical
peat
Often f o r m e d b y d i a g e n e s i s
chemical
dolostone
biochemical
limestone
clastic
c o n g l o m e r a t e , s a n d s t o n e , siltstone, shale
clastic
arkose sandstone
and
phosphorite
CHAPTER 6
Parent rock
Metamorphic rock
Texture
(foliated/
granoblastic)
shale
slate
foliated
quartzite
granoblastic
granulite
granoblastic
granite
schist and g n e i s s
foliated
limestone
marble
granoblastic
hornfels
granoblastic
amphibolites
igneous a n d m e t a m o r p h i c r o c k s
migmatite
quartz-rich
sandstone
shale, i m p u r e s a n d s t o n e , and
many k i n d s of i g n e o u s r o c k s
and
greenstones
granoblastic
foliated
268
Major mineral
composition
Texture
Rock name
Rock type
(igneous, sedimentary, (granite, sandstone,
marble)
metamorphic)
calcium
nonfoliated
metamorphic
marble
sedimentary
limestone
i g n e o u s (plutonic)
granite
sedimentary
m u d s t o n e , shale
i g n e o u s (volcanic)
basalt
nonfoliated
metamorphic
quartzite
clastic
sedimentary
cconglomerate
bioclastic,
sedimentary
limestone
metamorphic
schist
quartz,
carbonate
phaneritic
K and Na feldspar,
mica,
and
amphibole
fine-grained
clay
pyroxene,
and
calcium feldspar,
aphanitic,
porphyritic
olivine
quartz
pebbles
and
variety
of rock
fragments
cobbles
of a
types
of seashells
and fine
mud
quartz,
muscovite,
and
clastic
biochemical
foliated
chlorite,
garnet
g n e i s s is the c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e f r o m f i n e - g r a i n e d to
269
CHAPTER 7
Behavior of rock
Type of force
Snaps
brittle
tensional
fault or j o i n t s
Bends
ductile
compressional
folds
Bounces
elastic
compressional
into pieces
compressional
C.
convergent
D . anticline
E.
compressional
F.
convergent
G. n o r m a l fault
Ft. t e n s i o n a l
I.
divergent
270
J.
strike-slip fault
K. shearing
L.
transform
M . syncline
N. compressional
O. c o n v e r g e n t
syncline
C.
thrust
D . reverse
E.
normal
CHAPTER 8
B.
C. Yes. L a y e r 3 is older than the d i k e (unit 12). E v e n t h o u g h the dike does not cut layer
3, it d o e s cut the u n c o n f o r m i t y that cuts layer 3, and it also cuts layers 2 and 1, w h i c h
are a b o v e layer 3.
D . N o t p o s s i b l e t o k n o w . B e c a u s e the b l a c k dike cuts b o t h the granite (unit 11) a n d
l a y e r 1, we c a n say that layer 1 and the g r a n i t e are older than the d i k e . H o w e v e r ,
t h e g r a n i t e m a y h a v e i n t r u d e d into the r o c k layers b e f o r e or after t h e d e p o s i t i o n of
l a y e r 1. T h e r e is no w a y of telling w h e t h e r t h e g r a n i t e is o l d e r or y o u n g e r than layers 4, 3, 2, or 1. A r a d i o m e t r i c d a t e on the granite a n d layer 1, w h i c h is a lava flow,
w o u l d h e l p t o r e s o l v e this q u e s t i o n .
E. 1. U n i t 1 is older than unit 12 but y o u n g e r than unit 1 1 . You do not even h a v e to calc u l a t e r a d i o m e t r i c ages to a n s w e r this question. Just look at the trend in the a b u n d a n c e o f t h e radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s o r a c c u m u l a t i o n o f the d a u g h t e r a t o m s . T h e
r o c k with t h e greatest a m o u n t of p a r e n t a t o m s (and least a m o u n t of d a u g h t e r a t o m s )
i s the y o u n g e s t . T h e r o c k w i t h t h e lowest a m o u n t o f radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s and
the largest a c c u m u l a t i o n of d a u g h t e r a t o m s is the oldest. B e c a u s e the a b u n d a n c e of
radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s in unit 1 falls b e t w e e n units 11 and 12, the r a d i o m e t r i c age
of unit 1 w o u l d be s o m e n u m b e r of y e a r s b e t w e e n the ages of units 11 and 12. U n i t
11 has t h e fewest radioactive p a r e n t a t o m s r e m a i n i n g ; therefore, it is the oldest.
Faulting
Dike intrudes
D e p o s i t i o n of s a n d s t o n e
D e p o s i t i o n of shale
Oldest
D e p o s i t i o n of l i m e s t o n e
271
272
Era
evolve
Epoch
Quaternary
Holocene
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Pleistocene
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Phanerozoic
Humans
Period
Jurassic
Triassic
Paleozoic
Permian
Pliocene
Miocene
\
Oligocene
\
Eocene
^ Paleocene
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Evolutionary Big Bang
Cambrian
Proterozoic
O x y g e n b u i l d u p in
atmosphere
First
nucleus-bearing
cells
develop
Archeon
Earliest e v i d e n c e of life
M a j o r p h a s e of c o n t i n e n t
formation completed
Hadean
E n d of heavy b o m b a r d m e n t
M o o n forms
Earth
accretion
begins
273
274
then the l i m e s t o n e - s h a l e - s a n d s t o n e
275
276
CHAPTER 10
277
Ocean crust
Continental crust
Composition
Malic
Felsic to i n t e r m e d i a t e
Rock type(s)
H o m o g e n e o u s basalt, g a b b r o ,
Very
and pelagic s e d i m e n t s
but
Density
3.0
g/cm
Thickness
10 km
heterogeneouscan
dominantly
with
2.7
g/cm
granitic
gneissic
15-65 km
The
4
Topographic
Abyssal
c r a t o n or shield
features
stable p l a t f o r m
Trenches
continental m a r g i n
Sea
rock
Mounts
Hot-spot
and
any
cover of sediments
f r a g m e n t s c a u g h t u p within continents
Age
contain
island
ages
of continental
billion
crust
spans
years.
coastal plain
chains
Plateaus
Structure/ Architecture
The
complex.
architecture
accreted
arcs,
suture zones,
belts
representing
It
microplates,
Sediments
continents
is
of preexisting
cratons,
island
volcanic
arcs,
ophiolite suites,
ancient
of the
and
orogenic
interior platform
Origin
of the
consists
in
zones.
the
continent,
orogenic processes
and
accretion
preexisting
crustal
blocks
convergent
plate
boundaries
of
along
278
279
CHAPTER 11
Life process(es)
generating the impact
Description of the
interaction and impact
0 i n Earth's
B y p r o d u c t of p h o t o s y n t h e s i s
G r e e n plants and a l g a e u s e e n e r g y in t h e a t m o s p h e r e
atmosphere
Greenhouse
Extraction
effect: C o o l i n g
oceans
of carbon from
and
atmosphere
by
shell-producing
and
photo synthetic
organisms
effect: W a r m i n g
T h e m e t a b o l i s m of s o m e o r g a n i s m s p r o d u c e s c a r b o n
d i o x i d e and m e t h a n e , w h i c h are b o t h h e a t - t r a p p i n g g a s e s
that contribute to global w a r m i n g .
Mineral
M i c r o b i a l precipitation of pyrite
precipitation
o c c u r s in the a n a e r o b i c z o n e of
z o n e of s e d i m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g i r o n - b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s .
s e d i m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g iron-bearing
m i n e r a l s . S o m e m i c r o b e s , insect
(iron o x i d e ) . P h o s p h a t e c a n a c c u m u l a t e w i t h i n m i c r o o r -
and a n i m a l s precipitate m a g n e t i t e
g a n i s m s within s e d i m e n t s .
dissolution
Hydrogen,
methane
hydrogen
gases
may
sulfide,
and
be produced.
280
CHAPTER 12
Basalt (mafic)
Andesite (intermediate)
eruption temperature
1000 to 1 2 0 0 C
intermediate
800 to 1000C
silica c o n t e n t
low ( - 5 0 % )
intermediate
high
gas c o n t e n t
low,
variable
viscosity
low-fluid
intermediate
highvery viscous
0.7 to 30 m/minute
10 to 160 km
8 km
typical flow t h i c k n e s s
5 to 15 m
30 m
200 m
explosive
typically very
Rhyolite (felsic)
Properties
E r u p t i o n styles
up to a few percent
magma
typically
not
very
m/day
explosive
Deposits
flood
basalt
explosive
lava
flow
fissure flow
dome
p a h o e h o e and a a flows
pyroclastic
pillow lava
(>-77%)
dome
obsidian
flow
tuff and
welded
dome
pyroclastic f l o w
tuff
cinder
Landforms
shield v o l c a n o
composite
lava plateau
summit
cinder
cone
caldera
small
caldera
cinder
volcano
crater
composite volcano
large c a l d e r a
s u m m i t crate
cone
A s s o c i a t i o n with
divergent b o u n d a r i e s
plate t e c t o n i c s
hot
Hazards
lava flow
lava
explosive in c o n t a c t
pyroclastic/ash
convergent boundaries
convergent boundaries
spots
with w a t e r
hot gases
flow
explosive
hot
gases
mudflow
explosive blast
blast
flow
pyroclastic/ash
hot
gases
m u d f l o w s (lahars)
281
Volcano or
volcanic area
Type of volcano
(shield, composite,
caldera)
Magma type
(mafic, intermediate,
felsic)
Magmatic
(plate tectonic)
setting divergent,
convergent, hot spot
hotspot/mantle plume
Hawaii
shield
mafic
T o n g a Islands
composite
intermediate
Columbia Plateau
flood basalts
mafic
hot
Santorini ( T h e r a ) , G r e e c e
caldera
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Mayon, Philippines
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Iceland
shields/fissures
m o s t l y mafic
divergent and
Yellowstone
caldera
intermediate/felsic
Krakatoa, Indonesia
composite/caldera
intermediate/felsic
convergent
N o r t h Island, N e w Z e a l a n d
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Crater L a k e , O r e g o n
composite/caldera
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Japan
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
M a r i a n a Islands
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
K i l i m a n j a r o , Africa
composite
intermediate/felsic
Pinatubo, Philippines
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Katmai, Alaska
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
M o u n t Rainier, W a s h i n g t o n
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Tambora, Indonesia
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
Vesuvius, Italy
composite
intermediate/felsic
convergent
and
caldera
and
caldera
and felsic
convergent/subduction
spot
hot
spot
282
Characteristic
P (primary) waves
S (secondary) waves
Surface waves
Relative speed
fastest
second
slowest
compressionalpush/pull
shearing
fastest
rolling/elliptical
sideways
solids
will p r o p a g a t e
liquid
confined to
solids only
the
surface
gas
A n a l o g y with c o m m o n
sound waves
w a v e forms
waves propagation
is
difficult to visualize.
It is
somewhat
to
analogous
ocean waves
the
over each
other
and
motions
Earth's
283
284
287
288
18. D. If a significant portion of the l o w e r m a n t l e w e r e m o l t e n , we should see lots m o r e volc a n i c activity on the E a r t h ' s surface in addition to tectonic plate b o u n d a r y v o l c a n i s m .
19. A. S e i s m i c w a v e velocities d e p e n d on the elasticity, rigidity, and density of materials.
T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s d e p e n d on the c o m p o s i t i o n , physical state, and c o m p a c t n e s s of the
a t o m i c structure of the material.
2 0 . C. R e f e r to F i g u r e s 1.12 and 14.13.
2 1 . B. T h e M o h o w a s first detected by an abrupt increase in seismic w a v e velocities d u e to
the c h a n g e from lower-density crustal rocks to the m o r e dense ultramafic rocks within the
mantle.
2 2 . A. R e f e r to F i g u r e 14.9 and E a r t h I s s u e s 14.2.
2 3 . D . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 14.15.
2 4 . A. R e f e r to F i g u r e s 14.1 and 14.2.
2 5 . D . R e f e r t o F i g u r e 14.7.
2 6 . D. Plates are located in the lithosphere. Their motion is driven in part by the force of gravity as cold, heavy crust sinks, dragging the plate behind it. As the plates sink at convergent b o u n d a r i e s , an o p e n i n g is created for hot m a g m a to rise through at the diverging
boundary. T h e driving forces of plate tectonics are manifestations of mantle convection in
the sense that they involve hot matter rising in o n e place and cold matter sinking in another. See C h a p t e r 2, " W h e r e do the plate-driving forces originate? Refer to pages 3 7 - 4 0 .
CHAPTER 15
289
tions. W a r m e r surface conditions increase evaporation rates and m o r e water vapor goes
into the a t m o s p h e r e . M o r e water vapor in the a t m o s p h e r e m a y result in m o r e cloud cover.
B . A n i n c r e a s e i n c l o u d cover m a y p r o d u c e a negative f e e d b a c k b e c a u s e c l o u d cover t y p ically h a s a c o o l i n g effect on surface c o n d i t i o n s . So the i m p a c t of increased c l o u d cover
i s o p p o s i t e t o that o f increasing C 0 i n the a t m o s p h e r e .
2
Carbon fluxes
Brief description
of flux
Photosynthesis
and p r e c i p i t a t i o n
organisms,
atmosphere
of c a r b o n a t e s
Sedimentation
which
contribute
to
sediments,
coal,
ultimately
organic
matter
Calcium
and
to produce
carbonate
carbonate,
which
and collect
to form
cement
in
and
rockthe
Less g r e e n h o u s e gas in
the
oceans
into
a t m o s p h e r e results in a
cooling.
lithosphere.
and oil.
combine
help
Climatic impact/
implications
Direction of flux
ions
C a r b o n is d r a w n out to the
Climate
cools.
calcium
a t m o s p h e r e and o c e a n and
Carbon
dioxide
precipitated as s e d i m e n t .
of the
can
precipitate
limestone
other
or
The
rock particles.
oceans
loss
is drawn
and
out
atmosphere.
of CO from
the
Volcanism
CO
is
typically
abundant
gas
volcanic
the
second most
released
C0
is
released from
lithosphere
during
and
eruptions.
into
the
An increase in C0 in the
the
atmosphere
oceans.
atmosphere
enhances
greenhouse
effect
the
Chemical
C0
weathering
minerals
in
rainwater
in
combines
rock to form
with
calcium
Heating,
atmosphere
the
carbonate.
Metamorphism
recystallization,
decomposition
of rocks
metamorphism
can
amounts
C0 .
of
and
release
and
oceans
into
cools.
environments
Uplift of
high
plateaus
and
mountains
may
enhance
this flux.
Climate
warms.
Increased levels
greenhouse
and
atmosphere
oceans.
warms
surface.
flows
(the crust)
large
Climate
the
crust.
Carbon
during
and
Earth's
the
and
to
of C0
enhances
effect,
in
the
the
which
acts
C o m b u s t i o n of
releases
fossil fuels
into
the
large
amounts
atmosphere.
of C0
Carbon
2
flows
sphere (coal,
the
oceans
A n i n c r e a s e i n C 0 i n the
2
a t m o s p h e r e e n h a n c e s the
atmosphere.
g r e e n h o u s e effect and w a r m
the E a r t h ' s surface.
290
Chapter 16
Answers to Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Physical and chemical weathering
R e f e r t o Table 16.2 a n d F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 1 .
291
292
Kind of mass
wasting
Composition of slope
(consolidated vs. unconsolidated
and wet vs. dry)
Characteristics
Rock avalanche
L a r g e m a s s e s o f rocky materials
Speed: R u n n i n g or a s p e e d i n g a u t o
Slope angle: S t e e p slopes
Triggering event(s): E a r t h q u a k e s
Notes: O c c u r in m o u n t a i n o u s regions w h e r e rock is
w e a k e n e d by weathering, structural deformation, weak
bedding, or cleavage planes
Creep
Speed: Walking
Soil
S p e e d : W a l k i n g or r u n n i n g
Slope a n g l e : Any angle
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): Intense rainfall
Notes:
D e b r i s flow
Fluid-like
movement
S p e e d : R u n n i n g o r s p e e d i n g auto
R o c k fragments s u p p o r t e d by a
S l o p e a n g l e : Any angle
muddy matrix
Mostly finer
coarser
of
rock
materials
rock debris
with
with
large
some
amounts
Speed:
Speeding
auto
water.
Water-saturated
soil
and
rock
Contains
large
amounts
of water
S p e e d : S p e e d i n g auto
Slope angle: Steep
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): E a r t h q u a k e s
Notes: Occurs in humid, mountainous regions
Slump
U n c o n s o l i d a t e d r o c k material
Speed:
Walking or running
S l o p e a n g l e : Any slope
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): Rainfall
N o t e s : D e b r i s slide m o v e s faster than a s l u m p
Solifluction
Surface
layers
of soil
Speed:
Walking
S l o p e a n g l e : Any angle
T r i g g e r i n g event(s): F r e e z e - t h a w
Notes: O c c u r s only in cold r e g i o n s w h e n w a t e r in the
surface layers of the soil alternately freezes and t h a w s ;
water c a n n o t seep into the g r o u n d b e c a u s e d e e p e r layers
are frozen.
T h e s l o p e consists of s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s that h a v e a dip parallel to t h e slope. B e d d i n g p l a n e s are z o n e s of w e a k n e s s within t h e s e layers increasing the potential for
slope failure.
If the slope w a s undercut by the road builders, the slope stability will be c o m p r o m i s e d .
D r a i n w a t e r from the slope a b o v e and from t h e roof a w a y from the gravel fill
b e n e a t h the h o u s e .
293
294
Put in a retaining wall along the road b e l o w the h o u s e and be sure that the wall does
not restrict the d r a i n a g e of water out of the slope.
15. D. As t h e c a r b o n a t e c e m e n t dissolves, the quartz sand grains will fall away from the
r o c k surface, but w e a t h e r i n g will have little i m p a c t on the quartz grains t h e m s e l v e s .
Q u a r t z is a very stable m i n e r a l on the E a r t h ' s surface. Refer to Tables 16.1 and 16.2.
16. C. Soil fertility d e p e n d s on the availability of mineral n u t r i e n t s , w h i c h are r e l e a s e d
b y c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g from r o c k - f o r m i n g m i n e r a l s . W h e n c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g i s
very slow, nutrients r e m a i n tied up in the silicate minerals within the r o c k and are not
easily e x t r a c t e d by plant roots. In regions w h e r e c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g is intense, m o s t
of the m i n e r a l nutrients are w a s h e d out of t h e soil. T h e r e f o r e , fertile soils form w h e r e
w e a t h e r i n g o c c u r s a t m o d e r a t e rates. T h e p a r e n t r o c k i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t influence o n
soil fertility. W e a k soils d e v e l o p e d on quartz s a n d s t o n e are likely to be n u t r i e n t - p o o r
b e c a u s e quartz is p u r e silicon dioxide and lacks vital mineral nutrients such as potassium,
c a l c i u m , iron, or m a g n e s i u m for plant g r o w t h .
17. D. G r a n i t e is c o m p o s e d mostly of feldspars and quartz. C l a y m i n e r a l s are a major p r o d uct of t h e c h e m i c a l w e a t h e r i n g of feldspar. Q u a r t z is very resistant to w e a t h e r i n g .
18. T h e s a n d s t o n e o b e l i s k deteriorated so q u i c k l y after b e i n g m o v e d from E g y p t to N e w
York City b e c a u s e the c l i m a t e in N e w York is significantly wetter than the c l i m a t e in
E g y p t . As naturally acidic rain dissolves the c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e c e m e n t , the surface of
the s a n d s t o n e deteriorates. O t h e r factors that m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to the e n h a n c e d
w e a t h e r i n g of the obelisk include acid rain g e n e r a t e d by air pollution and frost w e d g ing, s i n c e freeze/thaw c o n d i t i o n s are c o m m o n in N e w York during the winter.
19. A. Site D m a y h a v e t h e best view of the shoreline and site B the b e s t o c e a n view, but
site A is on t h e m o s t stable g r o u n d .
2 0 . B. M a s s m o v e m e n t s o c c u r w h e n the force of gravity e x c e e d s the strength of the slope
materials.
2 1 . A. U n d e r c u t t i n g by a river or w a v e s will o v e r s t e e p e n a hillslope and e n h a n c e the p o t e n tial for s l o p e failure. S i n c e w a t e r c a n act as a lubricant and also adds w e i g h t to the slope
m a t e r i a l s , d r a i n i n g the slope will r e d u c e the w e i g h t of the slope material and increase
friction, t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g the potential for slope failure.
2 2 . C. Talus refers to the b l o c k s of r o c k that collect at the b a s e of a steep slope or cliff.
2 3 . D. T h e a n g l e of r e p o s e for m o s t l o o s e sands is a b o u t 3 5 . T h e a n g l e of r e p o s e varies
significantly w i t h a n u m b e r of factors, o n e of w h i c h is the size of the particles (refer to
F i g u r e 16.13).
2 4 . B. B e d d i n g , j o i n t p l a n e s , or a foliation fabric all are potential p l a n e s of w e a k n e s s within r o c k . T h e orientation of any of t h e s e fabrics parallel to the hillslope c o m p r o m i s e s
s l o p e stability (refer to F i g u r e 16.13).
25. C. Refer to Figure 16.13.
2 6 . A. Solifluction is a result of r e p e a t e d freezing and t h a w i n g .
2 7 . C. D r a i n i n g the w a t e r from the l a n d s l i d e area w o u l d h e l p to r e d u c e the w e i g h t of the
s l o p e m a t e r i a l s and r e d u c e the potential lubricating effects of water.
2 8 . D. B e d d i n g planes, j o i n t planes, and textural fabrics like foliation are zones of w e a k n e s s
w i t h i n r o c k . If they parallel the hillslope, the potential for slope failure is e n h a n c e d .
2 9 . B . Refer t o the section U n c o n s o l i d a t e d M a s s M o v e m e n t s o n p a g e 3 8 6 i n y o u r textbook.
30. D . T h e b a r r e n s l o p e s left b y t h e w i l d f i r e s will e n h a n c e t h e p o t e n t i a l for all t h e h a z a r d s listed.
295
296
CHAPTER 17
Rock material
Potential as an aquifer
(good, moderate, poor)
Porosity (high,
medium, low)
L o o s e , well-sorted, c o a r s e sand
High
Good
Low
Poor
L o w I n t e r l o c k i n g grains
Poor
MediumFracturing
can
Moderate
significantly increase
p o r e s p a c e and i m p r o v e
Permeability.
Sandstone
MediumThe
cement
that
Moderate to good
Shale
Poor
p o r e s p a c e but p e r m e a b i l i t y
m a y still r e m a i n low. Shales are
typically a q u i c l u d e s .
Highly jointed limestone
M e d i u m F r a c t u r i n g and the
Moderate
to
good
formation of a cavern s y s t e m
w i t h i n the l i m e s t o n e c a n
greatly e n h a n c e the porosity
and p e r m e a b i l i t y of l i m e s t o n e s .
C a v e r n s serve as an o p e n
p l u m b i n g s y s t e m for g r o u n d w a t e r .
Memory Tip
You can easily r e m e m b e r the difference b e t w e e n a stalactite and a stalagmite b e c a u s e
stalactites hold " t i g h t " to the ceiling and stalagmites " m i g h t " reach the ceiling of a cave.
297
298
CHAPTER 18
Relationship of variable to
stream velocity
G r a d i e n t t h e slope
A s g r a d i e n t d e c r e a s e s , stream velocity d e c r e a s e s .
of the s t r e a m c h a n n e l
steeper
Analogy
slope.
N o t e : In h e a d w a t e r s of s t r e a m s (in the m o u n t a i n s
w h e r e gradient is h i g h e s t ) , other factors ( d e c r e a s e d
d i s c h a r g e and i n c r e a s e d c h a n n e l r o u g h n e s s )
will c o u n t e r t h e effect of the h i g h gradient.
Dischargethe amount
A s d i s c h a r g e increases, s t r e a m velocity
of w a t e r in the s t r e a m
i n c r e a s e s . Velocity is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
or faster
discharge.
helping
you?faster.
Typically,
will you
s t r e a m velocity will d e c r e a s e .
slower if you
your
channel
if you
have
more people
are
travel faster or
carrying
more
in
backpack?slower.
C h a n n e l characteristics
Channel roughness
As
will
Channel shape
channel
roughness
increases,
velocity
Cross-country
hiking
without
trail
decrease.
ground surface,
very narrow.
More
Crawling
will
drag
and decrease
increase
channel
velocity.
is
you
slower
move
than
slower.
walking.
the
299
300
CHAPTER 19
Characteristics
Sand supply
Wind direction/strength
Barchan
C r e s c e n t - s h a p e d with a r m s p o i n t i n g
Limited
Unidirectional/strong
Abundant
Unidirectional/strong
d o w n w i n d . Slip face is a c o n c a v e
curve advancing downwind.
Transverse
Blowout
C r e s c e n t - s h a p e d with a r m s p o i n t i n g
Limited to
moderate
Unidirectional/gusty
( S e e F i g u r e 19.8.)
to g e n e r a l direction of wind.
Moderate
Variable direction/
m o d e r a t e t o strong
10. D. T h e a r m s of the barchan point d o w n w i n d . Since the wind is blowing from south to north,
the a r m s are pointing north and the town is in the opposite direction.
1 1 . B (south). T h e a r m s of blowout d u n e s point into the w i n d (upwind). Since the wind b l o w s
inland from t h e coast, the a r m s of the d u n e point to the b e a c h .
12. D. All the a n s w e r s are a p p r o p r i a t e .
13. desert varnish. Refer to F i g u r e 19.16.
CHAPTER 2 0
active
F.
passive
301
302
CHAPTER 21
H a n g i n g valley
Fjord
Arete
Glacial features f o r m e d by deposition of r o c k material by glacial ice
G l a c i a l m o r a i n e s t h e different types are d e s c r i b e d in Table 2 1 . 1 .
Drumlins
Esker
Kame
Kettle
Varve
Kettle
A l l of t h e s e glacial features are described in the t e x t b o o k and are a p p r o p r i a t e a n s w e r s .
303
304
10. B . Refer t o 1 5 . 1 1 .
1 1 . B. K a m e s are small hills of sand and gravel d u m p e d n e a r or at the e d g e of t h e ice. Refer
to F i g u r e 2 1 . 1 9 .
12. A. S i n c e glacial ice is c a p a b l e of c a r r y i n g r o c k particles of a great variety of sizes, and
since p h y s i c a l w e a t h e r i n g d o m i n a t e s in glacial e n v i r o n m e n t s , it is very unlikely for a
glacial till to consist of p u r e quartz sand.
13. A .
14. A. Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 9 .
15. C. Refer to F i g u r e 2 1 . 2 4 .
16. D. E a c h factor listed p l a y s a role in c l i m a t e c h a n g e and n e e d s to be c o n s i d e r e d as a c o m p o n e n t of a m o d e l that a t t e m p t s to describe the c a u s e of the ice a g e s .
17. D. T h e m a s s of t h e floating ice is e q u a l to the m a s s of the w a t e r t h e iceberg d i s p l a c e s .
W h e n the ice m e l t s , it simply replaces the water it d i s p l a c e s , so there is no c h a n g e in
t h e sea level.
CHAPTER 2 2
Important feature(s)
Mesa
(See F i g u r e 22.8.)
all sides. H e l d up by u n d e r f o r m e d
S e d i m e n t a r y layers or lava flows.
Cuesta
( S e e F i g u r e 22.14.)
Hogback
(See F i g u r e 22.15.)
Valley r i d g e
In y o u n g m o u n t a i n s , upfolds (anticlines)
topography
and 22.11.)
305
306
CHAPTER 2 3