Analyze The Concept Of A Species- the concept of a species is a group of similar

individuals that are able to sexually reproduce with each other (interbreed).

Describe How Variations In A Population Are Developed- Variations in a population

are developed in a number of ways. First, sexual reproduction mixes two different
gametes that have different traits and that changes the initial traits in the final offspring.
Next is crossing over. Finally there are mutations that cause most of our variations. A
mutation is when a gene isn’t copied correctly, and it is altered, causing a different
phenotype in the end organism/offspring.

Define Evolution- evolution is a change in the frequency of alleles in a population over

time (generations)

Use Hardy Weinberg To Analyze Evidence Of Evolution- P^2+2pq+q^2=1

P=dominant
Q=recessive
PQ+ heterozygous

Interpret Darwins Inferences And Observations-

Observation #1: Species have much potential fertility.-meaning that species can
reproduce

Observation #2: populations tend to remain the same size.- populations have an almost
equal death to birth rate, keeping the size about the same.

Observation #3: Resources remain constant but limited.- there are always resources,
but only a limited amount of them.

Inference #1:
In an environment of limited resources and an overproduction of individuals, there will
be a struggle for survival.- survival is not guaranteed by any means

^^^^^Lamark would have agreed with these ^^^^^

Observation #4: No two individuals are identical.- phenotypes vary

Observation #5: Most variation is heritable. <--------- ONLY DARWIN BELIEVED

THIS!!!!!!! - most variation in a population is genetic, and has been passed on from
their parents
Inference #2: Those with superior characteristics will survive and pass on their traits to
their offspring.-the better will survive because they have been selected by the natural
environment around them. therefore, there will be a shift towards the better alleles that cause a
species to die less often. If they de less often, then they can count for more of the total
population and therefore cause a shift in the FREQ. Of alleles in the population just because
they had more kids.

Inference #3: This process of natural selection will lead to the emergence of new
species.- If a species is separated by a mountain (of other physical barrier) and are put
in two different places that have different environmental pressures, then they two
separated groups start to be slimmed down to only the ones who could survive and
were more fit in said environment. Then if the two groups ever met again, there would
be reproductive barriers like:
mechanical-parts dont fit
behavioral- “i don’t mate with that!!!”
molecular- the sperm from one of the groups would be considered foreign to the other
groups immune system so it would be destroyed.
Habitat- they live in different places
Temporal-they mate in different months

Distinguish Between Kin And Sexual Selection- sexual selection is natural selection
that selects instead of for traits that make the species tougher they select for traits that
allow the organism to mate more. Kin selection is the idea that one organism sacrifices
itself to allow a close relative to live because he knows that they have the same genetic
material as him.

Distinguish Between The Three Directions Of Natural Selection- They are as

follows
Directional- The frequency of alleles moves towards one extreme or another
stabilizing-the frequency of alleles moves towards the average
Disruptive -the frequency moves away from the average and towards both extremes

Distinguish Between Micro And Macroevolution- Microevolution is the change of

alleles in a population but over a number of generations, leading to the rise of different
traits. Macroevolution, however is the rise of a new species due to a separation of two
groups of the same species. what happens is a species is separated by a barrier and
they end up is different environment that select for different traits and they cannot mate
when they are reunited. The two groups become distanced and they are now totally
different populations and now different species because of the reproductive barriers of
mechanical, behavioral, molecular, habitual, and temporal.
Analyze Reproductive Barriers -
behavioral- the two new species won’t mate because the other looks radically different
habitual - They live in different places, so the rarely interact.
temporal- The two different species have different mating periods.(i.e. Summer &
Winter)
molecular-The sperm of one of the species is considered to be foreign to the other
species immune system, and is therefore destroyed.
mechanical-the parts don’t fit (you can infer what the parts are)

OR THEY CAN BUT.............

Their babies die even if they have them
Their babies can’t reproduce; hybrid infertility

Analyze The Process Of Speciation-Speciation is better known as

MACROEVOLUTION. They are the same thing. It easy enough to understand. a
Species is separated in to two groups and the two groups end up being physically
separated(i.e a mountain). The places where the two species are end up being radically
different and therefore the process of natural selection elects different traits depending
on which makes the organism more fit in it’s specific environment. Then these changes
go on for a while and the final result is two radically different groups that came from the
same ancestor animal. SPECIATION!!! When the two( it doesn’t have to be two it could
be more) groups Interact, if they do, they are stopped from interbreeding by the
reproductive barriers and therefore cannot mate, with each other. That is speciation and
how new species come about.

Analyze Convergent And Divergent Evolution- Convergent and divergent evolution

are the ways of describing how different organisms look alike. convergent is when
organisms have distant ancestry, and their likeness is more described by the fact that
they live in similar environments with similar environmental pressures. Remember the
flightless birds example we had in class. Divergent is when two organisms have a recent
common ancestry, but different environmental pressures and environments.

Describe Types Of Homologies And Vestigial Structures- Homologies are defined

as similarity resulting in common ancestry. Therefore this can only be true in what kind
of evolution???? >DIVERGENT< Homologies are like humans and apes having
posable thumbs. They both have a common ancestor and the thumbs are similarities!
Vestigial structures are easier to understand. A Vestigial structure is something that isn’t
used by the offspring in a certain organism and gets rooted out be natural selection.
remember that natural selection doesn’t just let the traits that help you escape from
predators . It can also help to cause the organisms with useless structures that wont
help them in their current environment, loose them. The structures lie tails and arms and
other limbs use up calories and cause an organism to work harder and die earlier than
one that doesn’t have the tail or arm to use up it’s energy. So the one with a mutation
that gave it a lesser tail or arm uses less calories and is able to reproduce more
because it lives longer. A vestigial structure is like your tailbone. Since you descended
from an ancestor that had a tail and you no longer have need for one and neither did
your ancestors, they were able to slowly loose their tails through natural selection. That
way we don’t use up calories swinging a tail that we don’t need. Same goes for flightless
birds. They have small, useless wings, but they really don’t need wings. Their
environment is a grassland and their sources of food and water are easily accessible
without wings. When their ancestors originally came to the place that they lived in, they
probably had fully functional wings, but didn’t have any use for them. As they became a
burden, they process of natural selection slowly rooted them out, generation by
generation.

Compare Anagenesis to Cladogenesis- Anagenesis is when an ancestor evolves

directly into its descendant population. Remember that the preceding ancestor is now
dead, as is in the case of all linear evolution plots. Anagenesis is a linear process and it
looks like this: (This is an example of course) this is just what it looks like

---------ferret ----------------dog---------------------->>>>>>>
^the ferret is now dead in this example

--------------lion-----------------------.>>>>>>>>>>
\
\
\
\
cat----------------------->>>>>>>>>>>>

Cladogenesis-Cladogenesis is the branching separation where ancestor evolves into

several descendant sub-populations. The ancestor species doesn’t necessarily die in
this type of origin It looks like this: (JUST AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE)

A--------------------------#3
\ \
\ \
/ \ \
/ \ \
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