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Abstract
The yellowing of white and pastel colored textiles and garments has been a problem for
many years in the textile industry. There are numerous causes that can attribute to
yellowing of textiles; the major causes have been clarified in this work. Most common
causes are aging, over heating, interaction between dyes/chemicals/residues and
atmospheric pollutant like nitrogen oxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide etc., use
of phenolic antioxidant in associated products used in textile and garments industries,
presence of chlorine in process water or in domestic washing, contamination by the endusers, ionic interaction of different chemicals etc. The present study conspicuously reveals
that the yellowness of textiles could be avoided in lesser to higher extent by taking a series
of special measures starting from fiber production up to the level of end-uses. Nonetheless,
the complete prevention or removal of yellowness of textiles cant be assured.
1 Introduction
Yellowing behavior of textiles is one of the oldest and common quality problems usually found
in white and pastel shades as the yellowness, which appears on fabric is of very low intensity
(see illustration 1). As the name implies, Yellowing of textiles is the yellow discoloration of
textiles that can develop during processing, usage or storage. Apart from the frequent attack on
white or pastel shades, dark shades are also affected, which becomes duller in appearance.
As the literature goes, yellowness has been found to be encountered in all most all types of
textile materials including those made from natural fibers such as cotton, wool or silk, as well as
those composed of synthetic fibers such as polyester, nylon, or spandex. It should also be noted
that in the cases of blended fabrics, at times only one fiber in the blend may be affected and at
other times several or all fibers in the blend are affected by the yellowing. Fabric yellowing can
occur in either of the following ways:
by fiber degradation
by chemical
destruction
by topographical
change
Additionally, some fabric fibers as well as dyes are susceptible to aging discoloration when
exposed to light and/or oxygen. Such discoloration is irreversible. Some fabrics discolor because
they stained with a material that can be bleached out and/or washed away by detergents. Some
such stains (like those produced as a result of the iron content in water) are not removable. The
textile finishing chemicals presently available are more numerous and chemically complex than
ever before. They often show yellowing tendencies as they are aged or are subjected to improper
storage and cleaning techniques. Besides, it has been reported that the high concentration of
various atmospheric pollutants present today in many parts of the world resulting from a variety
of industrial and natural effluents are the major reason for the substantial increase of fabric
yellowing.
2 Causes of Yellowing
In recent years even today, the various causes of these yellowing issues have been studied
extensively with the subsequent publication of numerous technical papers and reports. As a
general statement, yellowing of textile materials is an indication of unanticipated chemical
degradation. Very often, as colorless chemicals decompose, they form light to moderate
yellowish colors. Of course, if this chemical is a textile finish or additive or has been absorbed
by a textile product, this color formation is noted as fabric or garment yellowing. It should also
be noted that continued chemical decomposition could form moderate to dark brown colors or, in
some extreme cases, even black colors. However, the causes can be grouped into the following
broad categories with the understanding that there can be crossover or combinations of causes
that yield observed fabric yellowing. These are certainly not a totally complete listing of all the
potential causes of textile yellowing but it does cover the major sources indicated in the technical
and trade literatures.
2.1 Fiber Degradation
Destruction, decomposition, internal change of the fiber structure due to chemical or biological
degradation, exposure to excessive heat, intensive or long term exposure to light radiation and/or
fiber aging are all primary causes of fabric yellowing.
Also all these nitrogen-based groups (amines or amides) can very well be oxidized to nitrogen
oxides if the finished fabric is over heated (temperature over 140 to 150C)4. Even during
normal drying of the fabric/garment these groups can be oxidized and produce different oxides of
nitrogen. Nitrogen oxides are brownish in color and at very low concentration they look like
yellow (see illustration 3).
Ill. 3: Mechanism of thermo yellowing
various types of industrial and commercial processes. The most prevalent pollutant, nitrogen
dioxide, may react with small amounts of chemical residues, oils or greases on the fabric surface.
High concentration of nitrogen dioxide has been shown to yellow nylon fiber directly.
Other gaseous pollutants shown to induce fabric yellowing include sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and ozone. It must be emphasized that fabric yellowing in the presence of these
atmospheric contaminants is usually the result of a chemical interaction between the specific
pollutant and some chemical components on or near the fabric surface.
The polluting gases present in the air can destroy indigo. The air, especially of large cities, is
polluted with ozone, (O3), which is a very powerful oxidizing agent. Ozone, in presence of
sunlight, when comes in contact with indigo generates free radicals. The free radicals decompose
indigo into an oxidized product called as Isatin (see illustration 4)7. It is yellowish in color and
hence imparts yellowness to the textiles.
Use of nonionic or anti ozone softeners instead of cationic softener, as they impart less
yellowing to textiles.
In case of amino silicone, one should limit the amine value between 10-20 for nonyellowing behavior.
Use of chemical finishing agents which do not contain phenolic-based antioxidants and
preservatives and also have minimal affinity for volatile phenol compounds.
Minimum amounts of softeners, particularly cationics, should be used since they may
intensify yellowing by attracting dirt and oils and by storing phenolic compounds.
Maintain a slightly acidic pH of around pH 6 or below for the finished fabric with a nonvolatile acid.
If possible use of packaging and wrapping materials and boxes free from phenolic
antioxidants. Use of gas impermeable wrapping films.
Safely removal of harmful gases, maintain good ventilation in storage areas, and
processing houses.
Ensuring that garment components such as shoulder pads or interlinings do not contain
phenolic compounds, which have a tendency to yellow.
4 Concluding Remarks
As it is revealed from this study, there are a wide variety of causes for yellowing of textiles and
garments. The following four kinds of yellowing are, however, the common phenomena and of
substantial importance:
Yellowing by oxides of nitrogen. It may react with dyes, chemicals residue, oils, grease
and impart yellowness to textiles.
Yellowing of the softener used (depending on the amino content). This can happen during
processing or at consumer end, while they are hot ironing or laundering.
Fading of optical brightening agents. Ionic Interaction of anionic brightener with cationic
softener or sensitivity towards acid/alkali can deteriorate the brightener.
References
1. C. Tomasino, Chemistry & Technology of Fabric Preparation & Finishing, 1992, 143
2. R.K. Thangavelu, Effect of Non-Visual Stimulus on Color Perception, thesis work, North
Carolina State University, 2003, 21
3. V.A. Shenai, Technology of Textile Processing, Vol. VIII, 129
4. R. Zyschka, Textile softeners and their tricky application, Melliand Int, Vol.7, 2001, 249251
5. Y. S. Chi; S. K. Obendorf, Aging of oily soils on textile materials, Journal of Surfactants
and Detergents, Vol.1, No.3, July, 1998
6. A.J. Hall, Textile Finishing, 3rd edition, 1966, 58-60
7. Zytex News, Vol.1, Issue 2, Sept-Nov 2001, 2
8. O. D. Bangee; V. H. Wilson ; G. C. East; HOLME I., Antioxidant-induced yellowing of
textiles, Polymer Degradation and Stability, Vol.50, 1995, 313-317
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