Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of low heat

rejection engine operating on various biodiesels and vegetable oils
M.J. Abedin , H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, A. Sanjid, A.M. Ashraful
Centre for Energy Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 15 February 2014
Accepted 16 May 2014

Keywords:
Low heat rejection engine
Thermal barrier coating
Thermal spraying technique
Engine performance
Exhaust emission
Biodiesel

a b s t r a c t
Internal combustion engine with its combustion chamber walls insulated by thermal barrier coating
materials is referred to as low heat rejection engine or LHR engine. The main purpose of this concept
is to reduce engine coolant heat losses, hence improve engine performance. Most of the researchers have
reported that the thermal coating increases thermal efciency, and reduces exhaust emissions. In contrast to the above expectations, a few researchers reported that almost there was no improvement in
thermal efciency. This manuscript investigates the contradictory results in order to nd out the exact
scenario. A wide range of coating materials has been studied in order to justify their feasibility of implementation in engine. The inuence of coating material, thickness, and technique on engine performance
and emissions has been studied critically to accelerate the LHR engine evolution. The objectives of higher
thermal efciency, improved fuel economy, and lower emissions are accomplishable but much more
investigations with improved engine modication, and design are required to explore full potentiality
of LHR engine.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The increased impact of global warming on Earth, limited efciency of automotive engines, and stringent anti-pollution laws
imposed in certain countries have created a stimulus to explore
more efcient engine with acceptable emission level. The fast
depletion of fossil fuels and rapid increase in fuel price also
increased interest in alternative fuels for automotive engines, in
recent years. In this context, low heat rejection engine operation
on biodiesels and vegetable oils can be an important subject matter
to explore [14].
Internal combustion (IC) engine with its cylinder head, walls,
valves, pistons etc. insulated by thermal barrier coating (TBC)
materials is referred to as LHR engine [5]. TBC materials have been
successfully applied to IC engines, in particular to the combustion
chamber walls. In an IC engine, approximately one third of the total
supplied fuel energy is converted to the useful work. Since the
working gas in a practical engine cycle is not exhausted at ambient
temperature, a major part of the energy is lost as engine exhaust
heat. In addition, another major part of the fuel energy is lost via
Corresponding author. Address: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 149901927; fax: +60 3
79675317.
E-mail addresses: joynul06me@yahoo.com, joynul06me@siswa.um.edu.my
(M.J. Abedin).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.05.065
0196-8904/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

cooling medium [1,6,7]. Theoretically, if the rejected heat could

be reduced, then the thermal efciency would be improved, at
least up to the limit set by the 2nd law of thermodynamics. But
practically, this may not happen due to the complex nature of IC
engine and complexity involved in coating process. In addition,
thermal and mechanical limitations are present in TBC materials.
However, higher thermal efciency, lower emissions, lower fuel
consumption, and elimination of the cooling system from engine
are the major promises of LHR engine [8].
Several ceramic coatings such as TiO2, Al2O3, mullite, CaO/MgO
ZrO2, YSZ have been used in engine application [911]. Partially
stabilized zirconia (PSZ), mostly 69% yttria stabilized zirconia
(i.e. YSZ) is the most widely used TBC material and it showed good
performance in high temperature applications like diesel engines,
gas turbines etc. [1214]. But TBCs like mullite, Ca/Mg-PSZ, Al2O3
and TiO2 can be good alternatives to YSZ due to their suitable properties for engine application. A table has been provided showing
the properties, advantages, and disadvantages of TBC materials in
Section 2.1. This table can be a useful tool for the selection of a
new TBC material. The TBC coatings affect the combustion process,
and hence the performance, and emission characteristics of the
engine [1519]. Because, TBC changes ignition characteristics of
the fuelair mixture, and its subsequent reaction mechanisms,
which are directly related to the exhaust emission characteristics.
In addition, thermo-physical properties of TBCs, porosity, and

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M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

Nomenclature
Abbreviation
LHR
low heat rejection
TBC
thermal barrier coating
PSZ
partially stabilized zirconia
YSZ
yttria stabilized zirconia

surface roughness have a direct inuence on unburned, and partially burnt hydrocarbons due to surface quenching, and retention
residual in the pores [20]. The durability of TBC materials is limited
by two basic failure mechanisms: one is oxidation of the bond coat,
and other one is thermal expansion mismatch between top coat
and bond coat [21,22]. The inuence of these TBC materials and
bond coating materials on engine performance and emissions has
been investigated thoroughly in this paper.
The most popular thermal spraying method to deposit TBC in
the engine cylinder walls is plasma spraying method due to its
ability to melt the substrate at high temperature. Besides, high
bond strength (1525 MPa), lower porosity (17%), and wide range
of coating thickness (3001500 lm) is attainable in this process
[23]. A brief description of this method has been provided in
Section 2.2. The inuence of thermal spraying methods on engine
performance and emissions has been studied in this manuscript.
LHR engine combustion is signicantly different from uncoated
engine combustion. The four major deviations in Combustion characteristics of LHR-diesel operation from uncoated-diesel operation
are: [24]
a. Ignition delay period shortens.
b. Pre-mixed burning phase decreases and diffusion burning
phase increases.
c. Total combustion duration increases.
d. Heat release rate during the diffusion burning phase
decreases.
A lot of studies have been carried out since 1978 on LHR engine
development, performance, emissions and durability [25].
Although the use of LHR engine concept is found to be promising,
the reported studies showed contradictory results. Most of the
researchers [6,14,2630] have reported that the thermal coating
reduces coolant heat loss, increases thermal efciency, reduces
emissions (except NOx), and increases exhaust energy availability.
In contrast to the above expectations, a few researchers reported
that almost there was no improvement in thermal efciency
[31,32]. Since the temperature in the combustion chamber is
higher in the LHR engines than that of uncoated engines, it is possible to use lower cetane number fuels in LHR engine [24,3335].
The objectives of this review article are: to study the conversion
process of diesel engines into LHR engines; to nd out the feasibility of using new alternative TBC materials for engines; to investigate the LHR engine combustion, performance, heat losses, and
emission characteristics using diesel, biodiesels, and vegetable oils;
to study the reasons behind the contradictory results.
2. LHR engine preparation
2.1. Suitable bond coating and TBC materials for IC engines
The TBC system consists of a TBC, a bond-coat, and a substrate.
The bond-coat relaxes the thermal stresses due to the mismatch of
the coefcient of thermal expansion (CTE) between the TBC and
the substrate. The bond-coat has been also employed for the

CTE
IC
CI
TDC

coefcient of thermal expansion

internal combustion
compression ignition
top dead centre

protective coating from oxidation and corrosion of the substrate

[22]. There is a wide range of metallic alloys used as bond coat,
normally consisting of a MCrAlY alloy, where M stands for Ni, Fe,
Co or combination of them. Some alloys also include other materials such as Ta or Re. Some types of bond coats are made of electroplated Ni and Pt aluminides followed by diffusion aluminizing
[11,3638].
What are the required key properties to be a good TBC? Denitely, there is no single material which fulls all requirements.
Therefore, we need to nd out suitable TBC and Bond coating materials which are able to withstand severe conditions like IC engine
combustion chamber.
The basic requirements of a good TBC are: [9,39,40]
a. Low thermal conductivity.
b. No phase transformation in the range of room temperature
to in-cylinder temperature.
c. High melting point.
d. Chemical inertness.
e. Same thermal expansion coefcient with metallic substrate.
f. Good adherence capability with metallic substrate.
g. Low sintering rate of porous microstructure.
Investigation shows that inelastic behavior of thick TBC ceramic
material and its unique micro-structure determines the failure
mechanism [41]. During the heating of a thick TBC, a compressive
stress develops which becomes tensile after cooling and initiates
cracks [42]. Mismatch in thermo-mechanical properties between
bond coating and top coating initiates cracks in the interface [43].
Although several ceramic materials have been used as TBC in
engines, only a few of them like 78% YSZ have received good
attraction due to their physical properties like thermal conductivity, strength, chemical stability, thermal expansion coefcient etc.
In Table 1, physical properties, advantages, and disadvantages of
some suitable TBC and bond coating materials for IC engine are
provided. From this table, one can predict which coating material
is more suitable for IC engine application.
2.2. How to convert standard engine into LHR engine?
After the selection of a suitable TBC material, the next job is, it
needs to be deposited on combustion chamber walls. TBC can be
deposited by using various techniques. These techniques are
known as thermal spraying processes. Thermal spraying is a group
of coating processes wherein a feedstock material is heated and
propelled as individual particles or droplets onto a surface
(Fig. 1). The thermal spray gun generates the necessary heat by
using combustible gases or an electric arc. As the materials are
heated, they are changed to a plastic or molten state which are
conned and accelerated by a compressed gas stream to the substrate. The particles strike the substrate, atten, and form thin
platelets (splats) that conform and adhere to the irregularities of
the prepared substrate and to each other. As the sprayed particles
impinge upon the surface, they cool and build up splat by splat into
a laminar structure forming the thermal spray coating. Coating

Table 1
Physical properties of some suitable coating materials for IC engines [9,14,33,44].
Thermal
conductivity
(W/m K)

Thermal
expansion
coefcient
(1/k]*10 6)

Density
(kg/m3)

Specic
heat
(J/kg K)

Poissons
ratio

Youngs
modulus
(GPa)

78% YSZ

10.9

5650

620

0.25

13.8

NiCrAl bond coating

NiCoCrAlY bond coating
ZrO2
TiO2
Al2O3

15

2.17
3.3
5.8

19
16
15.3
9.4
9.6

8000

452

0.25
0.3
0.25
0.28
0.26

80
86
21
283
30

Al2O3 + 40%TiO2
Al2O3 + 40%ZrO2
CeO2
Mullite

1
8
2.77
3.3

1.3
7.5
13
5.3

3000
4000

800
825
470

0.24
0.23
0.270.31
0.25

8
84
172
30

5% (w/w) CaO + ZrO2

La2Zr2O7

1.56

9.91
9.1

490

0.28

149.3
175

BaZrO3

3.42

8.1

450

181

LaPO4

1.8

10.5

0.28

133

Lanthanum aluminate LaMgAl11O19

1.7

10.1

860

Advantages

High thermal expansion coefcient

Low thermal conductivity
High thermal shock resistance

High corrosion resistance

High hardness
Not oxygen transparent

Low thermal conductivity than YSZ

High corrosion resistance
Low thermal conductivity
Good thermal shock resistant below
1273 k
Very high thermal stability
Low sintering
Low thermal conductivity
Not oxygen transparent
High melting point 2963 K
Low thermal expansion coefcient than
YSZ

High melting point 2345 K

Low thermal conductivity
Good corrosion resistance
Long term thermochemical and structural stability below 1673 K
Lower sintering rate than zirconia based
TBCs
Low thermal conductivity

Disadvantages

Sintering above 1473 K

Phase transformation at 1443 K
Corrosion

Phase transformation at 1273 K

High thermal conductivity
Low thermal expansion coefcient

High thermal expansion coefcient than YSZ

Crystallization at 10231273 K
Low thermal expansion coefcient

Used in
engine?

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Not yet
Not yet

relatively low thermal expansion coefcient

Yes
Not yet

Lower thermal shock resistance than YSZ

Not yet

High thermal expansion coefcient

Very hard to apply plasma spraying method

Not yet

Not yet

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

Material

175

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M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

as chromium oxide and bond coatings such as NiCrAl for LHR

engines [36].
3. Combustion characteristics
3.1. In-cylinder pressure variation

Fig. 1. Basic thermal spraying technique [48].

quality is usually assessed by measuring its porosity, oxide content, macro and micro-hardness, bond strength and surface roughness [45,46]. This process is usually applied to protect metal parts
from corrosion, erosion, wire and high temperature by improving
its properties and also for repairing damaged and worn parts. Coating materials available for thermal spraying include metals, alloys,
ceramics, plastics and composites [47]. There is a wide range of
spraying processes and coating materials that can be deposited
so that the thermal spraying technique has found its application
in almost all industrial elds.
The thermal spraying techniques can be divided into several
processes that differ according to the thermal energy source and
the respective kinetic energy of the sprayed particles (Fig. 2).
Plasma spraying method is the most popular technique to deposit
TBC in engine due to its higher porosity [36,50]. This method is
suitable to apply in a surface which melts at a very high temperature. A plasma spray system consists of a power supply, gas source,
gun, and powder feeding mechanism (Fig. 3). An arc is formed
between an electrode and spray nozzle, which acts as a secondary
electrode. A pressurized inert gas is passed between the electrodes
where it is heated to a very high temperature (>16,000 C) to form
plasma jet [51]. The material to be deposited (feedstock) can be a
powder, liquid, suspension or wire and is introduced into the
plasma jet by emanating from a plasma torch. For a deposition rate
of 15 kg/h, particle velocity reaches 200300 m/s, porosity is
reduced to 510% and oxide content to 13%. In the jet, the material is melted and propelled toward a substrate. Therefore, the molten droplets atten, rapidly solidify and form a deposit. This
process has been extensively used to apply thermal barrier materials, such as zirconia and alumina, and wear resistant coatings such

Properties of biodiesels and crude vegetable oils used for this

study are provided in Table 2. In a CI engine, the cylinder pressure
depends on the burned fuel fraction during the premixed combustion phase which is controlled by the fuel air mixing rate, start of
injection, ignition delay etc. High peak pressure and maximum rate
of pressure rise correspond to large amount of fuel burned in
premixed stage [53]. The highest peak pressure was observed for
LHR-diesel operation due to the highest and early heat release
[53,54]. The peak pressures for RME, PME, diesel and their blends
were almost identical in both LHR and standard engine, at full load.
As the load increases, the ignition delay is shortened more in
standard engine which ensures quick pressure rise and start of
combustion before TDC [10]. It was reported that the peak pressure
increased about 3 bar for JME in a LHR-turbulence induced piston
engine. This is due to the increase in air turbulence motion by
the jets and reduced ignition delay i.e. higher combustion temperature by ceramic coating.
3.2. In-cylinder temperature characteristics
The temperature of the biodiesel fuelled LHR engine is much
higher than others. For example, the combustion temperature of
LHR-biodiesel operation was 5%, 13%, and 18% higher than the
LHR-diesel, standard-biodiesel and standard-diesel combinations,
respectively. This was attributed to the insulation effect of the
combustion chamber walls [53,54].
3.3. Heat release characteristics
The peak heat release rate for LHR engine with diesel fuel was
higher than LHR engine with JME, diesel engine with diesel and
JME by 3%, 9% and 14%, respectively (Table 3). This is due to the
combination of higher caloric value of diesel fuel and higher
operating temperature associated with LHR engine. Though, the
LHR-JME operation exhibits lower heat release than LHR-diesel
operation due to lower caloric value of biodiesel nevertheless, it
is much higher compared to standard engine operation [53].
The higher values of cumulative heat release in LHR engines are
attributed to its capability of thermal insulation by the ceramiccoated combustion chamber. Higher surface tension and viscosity
of biodiesels result in poor atomization during injection process
which deteriorates; sufcient combustible mixture formation

Fig. 2. Thermal spraying classication [49].

177

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

Fig. 3. Plasma spray technique [52].

Table 2
Properties of biodiesels and crude vegetable oils which have been used in this study [5564].

Properties

Kinetic viscosity 40 C (cSt)

Density at 15 C (kg/m3)

Cetane number

Caloric value (MJ/kg)

Flash point (C)

Diesel
ASTM No. 2 diesel
Jatropha methyl ester (JME)
Rice bran methyl ester (RME)
Pongamia methyl ester (PME)
Cottonseed methyl ester (CSME)
Palm oil methyl ester (POME)
Corn oil methyl ester (COME)
Mohr oil based biodiesel (MOBD)
Sunower methyl ester (SME)
Canola methyl ester (CME)
Honge oil methyl ester (HOME)
Cottonseed oil (CSO)
Sunower oil (SFO)
Waste corn oil (WCO)
Pongamia oil (PO)
Crude rice brawn oil (CRBO)
Jatropha curcas oil (JO)

2.55.7
23.07
3.75.8
4.815.6
4.855.3
44.9
2.954.92
4.174.21

816840
830850
864880
872877
878886
874885
843890
884890
870
877882
837886
870
883876
910
925
934
927
910

4555
4045
4655
51.6
5558
51.255
4965
60.9a
55
4952
4952.9

38
36
51a
48
45
45

4245.9
42.3
38.542
3639.6
35.5636.05
40.3242.73
38.7340.39
39.12
37.5
39.740.56
36.5540.5
36.1
39.47
39.8
39.68
35.6
37.9
38.8539.77

5098
58
163238
153
147180
70110
135259
88192

4.55.9
4.24.5
5.84
2734
31.5
28
38.2
38.8
38

85178
94183
170
218234
234262
285
220
270
235

Cetane index.

Table 3
Comparative peak values of pressure, temperature and heat release rate [53,54,65].
Combustion characteristics

CI engine & diesel

CI engine & biodiesel

LHR engine & diesel

LHR engine & biodiesel

Peak pressure (bar)

Peak temperature (C)
Maximum heat release rate (J/CA)

6877.25
14831670
6387

6575.12
15711778
5880.3

6880.79
17191891
6890.12

6878.18
18111823
6689.31

leads to reduction in heat release hence the torque and power [53].
The premixed combustion phase was increased and diffusion combustion phase was decreased in LHR engine for biodiesels due to
shorter ignition delay.

increases with the increase of engine speed for all test fuels in both
engines [29,30,55,69].

4. Performance characteristics

In general, the fuel consumption rate is increased in the range

010% in a naturally aspirated LHR engine, decreased in the range
015% in a turbocharged LHR engine, and decreased in the range
015% in a turbo-compounded LHR engine compared to a standard
diesel engine [70]. The variations in SFC reect the diversities in
some of the fuel physical properties, specially caloric value and
density. The SFC varies depending on the engine speed and load
[92]. SFC increases in both engines at low engine speeds but
decreases at medium speeds due to higher combustion efciency,
sufcient time and suitable mixture formation in the combustion
chamber [30]. SFC in LHR engine was less than that of the standard
engine for diesel fuel as well as for biodiesels due to higher gas and
wall temperature (Table 5) [10,29,30,55,84]. The complete combustion characteristics of biodiesels are weaker than diesel fuel

4.1. Engine power

Engine operation using diesel, biodiesels and vegetable oils is
improved by using thermal barrier coating (Table 4). This happened due to the reduction in heat transfer from combustion
chamber wall and higher combustion temperature means higher
in-cylinder pressure which ensures higher mean effective pressure,
hence higher torque and power [26,29,33,66,67]. Higher incylinder temperature also improves power and torque by making
better vaporization of fuel drops which results in shorter ignition
delay, hence better combustion [68]. A slight decrease in engine
power is also reported for LHR engines [28,55]. Engine power

4.2. Specic fuel consumption (SFC)

178

Table 4
LHR engine performance compared to standard engine for diesel fuel.
Standard/base engine specications

TBC material (insulation thickness)

Coating technique

Operating condition

Engine performance

Ref.

4C90: 4-cyl. NA CIE

NiCrAl bond coat (0.15 mm) + Al2O3-40% TiO2

(0.35 mm)

Variable speed 1000

4500 rpm

SFC decreases by 1520%

[33]

Power increases by 8%
RP: 51.5KW
CR: 20.6
Ford 6.0: 6-cyl. TC, WC, DI CIE

NiCrAl bond coat (0.15 mm) + ZrO28%Y2O3

(0.3 mm)

Kirloskar AV1: 1-cyl. WC DI CIE

RP: 3.8KW RS: 1500 rpm; CR: 16
1-cyl. WC DI CIE

Thermal efciency increases by 10%

[21,71]

Plasma spray

SFC decreases by 2%
BSFC decreases by 6%

NiCrAlY (100 lm) + ZrO28%Y2O3(260 lm)

NiCrAlY (400 lm) + mullite (1 mm)

Plasma spray

Variable loading condition

BSFC decreases by 67% for YSZ

BSFC decreases by 23% for mullite
Frictional power loss decreases

[72]

NiCrAlCo + YSZ

Bond coat (ame spray) and Constant speed, varying

top coat (plasma spray)
load and IT

SFC decreases by 8.5%

[73]

RP: 7.5KW RS: 1500 rpm, CR: 16

BTE increases by 6.4%

Daihatsu: 3-cyl. In line SI engine CR: Bond coat (0.15 mm) + ZrO2Y2O3 (075%)
(0.45 mm)
9.5

Plasma spray

Varying speed and load

BSFC reduces

[67,74]

Thermal efciency improves

4C90 NA CIE

NiCrAl (0.15 mm) + ZrO2Y2O3 (0.3 mm)

NiCrAl (0.15 mm) + Al2O3TiO2 (0.35 mm)

Air plasma spray

NiCrMo (0.15 mm) + Al2O3ZrO2 (0.25 mm)

4C90 NA CIE

Ami 3400 (0.15 mm) + MX63020 (0.2 mm)

Greater thermal fatigue resistance than ame spraying method

2500 rpm and 115Nm
brake torque
1000 rpm and 20Nm brake Al2O3TiO2 improved engine performance
torque

Flame spraying method

2500 rpm and 115Nm

Flame sprayed coatings were found more prone to damage than
brake torque
plasma sprayed one
1000 rpm and 20Nm brake
torque

Ami 3400 (0.15 mm) + MX63018 (0.18 mm)

Ami 3400 (0.15 mm) + AMI 6500 (0.23 mm)
1-cyl. WC DI CIE

PSZ (1 mm) silicon nitride (0.5 mm)

Constant speed 850 rpm

and variable loads

Ford 6.0: 6-cyl. TC, DI CIE

Cyl. head and valve: CaOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

Atmospheric plasma spray

RP: 136KW RS: 2400 rpm

CR: 16.5, IT: 20 bTDC

Piston: MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

Bond coat: NiCrAl (0.15 mm)

Variable loads, constant

BSFC decreases by 6%
speed and injection timing
Power increases by 1%
Torque increases by 1.2%

6-cyl. TC, WC CIE

RP: 236KW RS: 1500 rpm
Max. torque 1520Nm at 1250 rpm

PSZ (1/1.5 mm) Silicon nitride (4 mm)

Plasma spray method

Variable loads

[14]
[14]

Thermal efciency increases by 3.326.4% for 1 mm PSZ, 2.594.92% [75]

for 0.5 mm PSZ and 1.612.98% for 1 mm silicon nitride
SFC decreases by 7.6112.83% for 1 mm PSZ, 6.0510.15% for
0.5 mm PSZ and 3.836.42% for 1 mm silicon nitride
[76,77]

Volumetric efciency decreases with higher insulation

[27]
Combustion irreversibility decrease signicantly

Ricardo E6-MS/128/76 1-cyl. WC CIE MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

CR: 420, IT: 2040

NiCrAl (0.15 mm)

Ford 6.0: 6-cyl. TC, DI CIE

RP: 136KW RS: 2400 rpm
CR: 16.5, IT: 20 bTDC

Cyl. head and valve: CaOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

Piston: MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm)
Bond coat: NiCrAl (0.15 mm)

Variable loads, constant

speed and IT: 38 bTDC

SFC was improved by lowering CR from 18.2016.80

[78
81]

They preferred 17.50 and 16.80 CR for lower SFC

Optimal IT in LHR engine was found at 4 CA retardation from the
optimal IT of 38 CA for standard engine
Atmospheric plasma spray

Variable speeds and loads

BSFC decreases by 6% at medium speeds and effective pressure

[8]

cyl. = cylinder, WC = water cooled, TC = turbo charged, NA = naturally aspirated, DI = direct injection, CR = compression ratio, IT = injection timing, RP = rated power, RS = rated speed, CIE = compression ignition engine,
EGT = exhaust gas temperature.

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

RP: 136KW RS: 2400 rpm, CR: 16.5

NiCrAl bond coat + cylinder head and valve

CaZrO3
(0.15 mm) + piston- MgZrO3 (0.35 mm)

Table 5
LHR engine performance while operating on biodiesels compared to standard enginediesel operation.
Fuel

JME

Base engine
specications

Operating condition

Kirloskar: WC, DI CIE

Constant speed
(1500 rpm)

RP: 3.7kw
CR: 16.5, IT:
23 bTDC, IP: 180 bar
1-cyl., NA, WC, DI CIE
RP: 4.4kw RS:
1500 rpm
CR: 17.5, IP: 200 bar
1-cyl. WC, NA, DI CIE

Kirloskar-TV1: 1-cyl.
WC, DI CIE
RP: 5.2kw RS:
1500 rpm, CR: 17.5,
IP: 220 bar and IT:
23-bTDC

BTE

Volumetric
efciency

PSZ (350 lm) + NiCrAl (150 lm) Plasma spray method

Increases by 3% at
full load

[82]

Constant speed and

full load

PSZ (0.5 mm) Plasma spray method

Increases

Increases

[53]

IP varies from 190

to 270 bar

PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder head and superni-90 (Ni

alloy) for piton and liner
-

Increases at all IP
190, 230, 270 bar

Increases at all IP

[83]

Constant speed and

full load

Fly ash (SiO245%, Al2O330%, Fe2O310% and MgO

0.5%).
Total coating thickness: 200 lm Plasma spray method

Decreases by
6.6% for RME100
Decreases by
16.8% for RME20

Increases by 2.3%
for RME100
Increases by 6.8%
for RME20

Drops by 7.7% for

RME100

[10]

Constant speed and

varying load

PSZ (0.5 mm)

Increases for
RME20

[84]

Fly ash (SiO245%, Al2O330%, Fe2O310% and MgO

0.5%).
Total coating thickness: 200 lm

Decreases by
3.2% for PME100
Decreases by
13.7% for PME20

Increases by 1% for
PME100
Increases by 4.9%
for PME20

Drops by 10.2% for

PME100

[7]

Decreases by 4%
for PME100
Decreases by
5.8% for PME40
Decreases by
7.8% for PME20

Increases by 0.8%
for PME100
Increases by 4.5%
for PME40
Increases by 7.8%
for PME20

[85]

Decreases by
6.0% for CSME
100 at all speeds
Decreases by
5.6% for CSME40
at all speeds
Decreases by
3.6% for CSME20
at all speeds

Increases by for
CSME100 at

Constant speed and

full load

Al2O3 nanoceramic coating (200 lm)

Both Plasma spray method

CSME

Lombardini 6LD 400:

1-cyl. AC, NA, DI CIE
RP: 6.25kw

RS: 3600 rpm

Ref.

SFC

Full load and

varying speed from
1700 to 3000 rpm

Coating material-Mo (250 lm) + bond coating-NiAl

(50 lm)
Plasma spray method

Increases by 3.5%
for CSME40 at
2000 rpm
Increases by 6% for
CSME20 at
2000 rpm

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

PME

Kirloskar-TV1: 1-cyl.
WC, DI CIE
RP: 5.2kw RS:
1500 rpm, CR: 17.5,
IP: 220 bar and IT:
23-bTDC
Kirloskar SV 1: 1-cyl.
WC, DI CIE
RS: 1800 rpm

LHR Engine performance characteristics

Engine power

RP: 3.68kw RS:

1500 rpm, CR: 16, IT:
27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar
RME

Coating material(thickness) and coating method

[30,69]

CR: 18
IP: 200 bar
(continued on next page)
179

180

Table 5 (continued)
Fuel

POME

Base engine
specications

Operating condition

Multi cyl. WC, selfgoverned CIE

Constant speed of
1500 rpm and
varying load from
0% to 100%

Coating material(thickness) and coating method

Coating material PSZ + stabilizer agent bond coating

NiAl Total thickness 500 lm Plasma method

LHR Engine performance characteristics

Ref.

Engine power

SFC

BTE

Volumetric
efciency

Little more up to
full load and less
after full load

Increases by 1.5%
at full load

Higher (36%) at
high load

COME

Lombardini 6LD 400:

1-cyl. AC, NA, DI CIE

Decreases if diesel
content increases
in blend at high
load
Constant engine
speed (2500 rpm)
and torque (10Nm)

Coating material: Al2O3TiO2 (250 lm) + Bond

coating: NiAl (50 lm)

RS: 3600 rpm

CR: 18
IP: 200 bar
1-cyl. WC, NA, DI CIE

Increases by 5.0%
for COME100

Decreases by for
COME

Decreases by 1.1% for

COME20

Decreases by
4.7% for
COME100
Decreases by
4.6% for COME20

Increases by 4.6%
for COME20

Decreases by for
COME

Increases by 7% at
190 bar injection
pressure

Decreases

[87,88]

[29]

Increases by 6.5%

Decreases by 2.6
8.3% at all
operating engine

[28]

Increases by 0.5%
at 80% power
output

Decreases

[57]

Decreases by 1.0% for

COME100

[55]

Plasma spray method

IP varies from 190
to 270 bar

PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder head and superni-90 (Ni

alloy) for piton and liner

Decreases

Full load and

varying speed from
1800 to 3000 rpm

Coating material: MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm) + Bond

coating: NiCrAl (0.15 mm) for cyl. head, exhaust and
inlet valves For piston surface, ZrO2 was used in steed
of MgOZrO2

Increases by 3.5% for

CME100

Decreases by
5.8% for CME100

Increases by 1.7% for

CME35
Increases by 1.6% for
CME20

Decreases by
8.0% for CME35
Decreases by
4.7% for CME20

YSZ(Y2O3ZrO2)-0.35 mm + NiCrAl- 0.15 mm

Decreases by 1.89.2%
at low engine speeds
(11001400 rpm)

Increases by 9%
at whole speed
range

Increases by 1.84.9%
at medium engine
speeds (1600
2400 rpm)
Decreases by 3.18.4%
at high engine speeds
(26002800 rpm)

RP: 3.68kw RS:

1500 rpm, CR: 16, IT:
27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar
CME

Lombardini 6LD 400:

1-cyl. AC, NA, DI CIE

RP: 6.25kw
RS: 3600 rpm
CR: 18
IP: 200 bar
SME

Mercedes-Benz/
OM364A: 4-cyl. TC,
DI CIE RP: 66kw RS:
2800 rpm
Max. engine torque
266Nm at 1400 rpm

Plasma spray method

Full load and
varying speed from
1100 to 2800 rpm

CR: 17.25, IP: 200 bar

HOME

TV1: 1-cyl. WC, DI

CIE
RP: 5.2kw RS:
1500 rpm
CR: 17.5, IT:
23 bTDC, IP: 205 bar

AC = air cooled, IP = indicated pressure.

Constant speed
(1500 rpm) and
variable IT

PSZ (400 lm)

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

RP: 6.25kw

MOBD

[86]

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

due to its lower caloric value and higher viscosity. Therefore, the
SFC values are higher for biodiesels compared to conventional diesel in both engines because more fuel is required for same output
power. In the Ignition delay (ID) period, the fuel atomizes and
mixes with air. This is a physical delay. Simultaneously the chemical delay occurs due to slow chemical reaction. If the total ID period is longer, the more fuel will be injected into the combustion
chamber. However, shorter ID period in LHR engine affects both
the physical and chemical delay positively. This helps to decrease
SFC for all fuels in LHR engine compared to standard engine
[28,69,85,86].
BSFC decreases with the increase of injection pressure (IP) for
vegetable fuel blends in both LHR and standard engine due to
improved spray characteristics (Table 6). Efcient combustion of
vegetable oils in LHR engine leads to decrease in BSFC compared
to standard engine [26,89,90,92]. Thring [93] stated that there is
no measurable improvement in fuel consumption based on the
thermodynamics involved.

181

in exhaust heat losses compared to standard engine, though the

thermal efciency is not increased to the same extent. The heat
losses to the cooling medium were decreased in the range of
23%, 27%, and 47% at low (20%), medium (50%), and high
(80%) loads respectively for LHR engine. The heat losses with the
exhaust gas of LHR engine at low, medium, and high loads were
increased in the range of 35%, 45%, and 89% respectively than
standard engine [1,27,29,9597]. The simple fact acting behind
the ndings is the lower thermal conductivity of TBC material.
The ceramic insulation increases the engine combustion temperature, hence the expansion work. As a result, the brake power rises
by a signicant amount in LHR engine. Rajendra Prasath et al. [53]
claimed 3040% reduction in heat losses to the cooling water in a
biodiesel fuelled LHR engine. Similar results are also reported for
vegetable oils in LHR engines [26,68].
6. Emission characteristics
6.1. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)

4.3. Volumetric efciency

Volumetric efciency is an indication of breathing ability of the
engine which depends on engine ambient conditions. The density
of the induced air is very much lower in LHR engine due to increase
in temperature of the residual gas and cylinder walls results in
drop in volumetric efciency. All researchers have reported that
there is a reduction in volumetric efciency in LHR engine
[55,8688].
The volumetric efciency was reduced for biodiesels in a LHR
engine at full load compared to standard-diesel operation. High
cylinder temperature in LHR engine is attributed for the reduction
in volumetric efciency [55,86,88].
The amount of air induced in LHR engine is low as air gets
heated with insulated components of the engine. Therefore, the
mass ow rate decreases in LHR engine. Moreover, deposits associated with vegetable oils and higher combustion temperature in
LHR engine reduces volumetric efciency [89,90]. Turbocharging
can improve volumetric efciency of the LHR engine.
4.4. Thermal efciency
The principal objective of LHR engine exploration is the
improvement of thermal efciency by reducing coolant heat losses.
Almost all researchers have reported an improvement in thermal
efciency. The increase in thermal efciency was attributed to
coolant heat loss reduction and lower heat ux. The decrease in
thermal efciency was attributed to deteriorated combustion,
increased convection heat transfer and increased in-cylinder heat
transfer.
The brake thermal efciency (BTE) of the coated diesel engine
was higher compared to uncoated engine for diesel, biodiesels,
and their blends [10,53,55,83,84,87]. Though the thermal efciency
of an engine depends on many factors but mostly it depends on
caloric value and specic gravity of fuel. Due to the presence of
substantial amount of oxygen, biodiesels have 10% lower heating
value than diesel. However, they have higher specic gravity than
diesel fuel. The resultant impact is approximately 5% lower energy
content per unit volume [53,83,94]. The BTE increased in LHR
engine for all fuels due to reduction in SFC [69].
5. Heat loss characteristics
The heat loss characteristics of LHR engines have been investigated by many researchers. The results provided, indicate a clear
reduction in heat losses to the cooling medium and an increase

EGT increases with the increase of engine speed for all fuels in
both engines. This was due to the fact that fuel burning rate
increases at higher speeds as a result heat release rate increases.
The increase is more pronounced in LHR engine as cooling heat
losses decrease signicantly in LHR engine due to thermal barrier
coating (Table 7) [10,29,69,85,88]. The magnitude of EGT at peak
load decreased with the increase of injection pressure in both versions of the engine with vegetable oil. This was attributed to the
improved atomization characteristics of the fuel and improved
airfuel ratios [8991].
6.2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emission
NOx forms by chain reactions involving O2 and N2 with the
presence of sufcient temperature. The oxygen concentration and
surrounding temperature are the key inuence factors for NOx
emission. The kinetics of NOx formation is governed by Zeldovich
kinetics and the availability of oxygen [30,98]. The NOx emission
from LHR engine is much higher due to high combustion temperature and long combustion duration. However, engine load, speed,
combustion chamber content, homogeneity, and mixture density
also have signicant effects on NOx emissions. The NO species in
exhaust can be reduced by advancing injection timing, water injection and slower burning rate [53].
Biodiesels showed more NOx emission in both LHR and standard
engine compared to diesel fuel due to higher oxygen contents
(Table 8) [10,30,53,84,86]. At high speeds, NOx emission was lower
in both engines despite higher temperature for all fuels which was
explained by inadequate time for NOx formation [69].
The higher in-cylinder combustion temperature in LHR engine
and higher oxygen content in vegetable oils increase NOx emission.
With the increase of engine speeds, engine gets more homogenous
fuelair mixture. Therefore, NOx emission increases at higher
engine speeds [26,68,91].
6.3. Hydrocarbon (HC) emission
Hydrocarbon emission from LHR engines is more likely to be
decreased due to shorter quenching distance and leaner ammability limit associated with LHR engine combustion. Most of the
investigators have reported lower HC emission [10,84,86,99]. High
in-cylinder gas temperature and wall temperature in LHR engine
assist the oxidation reactions to proceed close to completion. However, some investigators have found opposite result too. According
to them, deterioration in diffusion combustion is liable for higher

182

Table 6
LHR engine performance while operating on vegetable oils compared to standard enginediesel operation.
Fuel

Rainbow-186: 1-cyl. AC, DI CIE

Operating condition

Variable speed

RP: 10HP, RS: 3600 20 rpm

IP: 19.6 0.49 MPa, CR: 18
SFO

Rainbow-186: 1-cyl. AC, DI CIE

1-cyl. NA, WC, DI CIE

Variable speed

Rainbow-186: 1-cyl. AC, DI CIE

IP varied from 190 to 270 bar

1-cyl. NA, WC, DI CIE

Varying speeds from 1000 to

2750 rpm

1-cyl. NA, WC, DI CIE

JO + M60

RP: 3.68kw RS: 1500 rpm

IT: 27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar, CR: 16

SFC

BTE

Volumetric
efciency

Improved for both CSO15 and

CSO35

Decreases

[26]

ZrO2 (200 lm)

Improved greater than CSO

blends for both SFO15 and SFO35

Decreases

[23]

PSZ (500 lm)

BSEC decreases
by 5% at 190 bar
BSFC decreases

Increases up to
7% at 190 bar

Decreases
at all loads

[89]

ZrO2 ()

Increased

BSFC was almost

same

[68]

Increases

Decreases
at all loads

[90]

Peak BTE
increases

[91]

Peak BTE
increases by
21%

Varying IT and IP (190 to 270 bar)

RP: 3.68kw RS: 1500 rpm

IT: 27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar
JO

Engine power

Plasma coating technique

RP: 10HP, RS: 3600 20 rpm

IP: 19.6 0.49 MPa, CR: 18
CRBO

Ref.

Plasma spray method

RP: 3.68kw RS: 1500 rpm

IT: 27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar
WCO

ZrO2 (200 lm)

LHR engine performance characteristics

Plasma spray method

RP: 10HP, RS: 3600 20 rpm

IP: 19.6 0.49 MPa, CR: 18
PO

Coating characteristics

PSZ (500 lm)

Plasma coating technique

Constant speed (1500 rpm) and

IP varies from 190 to 270 bar

PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder head and

superni-90 (Ni alloy) for piton and liner

BSEC decreases

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

CSO

Base engine specication

Table 7
LHR engine exhaust emissions compared to standard engine while operating on diesel fuel.
TBC material (insulation thickness)

Coating technique

Operating condition

Exhaust emissions

Ref.

4C90: 4-cyl. NA CIE

NiCrAl bond coat (0.15 mm) + Al2O340% TiO2

(0.35 mm)
NiCrAl bond coat (0.15 mm) + ZrO28%Y2O3
(0.3 mm)

Variable speed 1000

4500 rpm

EGT is increases by 200 K

[33]

NiCrAl bond coat + cylinder head and valveCaZrO3 (0.15 mm) + piston- MgZrO3 (0.35 mm)

Plasma spray

EGT increases by 1565 C

[21,71]

RP: 51.5KW; CR: 20.6

Ford 6.0: 6-cyl. TC, WC, DI CIE
RP: 136KW RS: 2400 rpm; CR:
16.5

CO decreases by 3540%, HC decreases by 40% and PM

emission decreases by 48%
NOx increases by 9%

Kirloskar AV1: 1-cyl. WC DI CIE

RP: 3.8KW RS: 1500 rpm; CR: 16

NiCrAlY (100 lm) + ZrO28%Y2O3 (260 lm)

NiCrAlY (400 lm) + mullite (1 mm)

Plasma spray

Variable loading condition

EGT increases for both cases

[72]

1-cyl. WC DI CIE

NiCrAlCo + YSZ

Bond coat (ame spray) and

top coat (plasma spray)

Constant speed, varying

load and IT

EGT increases

[73]

UHC and CO emission decrease

NOx emission increases

RP: 7.5KW RS: 1500 rpm; CR: 16

Daihatsu: 3-cyl. In line SI engine
CR: 9.5

Bond coat (0.15 mm) + ZrO2Y2O3 (075%)

(0.45 mm)

Plasma spray

Varying speed and load

UHC and CO emission are lower but NOx emission is

signicantly higher

[67,74]

Ford 6.0: 6-cyl. TC, DI CIE

Cyl. Head and valve: CaOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

Atmospheric plasma spray

Variable loads, constant

speed and injection timing

EGT increases up to 338 k

[76,77]

RP: 136KW RS: 2400 rpm; CR:

16.5, IT: 20 bTDC

Piston: MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

Variable loads, constant

speed and IT: 38 bTDC

They preferred 17.50 and 16.80 CR for lower NOx emission.

[78
81]

Bond coat: NiCrAl (0.15 mm)

Ricardo E6-MS/128/76

MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

1-cyl. WC CIE

NiCrAl (0.15 mm)

When IT was retarded by 4 CA in LHR engine, NOx emission

was decreased by 2035%

CR: 4-20, IT: 20-40

Ford 6.0: 6-cyl. TC, DI CIE

RP: 136KW RS: 2400 rpm; CR:

16.5, IT: 20 bTDC

Cyl. Head and valve: CaOZrO2 (0.35 mm)

Piston: MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm)
Bond coat: NiCrAl (0.15 mm)

Atmospheric plasma spray

Variable speeds and loads

NOx emission reduces by 31% at 10001400 rpm and 21% at

18002400 rpm when IT is retarded by 2 bTDC.

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

Standard/base engine
specications

[8]

PM emissions reduce by 40% at full load and 2400 rpm

183

Fuel

JME

Operating condition

Kirloskar: WC, DI
CIE
RP: 3.7kw, CR:
16.5, IT: 23 bTDC,
IP: 180 bar
1-cyl., NA, WC, DI
CIE
RP: 4.4kw RS:
1500 rpm
CR: 17.5
1-cyl. WC, NA, DI
CIE
RP: 3.68kw RS:
1500 rpm, CR: 16,
IT: 27 bTDC, IP:
190 bar

Constant speed
(1500 rpm)

Coatings

LHR engine emissions

Ref.

EGT

PM, soot and

smoke intensity

NOx

CO

HC

PSZ (350 lm) + NiCrAl (150 lm) Plasma spray method

Decreases by 33%
at full load

Increases by
23% at full load

Decreases by
37% at full load

[82]

Constant speed and

full load

PSZ (0.5 mm)

Very high

[53,54]

IP varies from 190 to

270 bar

PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder head and superni-90 (Ni alloy) for
piton and liner

Decreases at all
IP

Decreases at peak
load

Increases

[83]

Kirloskar-TV1: 1cyl. WC, DI CIE

Constant speed and

full load

Increases by
27% for
RME100
Increases by
20.6% for
RME20

Smoke: Decreases
by 35.9% for
RME100
Decreases by 43.2%
for RME20

Increases by
26.2% for
RME100
Increases by
10.8% for
RME20
Increases

Decreases by
26.47% for
RME100
Decreases by
47% for RME20

[10]

RP: 5.2kw RS:

1500 rpm, CR:
17.5, IP: 220 bar
and IT: 23-bTDC.
Kirloskar SV 1: 1cyl. WC, DI CIE

Coating material: Fly ash (SiO245%, Al2O330%, Fe2O310%

and MgO0.5%). Total coating thickness: 200 lm Plasma
spray method
PSZ (0.5 mm)

Constant speed and

varying load

Decreases by a
considerable
amount for
RME20

[84]

Constant speed and

full load

Fly ash (SiO245%, Al2O330%, Fe2O310% and MgO0.5%).

Total coating thickness: 200 lm

Increases by
25% for
PME100
Increases by
18.3% for
PME20

Smoke:

Decreases by
14.7% for
PME100
Decreases by
41.2% for PME20
-

[7]

RS: 1800 rpm

PME

Kirloskar-TV1: 1cyl. WC, DI CIE

Al2O3 nanoceramic coating (200 lm)

RP: 5.2kw RS:

1500 rpm, CR:
17.5, IP: 220 bar
and IT: 23-bTDC

Both plasma spray method

CSME

Lombardini 6LD
400: 1-cyl. AC, NA,
DI CIE
RP: 6.25kw

Full load and varying

speed from 1700 to
3000 rpm

Coating material-Mo (250 lm) + bond coating-NiAl (50 lm)

Plasma spray method

Increases by
7.4% for
PME100 x
Increases by
7.4% for
PME100
Increases by
10.3% for
PME40
Increases by
20% for PME20

Decreases by 27.2%
for PME100

Increases by
8.0% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Increases by
6.2% for

Smoke: Decreases
by 8.0% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Decreases by 5.2%
for CSME40 at all

Decreases by 32.2%
for PME40
Decreases by 34.9%
for PME20

Increases
by28.6% for
PME100
Increases by
12.9% for
PME20
Increases by
12.8% for
PME100
Increases by
30.9% for
PME40
Increases by
32.6% for
PME20

Increases by
4.5% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Increases by
6.5% for

[85]

Decreases by
18.0% for
CSME100 at all
speeds
Decreases by
21.0% for

[30,69]

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

RME

Base engine
specications

184

Table 8
LHR engine emissions while operating on biodiesels compared to standard engine- diesel operation.

CSME40 at all
speeds
Increases by
7.8% for
CSME20 at all
speeds

speeds

Coating material- PSZ + stabilizer agent bond coating- NiAl

Total thickness- 500 lm Plasma spray method

Coating material: Al2O3TiO2 (250 lm) + Bond coating: NiAl

(50 lm)

RS: 3600 rpm

CSME40 at all
speeds
Increases by
7.4% for
CSME20 at all
speeds

CSME40 at all
speeds
Decreases by
17.0% for
CSME20 at all
speeds

Smoke: decreases
by 45.74%

Increases

Decreases

Decreases

[86]

Increases by
5.0% for
COME100
Increases by
6.6% for
COME20

Smoke: Decreases
by 6.6% for
COME100
Decreases by 8.3%
for COME20

Increases by
7.4% for
COME100
Increases by
8.8% for
COME20

Decreases by
22.0% for
COME100
Decreases by
15.0% for
COME20

[55]

Decreases by 8.8%
for CSME20 at all
speeds

CR: 18
IP: 200 bar
POME

Multi cyl. WC, selfgoverned CIE

COME

Lombardini 6LD
400: 1-cyl. AC, NA,
DI CIE
RP: 6.25kw

Constant speed of
1500 rpm and varying
load from 0% to 100%
Constant engine
speed (2500 rpm) and
torque (10Nm

Plasma spray method

MOBD

1-cyl. WC, NA, DI

CIE

IP varies from 190 to

270 bar

PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder head and superni-90 (Ni alloy) for
piton and liner

Increases

Smoke Decreases
by 11% at 190 bar
injection pressure

Increases

[87,88]

Full load and varying

speed from 1800 to
3000 rpm

Coating material: MgOZrO2 (0.35 mm) + Bond coating:

NiCrAl (0.15 mm) for Cyl. Head, exhaust and inlet valves For
piston surface, ZrO2 was used in steed of MgOZrO2
Plasma spray method

Increases by
5.2% for
CME100
Increases by
4.9% for CME35

Smoke: Decreases
by 4.7% for
CME100
Decreases by 8.2%
for CME35

Increases by
5.3% for
CME100
Increases by
7.3% for CME35

Decreases by
22% for CME100

[26]

Increases by
5.4% for CME20

Decreases by 7.5%
for CME20

Increases by
4.8% for CME20

Decreases by
23% for CME20

Higher

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

[57]

RP: 3.68kw RS:

1500 rpm, CR: 16,
IT: 27 bTDC, IP:
190 bar
CME

HOME

Lombardini 6LD
400: 1-cyl. AC, NA,
DI CIE
RP: 6.25kw RS:
3600 rpm, CR: 18,
IP: 200 bar

TV1: 1-cyl. WC, DI

CIE
RP: 5.2kw RS:
1500 rpm
CR: 17.5, IT:
23 bTDC, IP:
205 bar

Constant speed
(1500 rpm) and
variable IT

PSZ (400 lm)

Decreases by
24% for CME35

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

RS: 3600 rpm

CR: 18
IP: 200 bar

185

186

Table 9
LHR engine emissions while operating on vegetable oils compared to standard-diesel operation.
Fuel

CSO

Base engine specication

Rainbow-186: 1-cyl. AC, DI CIE

Operating
condition

Coating characteristics

LHR engine emissions

Ref.
PM, soot and
smoke intensity

NOx

CO

HC

Variable speed ZrO2 (200 lm) Plasma

spray method

Reduces

Increases

Decreases by
a
considerable
amount

Decreases by a
considerable
amount

[26]

Variable speed ZrO2 (200 lm) Plasma

spray method

Reduces

Increases

Decreases

Decreases

[23]

IP varied from PSZ (500 lm) Plasma

190 to 270 bar coating technique

Higher at all loads

Decreases by 10%
at 190 bar

Increases by 50% at 190 bar

[89]

Lower

Higher

Lower

Considerably
lower

[68]

Varying IT and PSZ (500 lm)

IP (190 to
270 bar)
Plasma coating technique

Higher at all loads

Decreases by 2% at Increases by 24% at 29 bTDC

29 bTDC

[89]

IP varies from PSZ (500 lm) for cylinder

190 to 270 bar head and superni-90 (Ni
alloy) for piton and liner

Higher

[91]

RP: 10HP, RS: 3600 20 rpm

IP: 19.6 0.49 MPa, CR: 18
SFO

Rainbow-186: 1-cyl. AC, DI CIE

RP: 10HP, RS: 3600 20 rpm
IP: 19.6 0.49 MPa, CR: 18

PO

1-cyl. NA, WC, DI CIE

RP: 3.68kw RS: 1500 rpm

Decreases with
increasing IP in LHR
engine

IT: 27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar

WCO

Rainbow-186: 1-cyl. AC, DI CIE

RP: 10HP, RS: 3600 20 rpm

IP: 19.6 0.49 MPa, CR: 18
CRBO

1-cyl. NA, WC, DI CIE

RP: 3.68kw RS: 1500 rpm

Varying
speeds from
1000 to
2750 rpm

ZrO2 ()

Decreases with
advancing IT and
increasing IP at peak
load

IT: 27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar

JO

1-cyl. NA, WC, DI CIE

JO + M60 RP: 3.68kw RS: 1500 rpm

JO + JO + IT: 27 bTDC, IP: 190 bar, CR: 16

Decreases by a
signicant amount
Decreases by 58%

Increases by a signicant amount

Increases
Decreases with the increasing percentage of
M M60 in LHR engine showed almost same
result like M35-standard engine

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

EGT

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

HC emission. Another reason can be the burnout of lubrication oil

due to higher wall temperature.
HC emission in LHR engine is very much low for pure diesel and
biodiesels compared to uncoated engine. This happened due to the
increase of after-combustion temperature as a consequence of
cooling heat loss reduction in LHR engine. Neat biodiesel signicantly reduces HC emission compared to blends and pure diesel
fuel in both LHR and standard engine. The reasons are: biodiesels
contain about 10% higher oxygen molecule than diesel; quenching
distance decreases and lean ammability limit increases in LHR
engine compared to uncoated engine [7].
HC emission was considerably decreased when vegetable
blends used in LHR engine (Table 9) [26,57,68,100]. The high oxygen content of vegetable oil makes more complete and cleaner
combustion [101] of fuel hence the in-complete combustion product (HC and CO) decreases. The average HC emission was slightly
lower for LHR engine compared to standard engine when vegetable
oil used. HC emission was signicantly lower for vegetable fuels in
both LHR and standard engine. At higher speeds, it was reported
that there was almost no HC emission for LHR engine while using
vegetable fuel blends [55].
6.4. Carbon monoxide (CO) emission
CO emission occurs due to the incomplete combustion of fuel
and depends on many engine parameters, mostly in-cylinder
temperature and equivalence ratio [30,69,102]. It might be
expected that LHR engines would produce less CO, for reasons
similar to those for HC emission. The reduced level of pre-mixed
combustion in LHR engine decreases initial production of CO and
later (i.e. during diffusion combustion) high temperature accelerates CO oxidation.
At lower engine speeds, due to poor combustion, CO emission is
high in both LHR engine and standard engine for all fuels. Generally
combustion is better at medium speeds in diesel engine. CO
emission decreases at medium speeds in both engines for all fuels.
CO emission increases at higher speeds in both engines due to
insufcient combustion time. Due to ceramic coatings the postcompression temperature increases which decreases CO emission
in LHR engine. In other words, CO emission decreases in LHR
engine as a result of higher combustion efciency. As higher oxygen content makes better combustion, the higher biodiesel
blended fuel decreases CO emission. In addition, high temperature
in LHR engine helps fuel to continue to burn during expansion
stroke which causes CO emission reduction for all fuels compared
to standard engine [29,30,69,86].
CO emission was slightly lower for LHR engine than the standard engine while using vegetable oil [23,55]. This was attributed
to the higher oxygen content of vegetable oil. Since both the CO
and HC emissions decrease, the CO2 emission increases to a great
extent in LHR engine [23]. Almost zero CO emission was observed
for some vegetable oil blends at higher speeds. Higher engine
speed leads to more homogeneous mixture in the cylinder, which
results in better combustion and lower CO emission [55].

187

and the intense turbulence created by the reversed squish. The

smoke opacity increases with the increase of engine loads because
the input fuel requirement increases with loads. Biodiesels and
their blends have favorable effect on smoke emissions due to more
complete combustion and presence of extra oxygen molecule. As
the cylinder wall and gas temperature increase due to coating,
the smoke density decreases by a large amount in LHR engine.
The trend is more pronounced in case of biodiesel fuels and their
blends [10,53,83,85]. Smoke emission was lower at low speeds in
both LHR engine and standard engine for all test fuels due to low
temperature and low air circulation rate associated with low
speeds. It was reported that lower combustion efciency, rich mixture formation, and insufcient time associated with high speeds
resulted in increased smoke emissions. Because fuel injection
increases on each cycle and the required air cannot be supplied.
Smoke emissions decreased as more carbon particles entered into
reaction due to higher temperature associated with LHR engine
[56]. The better atomization and vaporization of biodiesel and
higher combustion temperature associated with LHR engine
reduce smoke emissions [53,82,83].
The inherent oxygen content of vegetable oil reduces local
oxygen deciencies which help to reduce smoke emissions
[26,68,90,91]. While comparing among vegetable oils the higher
viscous one will make poor atomization, hence the smoke emissions will increase [23]. Smoke emissions were always lower while
using vegetable oil blends in both LHR and standard engine. Smoke
emissions decreased for all fuels with insulation and increasing
engine speeds [23,55]. Smoke emissions are proportional to the
density of the fuel. Due to higher molecular weight and unsaturation, crude vegetable oils are inherently more reactive than diesel
fuel. Therefore, they are more susceptible to oxidation and thermal
polymerization reactions which lead to higher smoke emissions
[89,90].
7. Conclusions
Previous studies are reviewed critically and comprehensively in
order to justify the future possibilities of the LHR engine from the
viewpoint of new TBC materials, coating techniques, combustion,
performance, heat losses, and emissions while operating on diesel,
biodiesels, and vegetable oils. The following conclusions are drawn
based on the literature surveyed.
Almost all researchers have reported an improved engine
performance in terms of power, fuel consumption, and thermal
efciency in LHR engine for all fuels except the volumetric efciency. The trends were more pronounced in case of biodiesels
and vegetable oils than the diesel fuel.
The coolant heat losses were decreased and the exhaust heat
losses were increased in LHR engine for all fuels at all loads.
The engine emissions have improved (except NOx) in LHR
engine for all fuels. All researchers agreed in one point- NOx emission is higher in LHR engine for all fuels especially for the biodiesels and vegetable oils due to increased combustion temperature.

6.5. Smoke emission

7.1. Uncovered gaps and recommendations

Smoke produces in automotive engine as result of incomplete

combustion of fuels. Almost all researchers reported higher smoke
and particulate emissions in LHR engine. This was attributed to the
increased oil consumption resulting from the loss of oil control at
the higher temperatures. Factors such as short ignition delay, poor
airfuel mixing are also responsible for the formation of smoke and
particulates. There are also some contradictory results observed
which were attributed to the enhanced soot oxidation, which
was made possible by both the high combustion temperature

The most important research gap of this survey is to nd a suitable TBC which will enhance engine performance as well as enable
biodiesel usage efciently in LHR engines. There are some alternative TBCs and bond coating materials found which can be used
effectively such as CeO2, Mullite, and La2Zr2O7. Though, a few of
the TBCs are not possible to deposit by plasma spray method but
they can be deposited by other techniques. Only a few articles have
studied the combustion characteristics of LHR engine. More experimental investigations need to be performed in different engine

188

M.J. Abedin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 85 (2014) 173189

conditions in order to look more insight of the LHR engine. The

exhaust recovery systems such as EGR, turbocharger, and
supercharger. have the benets of extra input energy. Only a few
experiments have been conducted to reveal the changes in exhaust
recovery systems in LHR engine. The few contradictory results can
be removed and re-established by conducting in-depth investigations and further engine modication. NOx reduction from LHR
engine should come to the focus of the researchers to boost the
acceptability of LHR engine.
Finally, the objectives of higher thermal efciency, improved
fuel economy, and lower emissions are accomplishable but much
more investigations with improved engine modication, and
design are required to explore the full potentiality of LHR engine.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia for nancial support through High Impact
Research Grant entitles: Development of Alternative and Renewable Energy Career (DAREC) Grant Number: UM.C/HIR/MOHE/
ENG/60.
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