Au351 Sensors

Chapter 2
Recording systems and sensors
Recording instruments are used in an electronic

measurement system to display an output (DQo ) that is
proportional to the quantity (DQi ) being measured.
DQi
DQo
Transducer
Recorder
Measurement and Instrumentation
What important?
(1) accuracy (2) easy interpretation (3) rapid process
In general, the characteristics that describe the
behavior of a recording instrument are
1. Input impedance
2. Sensitivity
3. Range
4. Zero drift
5. Frequency response
Input impedance, Z
Input impedance z controls the energy removed from the system
by the recording instrument in order to display the input voltage.
Consider a simple dc voltmeter used to measure the voltage v of

a source. The power loss p through the meter is given by
p = v2 / Zm
Resistance
Zm = Rm + i Xm
Capacitance / Inductance
Transducer
Thevenins equivalent circuit
vi
Zs
Transducer
voltage
Zm
For dc and quasi-static measurements
Z = R+i X ~ R (since X0)
vm = vi
vm ~ vi
1+(Rs/Rm)
(Rm >>Rs)
* High impedance is preferred
Sensitivity
The sensitivity S of a voltage recording instrument is given by

a change in output reading
S = DQO =
DQi
a change in voltage being measured
Example A voltmeter is used to measure the voltages of

a transducer
S =
DQO
=
DQi
d / vi
High sensitivity is required to give sufficiently large d for

accurate readout
vi
Range
The range, which represents the maximum voltage that can be

recorded, is determined from
vi
= d/S
vi,max = dr / S
dr
As illustrated by the above equation, when
the sensitivity S is high, the range vi will be low;
conversely, if
the range is high, the sensitivity will be low.
vi
Zero drift
is a variation in the output of an instrument which is not caused by

any change in the input
Zero input
0
Readout
0
Instabilities in the
circuits of a recorder
Frequency response
Input
Out put
Static
Dynamic
Frequency response
Recording
instrument
Input signal
vi = Ai exp(jwt)
Output indicator
vo = Ao exp(j[wt+f])
A = amplitude of a signal
f = phase angle
Amplitude distortion
NdB = 20 log10(Ao/Ai)
For instance, a recorder specification indicates that the frequency response is
Within 3 dB from 0 to 100 Hz
Frequency response
When NdB = +3dB,
Ao/Ai = 103/20= 1.413
When NdB = -3dB,
Ao/Ai = 10-3/20= 0.707
Ao=1.413Ai
+41%
Ao=0.708Ai
-29%
In general, limits of 0.4dB should be maintained to reduce recorder

error to less than 5%
Analog recording system
galvanometer
voltmeter
Strip chart
Galvanometer
is a device that is used to detect a current.
Torque, T = N I A B sina
where N = a number of turns of the coil
I = current
A = cross-sectional area of the current loop
a= angle between the normal of the
cross-sectional area and the magnetic field

Note: In general, the coil is arranged so that a=0
Torsion spring: T = k q
Analog Voltage meters
The galvanometer can be used as a dc voltmeter by

inserting a resistor in series with the instrument.
V=IxR
R
Galvanometer
Input
Dc voltage
voltmeter
Digital recording systems

Transducer
Conditioning
circuits
Amplifier
ADC
A/D converter
Analog Digital
Display processing
Digital codes
N-bit binary word permits a count of 2n
Maximum count C = 2n 1 (numbers of comparator)

Resolution,R = Vrange / 2n
Example A /D converter
Input ranges from 0 to 10 volts

4-bit converter
C = 24 1 = 15
R = 10 / 24 = 0.625 v
R=
0.625
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
0
0.63
1.25
1.88
2.50
3.13
3.75
4.38
5.00
5.63
6.25
6.88
7.50
8.13
8.75
9.38
10.00
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111
Code
Example: 4-bit word
0000
0001
Convert the decimal number

3 to binary
2)3
1
2)1
1
0
0010
0011
0100
0101
Convert the binary 0101 to

decimal
0110
= 23x0 + 22x1 + 21x0 + 20x1

=0+4+0+1
=5
0111
1000
Count
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Digital recording instrument
Digital multi-meter
Data acquisition system
Digital oscilloscope
Data logger
Sensors and Transducers
Sensors are physical elements that employ some natural phenomenon by

which they sense the variable being measured.
Transducers are electromechanical devices that convert a mechanical
change into a change in an electrical signal.
Sensor characteristics for the selection process
1. Size
Smaller is better, because of enhanced dynamic

response and minimum interference with the process
3. Sensitivity
Higher output devices have the advantage of

requiring less amplification
2. Range
Extended range is preferred.
Sensor characteristics
4. Accuracy
Devices that exhibit errors of 1% or less is

preferred.
5. Frequency response
Wide-response (both static and dynamic

loading) sensors are preferred.
6. Stability
Low drift in output over extended periods of time

and with changes in T and RH is essential.
10
Sensors characteristics
7. Temperature limits
The ability to operate under a wide

temperature range is important.
8. Economy
Reasonable costs are preferred.
9. Ease of application
Reliability and simplicity are

significant factors.
Sensors used in transducer design
1. Potentiometer is the slide-wire (or wire-wrapped)

resistor that is used to measure displacements for linear
motion and angles for angular motion.
slide-wire resistor
Vi
D
Potentiometer
DV
Vo
Vo = (x / l) Vi
11
2. Differential transformers , based on a variableinductance principle, are also used to measure

displacement.
Magnetic
AC
f = 50-25000, Hz
Vi
Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT
DV
LVDT
3. Resistance strain gage
is a thin metallic-foil grid used

to measure the strain of an object.
The strain gage can be adhesively bonded to the surface of a structure. When the structure is
loaded, strains develop and are transmitted to the foil grid. As a result, the resistance of the foil
grid changes in proportion to the load-induced strain.
Force DL
Strain gage
DR
12
The resistance of a uniform metallic conductor can be expressed as

rL
R =
A
where r = the specific resistance of the metal
L = the length of the conductor
A = the cross-sectional area of the conductor
Differentiating R and dividing by the resistance R gives

dR
dr dL dA
=
+
R
L
A
r
For the case of a uni-axial tensile stress state,
ea =
et = -n
dL
L
Poissons ratio
dL
L
Sensitivity of the conductor can be written as

SA =
The gage factor (Sg) is
DR/R
ea
Sg =
Dr/r
DR/R
ea
+ (1+2n)
[Sg ~ 2 for metallic strain gauges]
The output of a strain gage (DR) is usually converted to a voltage signal with a
Wheatstone bridge
DL
Strain gage
DR
Wheatstone
bridge
DVi
Power
supply
DVo
13

VO
Vo = Vs (DRg/Rg)
Vs
Vo = Vs [
R3
R3+Rg
If R1=R2=R3=R4=Rg and DRg/Rg<<1,

then
R2
R1+R2
Vo = Vs Sg e
4. Capacitance sensors
The capacitance sensor consists of a target plate and a

second plate called the sensor head. These two plates are
separated by an air gap of thickness ha and form the two
terminals of a capacitor.
C = kKA
h
[pF]
where A = area of the sensor head

k = 0.00885 for dimension in millimeters
K = dielectric constant (K = 1 for air)
14
4. Capacitance sensors (cont.)
If the separation between the head and the target is

changed by an amount Dh, then the capacitance C becomes
kKA [pF]
C +DC = h+
Dh
which can be written as
DC/C = 1+(-DDh/h
h/h)
nonlinear relationship
However, the impedance of the capacitor is linear in h.
DZC / ZC = Dh/ h
5. Piezoelectric sensors
A piezoelectric material produces an electric charge

when it is subjected to a force or pressure.
F
q = Sq x A x p
[pC]
Sq = charge sensitivity, A = cross section area of the material, p = applied pressure
15
5. Piezoelectric sensors (cont.)
If the external surfaces of piezoelectric material are coated with metallic

electrodes as shown in the figure, the output voltage vo is developed and related
to the charge q by
vo = q / C
or
where
vo = Svhp
Sv = voltage sensitivity of the sensor = Sq/kK
6. Resistance temperature sensors
The change in resistance of materials with temperature

provide the basis of resistance temperature sensors.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Material: Metals, such as Platinum, Nickel or Copper
DR/R0 = c1(T-T0) + c2(T-T0)2 + + cn(T-T0)n
Thermistors
Material: Semiconducting materials, such as oxides of copper
, cobalt, manganese, nickel, or titanium
1/T = c1 + c2 ln(R) + c3 ln3(R)
(3rd order approximation)
16
Temperature
measurements
DT
Temperature
sensor
DL , DR, Dv, etc
17
1. Expansion methods
When materials are subjected to temperature changes (D T) they

expand or contract according to
D L = a L0 DT
is the temp. coeff. of expansion [mm/C]
rc
(aA aB) (T2-T1)

Metal A
Metal B
rc
Bimetallic strip
Automobile air conditioning system

Evaporator
Condenser
Compressor
Expansion valve
18
Use of bimetallic thermostat in automobile air

conditioning system
2. Electrical Resistance
Resistance thermometers consist of a sensor element that exhibits a

change in resistance with a change in temperature
2.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
A typical RTD consists of a wire coil sensor with

a framework for support and a sheath for protection.
The sensor is a resistive element that exhibits a
resistance-temperature relationship given by the
expression
DR/R0 = c1(T-T0) + c2(T-T0)2 + + cn(T-T0)n
For a limited range of temperature,

DR/R0 @ c1(T-T0)
Nickel
Tungsten
Copper
Platinum
Temperature
C
19
Note:
RTDs have a high accuracy and a wide operating

range. However, they have a low response time.
PT 100 temperature probe
PT100s are resistance thermometers which are

fabricated from platinum. The operating temperature
ranges from -200 C to 850 C, while the resistance
of PT100 at 0 C is 100 ohms.
2.2 Thermistors
are fabricated from semiconducting

materials, such as oxides of nickel,
cobalt, or manganese. The resistancetemperature relationship for a thermistor
can be expressed as
R = R0 e
b(1/T 1/T0)
where b is a material constant [K]

T is an absolute temperature [K]
Note: b
ranges from 3000 to
5000 K
Rt
The resistance decreases

exponentially with an increase
in temperature
20
*** Thermistors have a high sensitivity, a

fast response time, and good accuracy
and resolution. However, they typically
achieve a high precision within a limited
temperature range.
21
3. Thermoelectric
(or thermocouple) is a temperature sensor that consists of two different

metals in thermal contact. The thermal contact, called a junction, may
be made by twisting wires together or by welding, soldering, or brazing
two material together. A junction between two metals produces a
voltage related to a temperature difference.
Material A
Material B
Junction
emf
Material B
Junction 2
Junction 1
Material A
Seebeck effect
Material B
Thermocouple
The operation of a thermocouple is based

on a combination of thermoelectric effects
that produce a small open-circuit voltage
vo when two thermocouple junctions are
maintained at different temperatures.
The voltage vo can be represented by an
equation having the form
vo = C1(T1-T2) + C2(T12-T22)
where C1 and C2 are thermoelectric
constants
Seebeck effect is a phenomena in which any
conductor will generate a voltage when it is
subjected to a thermal gradient.
Source:http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/thermoc
ouples/thmcple_theory.cfm
vo @ C1(T1-T2)
22
Peltier effect occurs when a current flows in the thermocouple circuit.

The presence of the current I in the thermocouple circuit produces the
well-known self-heating effect, where the Joule heat transfer, ,is
q = i2R [W]
However, the Peltier heat transfer, P ,is in addition to the Joule heating
effect and is given by
qP = pABi [W]
where pAB = Peltier coeff.
qp,out
Material B
Junction 1
vs
Material B
Junction 2
qp,in
Material A
Peltier effect
Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat
flux between the junction of two different types of materials.
23
Reference junction
T
vo
T2
Measuring Junction
Relationship between voltage and temperature
24
Thermocouple probe
(Insulator)
(Thermocouple)
(Sheath)
Tip of a probe
1. Grounded
2. Ungrounded
3. Exposed
Characteristics of probes tips
Ungrounded tip
Grounded tip
(separated from the sheath wall

by a layer of insulation)
(direct contact with the sheath wall)
is used in corrosive fluids

where the temperature is
changing slowly.
is used in corrosive fluids

where moderate response is
required.
Exposed tip
(protrudes outside the sheath wall)
is used for noncorrosive

gases where rapid response
is necessary.
25
4. Radiative Temperature Measurement
employs the principles of radiation to measure surface temperatures

with out contacting the body.
Radiation is the electromagnetic waves and particles emitted from the surface of a body.
El(l,T)
lmax T = 2898 mm.K
El(l,T)
Radiation power (El) is related to the absolute temperature

and the wavelength as shown in the above figure
h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js)

c = Speed of Light (3 x 108 m/s)
l= Wavelength (m)
k = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = Temperature (K)
The power of the radiation b from an ideal (black) surface is obtained from
where
Eb =Int[El(l,T),l]=sT4
s= is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant [5.67x10-8 W/m2-K4]
For grey surface,
e(T) Eb
ET
ET =
26
Radiation Methods
Pyrometer
- Optical pyrometer : compares the brightness of image produced by temperature

source with that of reference temperature lamp.
Radiation Methods
Pyrometer
- Infrared pyrometer : measures a source temperature by measuring the voltage

output from a temperature detector
Focus spot
Temperature detector
Focusing mirror
Lens
Surface
27
Radiative Temperature Measurement

Advantages
- max temperature up to 3500 C
- non-contact measurement
- no installation
Disadvantages
- accuracy depending on e
- relatively high cost
Advantages and disadvantages

of the most common temperature sensors
Advantages
Thermocouple
- self-powered
- simple
- durable
- Wide temp. range
- Wide variety
- inexpensive
Disadvantages - non-linear
- low voltage
- Ref. junc. required
- least sensitivity
- least stable
RTD
Thermistor
- most stable
- most accurate
- more linear
- fast response
- high sensitivity
- expensive
- ext. power required
- self-heating
- non-linear
- ext. power required
- Self-heating
- limited temp. range
28
Pressure
measurements
DP
Pressure
sensor
DL , DR, Dc, etc
Pressure represents a contact force per unit area. It acts inward and
normal to the surface of any physical boundary that a fluid contacts.

F
P=
F
A
[ N/m2 or Pa]
Pressure scales
1. Absolute pressure scale
is the pressure that is quantified relative to the absolute
zero pressure.
2. Gauge pressure scale
is the pressure that is quantified relative to the
atmospheric pressure.
29
Relative pressure scales
Pvac
Absolute
vacuum
Pabs
Patm
Pgage = Pabs Patm
Pgage
Patm= 101.325 kPa

= 14.969 psia
= 760 mm Hg abs
Pabs
Pabs = 0
Pressure in a moving fluid

Static pressure, Ps
is the pressure exerted by a stationary fluid.

The force in the static pressure is due to the
motion of fluid particles (microscopic view)
Dynamic pressure, d
represents fluid kinetic energy which
depends on the fluid motion (macroscopic view).
Pvac = Patm Pabs
PT = P 0 = P s + P d
where
PT = Total pressure
P0 = Stagnation pressure
Pd = r V 2 / 2
30
Automotive pressure sensors
Source: http://www.sensata.com/sensors/automotive-pressure-sensor-ap2.htm
Basic pressure measuring devices
1. Barometer consists of an inverted tube containing a fluid

and is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
DP = Patm Pvacuum = r Hg gh
Patm = r Hg gh
S Hg = r Hg / r H 2O = 13.6
At 1 atm,
hHg = 760 mm.
31
2. Manometer
is an instrument used to measure differential
pressure based on the relationship between pressure and the

hydrostatic equivalent head of fluid.
DP = P2 P1 = r g (h2 h1 )
Case A
A
Case B
Case C
P2 = P1
P1 = r g h Patm
P1 = Pvac = Patm r g h
3. Bourdon-type pressure gage

Bourdon tube (coiled tube) is a curved metal tube having an
elliptical cross section that mechanically deforms under pressure
Bourdon tube
Pgage = Pabs Patm

Pgage = 0
0 Pa
at 1 atm
A-A
P
atm
Bourdon Gage
32
Pressure transducer
1. Displacement-type
converts a measured pressure into deformation of an

elastic element used in the transducer.
1.1 Diaphragms-type
1.2 Bellows and Capsule
DP
DL
Displacement-type
(elastic element)
Pressure transducer
1.1 Diaphragm-type utilizes a clamped circular plate as the

elastic element. The deformation of the diaphragm is
converted into electrical signal by either LVDT or strain
gages.
DP
Diaphragm
DL
LVDT
DV
33
Pressure transducer
1.2 Bellows and Capsule are a thin-wall flexible metal tube of which
one end is held fixed and pressure is applied internally. A pressure

difference will cause the change in length of the elastic element.
VO
Bellow
DP
Potentiometer
DL
DV
Vi
Bellow
Pressure transducer
2. Piezoelectric Crystal Elements converts pressure electric

charges. The charge amplifier is used to convert an eletric
charge, q into an output voltage.
Electrode
Dt
P1
P2
Electrode
Crystal
*** can be used to measure either quasi-static or dynamic response.

Max pressure up to 100,000 psi
Max temperature ~ 350 C
34
Manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP) provides instantaneous manifold pressure information
to the engine's electronic control unit (ECU). The data is used to calculate air density and
determine the engine's air mass flow rate, which in turn determines the required fuel metering for
optimum combustion (see stoichiometry) and influence the advance or retard of ignition timing.
Figure 1: In a typical automotive sensor application for

Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP), a piezo-electric
pressure sensor and signal conditioning IC link to the
ECU via a 3-wire interconnect.
Source:
http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1272786
Pressure transducer
3. Capacitive pressure sensor uses a diaphragm and

pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect
strain due to applied pressure, capacitance decreasing as
pressure deforms the diaphragm. Common technologies
use metal, ceramic, and silicon diaphragms..
35
Velocity
measurements
36
Fluid velocity
where
v(t)
v(t)
= V + v
V = mean velocity
v = fluctuating velocity
Laminar flow
V
t
Turbulent flow
~0
0
Due to surface roughness, low viscosity, change in direction, inertia
Frictionless wall
Real flow
(Parabolic profile)
Ideal flow
(Uniform distribution)
max. at CL.
Fully developed flow
37
Volumetric flow rate, Q
is the volume of fluid which passes through a given surface per unit time
Q=
Mass flow rate, m
v dA = AV
[m3/s]
[kg/s]
is the mass of fluid which passes through a given surface per unit time
where
m. =
v dA = r AV
A = area
V = mean velocity
[m2]
[m/s]
1. Pitot-Static tube
Pd = PT - Ps = rl g h
raV 2 / 2 = rl g h
h
V = [2Cd(rl g h)/ra]1/2
where
Cd = dynamic pressure correction
38
2. Thermal anemometer
The rate at which energy Q is transferred between a warm body at Ts

and a cooler moving fluid at Tf is propotional both to the temperature
difference between them and to the thermal conductance of the heat
transfer path,
hA.
This thermal conductance increases with fluid velocity,
thereby increasing the rate of heat transfer at any given temperature

difference.
Hot-film probe
Hot-wire probe
Heat transfer between a hot wire and fluid flow

Heat generated in the wire
Convection heat transfer
Qw = I2 RW
Qc = hA (Tw-Tf)
[W]
[W]
It is known that the heat transfer coefficient h is related to fluid velocity V by
where
h = A + B Vn
A and B are constants that depend on the fluid and sensor

physical properties and operating temperature, and n is a constant that
depends on sensor dimensions (typically, 0.45 < n < 0.52)
39
Material used for hot-wire and hot-film sensors exhibit a change in

resistance with temperature change. The relationship can be expressed as
Rw = R0[1 + g (Tw T0)]
Equating Qw with Qc, we obtain
i2R0[1 + g (Tw T0)] = (a + b V n ) A (Tw-Tf)
From the above equation, it is evident that the fluid velocity V can be written
as
V = f (i, Tw, Tf)

Therefore, if Tf is known then the fluid velocity is determined by

measuring either
1) the resistance Tw [constantcurrent bridge-anemometer system]

kept constant
or
V = f (i, Tw, Tf)
measured by
temperature transducer
2) the current i
V = f (Tf ,Tw)
[constanttemperature bridge-anemometer system]
kept constant
V = f (i, Tw, Tf)
measured by
temperature transducer
V = f (Tf , i)
40
Constant current bridge-anemometer system
In this circuit, R2 and R3 are much larger than sensor Resistance Rw; therefore,
current i is essentially independent of changes in the sensor resistance Rw.
Vo @ is Rw (DRw/Rw)
V
Q=
I2Rw
R2
R3
Vo
Variable resistor
R4
Hotwire
Constant-current bridge
constant current
source, is
Constant temperature bridge-anemometer system
An adjustable current source is used in order to maintain a constant

temperature, Tw (i.e. Rw is constant). The fluid velocity is a function of input current
and flow temperature, Tf.
Q = I2Rw
V
V=
C0 [(i/i0)2-1]2
Variable
resistor
41
Hotwire anemometer
Advantages
1. Can be used to measure a point velocity
2. Can be used to measure fluctuating velocity (Turbulent) (up to 500 kHZ)
3. High sensitivity (Hot-film is less sensitive)
Disadvantages
1. Fragile (Hot-film is more sturdy)
2. Can not be used in conducting fluids (Hot-film can)
3. Expensive
HW#4
4.1 Consider a deflection bridge, which initially has all arms of
the bridge equal to 100 ohms, with the resistance temperature

sensor at Rg. The supply voltage is 10 V. If the temperature of
Rg is changed such that the bridge output is 0.569 V, what is
the temperature of the sensor? How much current flows
through the sensor and how much power must it dissipate?
Rg = R0 [1+0.00395(T-T0)]
where R0 = 100 and T0 = 0 C
DVout = Vin DRg/Rg
42(DRg/Rg)
42
4.2 A piezoelectric pressure transducer as shown
in figure is used to measure the pressure of air

in a tank by generating analogue signals, and
it is to be calibrated by measuring both the
pressure
and
the
electric
current
simultaneously for various settings. If the
relationship between the pressure and the
corresponding current is given by
P = 13.00 I - 51.00
where P = pressure in a tank [kPa],
I = current [mA],
Determine (a) the sensitivity of the transducer,
(b) zero offset, and (c) Dh if I = 10 mA
3. Laser Doppler Anemometer
is a measuring device that utilizes the Doppler effect to measure

the local velocity in a moving fluid. In this technique, the light is emitted
from a source and travels toward the light detector. The light is splitted
by the beam splitter. The lights are then combined to produce the beat
signal (fringe).
d=
l
2sin (q/2)
d
l
fringe
d =fringe spacing
43
Relationship between laser frequency and fluid velocity
As a moving particle suspended in the fluid passes through the laser beam,
it scatters light in all directions. The light detector will perceive the
scattered light at a frequency, fs:
Laser frequency
fs = fi fD
where fi = frequency of incident laser
fs
fD
= frequency of scattered light
= Doppler shift
The velocity is related directly to the Doppler shift by

Fluid velocity
LDA
V = fD d
Laser Doppler Anemometer
Advantages
1. The flow is not disturbed by the presence of a probe. (non-intrusive

measurement)
2. Velocity is measured directly, and calibration is not required.
3. The method is suitable for a wide range of velocities.
4. A component of velocity in a specified direction can be measured.

5. The relationship between input and output is linear.
44
Flow
measurements
1. Rotameter
The meter consists of a float within a vertical

tube, tapered to an increasing cross-sectional area
at its outlet. Flow entering through the bottom
passes over the float, which is free to move. The
equilibrium height of the float indicates the flow rate.
The operating principle is based on the balance
between the drag force, the weight, and buoyancy
force acting on the float.
SF:
where FB
FD
Cd
AF
V
FD + FB = mg
= Buoyancy force
= Drag force = Cd r V2AF / 2
= drag coefficient
= cross-sectional area of a float
= average velocity past the float
Rotameter
45
V = [2 (rF r) g / (Cd r AF )]1/2
Volumetric flowrate, Q = V Aa(y) = K Aa(y)
FD
where
Aa(y) is the annular area between the float and the tube
V
is the average velocity past the float
K
is a meter constant
FB
*** error 2% turndown ratio 10:1
2. Pressure differential meters
are based on the relationship between volume flow rate and the
pressure drop.
rf
Q = A2Cd
DP = r m gDh
b=
Dh
rm
2DP
r f (1 b 2 )
A2
A1
Cd = discharge coefficient
=
f (Re, b)
46
2. Pressure differential meters (cont.)

2.1 Orifice meter
consists of a circular plate, containing a hole (orifice),which is inserted

Into a pipe such that the orifice is concentric with the pipe inside diameter.
*** simple, inexpensive, but resulting in high pressure losses.

2.2 Venturi meter
consists of a smooth converging contraction to a narrow throat

followed by a shallow diverging section as shown.
*** require large installation space and

most expensive but least pressure losses
47

2.3 Flow Nozzle
consists of a gradual contraction to to a narrow throat.
*** require less installation space than a venturi and has about 80% of initial cost.
3. Turbine meters
make use of angular momentum principles to

measure flow rate. A rotor is encased within a
bored housing through which the fluid to be
measured is passed.
The exchange of
momentum between the flow and the rotor turns
the rotor at a rotaional speed that is proportinal to
the flow rate as following
where
K
Q=Kw
is a meter constant
is an angular velocity
*** low pressure losses

error 0.25% turndown ratio 20:1
48
4. Ultrasonic flow meters

use sound waves to determine flow rate.
receiver
Vs,0
Transmitter
Vf
Q = A V f = A (Vs Vs ,o )
Vf,
Vf,//
Vs,o
4. Ultrasonic flow meters (cont.)

Advantages
1. The flow is not disturbed by the presence of a probe. (non-intrusive

measurement)
2. No pressure losses.
3. A large diameter pipe can be measured.
Sensor location
Upstream
> 10 D
Downstream > 5
49
Humidity
measurements
Humidity
Relative Humidity, RH
is a measurement of the
amount of water vapor in a
mixture of air and water
vapor, defined as the partial
pressure of water vapor in the
air-water mixture, given as a
percentage of the saturated
vapor pressure under those
conditions
Humidity
sensor
DL , DR, Dk etc
Humidity sensor
1. - Traditional hair of horse or human with

a strain gauge or a water absorbent polymer
which stretches and shrinks according to RH.
% RH
Traditional hair
% RH
Capacitive RH sensor
% RH
Resistive RH sensor
% RH
Thermal conductivity
RH sensor
2. Capacitive RH sensor
3. Resistive RH sensor
4. Thermal conductivity
DL
DC
DR
Dk
50
thin film of polymer or metal oxide is deposited

between two conductive electrodes
hygroscopic medium Polymer
measure the absolute humidity by quantifying the

difference between the thermal conductivity of dry air
and that of air containing water vapor
51

Au351 Sensors

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Au351 Sensors

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Chapter 2

Recording systems and sensors

Recording instruments are used in an electronic

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement and Instrumentation

Consider a simple dc voltmeter used to measure the voltage v of

Measurement and Instrumentation

Thevenins equivalent circuit

For dc and quasi-static measurements

Z = R+i X ~ R (since X0)

* High impedance is preferred

Measurement and Instrumentation

The sensitivity S of a voltage recording instrument is given by

Example A voltmeter is used to measure the voltages of

High sensitivity is required to give sufficiently large d for

Measurement and Instrumentation

The range, which represents the maximum voltage that can be

As illustrated by the above equation, when

the sensitivity S is high, the range vi will be low;

the range is high, the sensitivity will be low.

Measurement and Instrumentation

is a variation in the output of an instrument which is not caused by

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement and Instrumentation

Ao/Ai = 103/20= 1.413

When NdB = -3dB,

Ao/Ai = 10-3/20= 0.707

In general, limits of 0.4dB should be maintained to reduce recorder

Measurement and Instrumentation

Analog recording system

Measurement and Instrumentation

a= angle between the normal of the

cross-sectional area and the magnetic field

Measurement and Instrumentation

Analog Voltage meters

The galvanometer can be used as a dc voltmeter by

Measurement and Instrumentation

Digital recording systems

Measurement and Instrumentation

N-bit binary word permits a count of 2n

Maximum count C = 2n 1 (numbers of comparator)

Measurement and Instrumentation

Input ranges from 0 to 10 volts

Measurement and Instrumentation

Example: 4-bit word

Convert the decimal number

Convert the binary 0101 to

= 23x0 + 22x1 + 21x0 + 20x1

Measurement and Instrumentation

Digital recording instrument

Measurement and Instrumentation

Sensors and Transducers

Sensors are physical elements that employ some natural phenomenon by

Sensor characteristics for the selection process

Smaller is better, because of enhanced dynamic

Higher output devices have the advantage of

Extended range is preferred.

Measurement and Instrumentation

Devices that exhibit errors of 1% or less is

Wide-response (both static and dynamic

Low drift in output over extended periods of time

Measurement and Instrumentation