CHAPTER 5

1. We first need to calculate crd 120 . We get crd 120 = q4R2 R2 = 3R = 3 60 =

103; 55, 23. Then the half-angle formula gives crd 30 = R(2R crd 120 ) = 31; 03, 30.
Next,

crd 150

4R2 crd2 30 = 115; 54, 40, so crd 15 =

15; 39, 47. Similarly, crd 165 = 118; 58, 25 and crd 7 12 = 7; 50, 54.

R(2R crd 150 ) =

2. We have calculated the chords of 120 , 150 , and 165 in exercise 1. Thus, crd 172 12 =
3.

4.

5.

6.

4R2 crd2 (7 21 ) = 119; 42, 28.

Since 672 =4489, 4500 = 67; x, y. Now 4500 672 = 11; divide 11 60 by 2 67 to get
x = 4. So 4500 = 67; 4, y. Now 4500 (67; 4)2 = 2; 3, 44 =7200 + 180 + 44 = 7424
seconds. Then 7424 2(67; 4) = 55 to the nearest integer. So 4500 = 65; 4, 55.
Use a quadrilateral ABCD with AB = crd , BC = crd (180 ( + )), CD = crd ,
AD = 120 (the diameter of the circle). The diagonals are then AC = crd (180 ) and
BD = crd (180 ). Then apply Ptolemys theorem.
120 crd(72 60) = crd(72) crd(120) crd(60) crd(108). So 120 crd(12) = 70; 32, 3
103; 55, 23 q60 97; 4, 56 = 1505; 11, 34. It follows that crd(12)
= 12; 32, 36. Then
q
2
2
crd(168) = 4 60 crd (12) = 119; 20, 33. Thus crd(6) = 60(2 60 crd(168)) =
6; 16, 49. Similarly, crd(3) = 3; 8, 29; crd(1 21 ) = 1; 34, 15; and crd( 43 ) = 0; 47, 7.
Archimedes lemma 2 can be rewritten, using chord notation, in the form
(2R)2
crd2

 

crd2 () + (2R + crd(180 ))2

.
crd2 ()

By expanding, using the Pythagorean theorem, and simplifying, this result can be put
into the form
 
R crd2 ()

=
.
crd2
2
2R + crd(180 )
Multiplying numerator and denominator of the right side by 2R crd(180 ) and
simplifying then gives Hipparchuss theorem.
7. Let crd = AB and crd = BC. First, bisect the angle at B, and extend the angle
bisector until it meets the line AC at E and the circle at D. Then AD = DC, because
these chords subtend equal angles. Also, since BE bisects the angle at B, we have by
Elements VI3 that AE : EC = AB : BC. Since AB < BC, we also have AE < EC.
Next, drop a perpendicular DF from D to AC. Because D bisects arc ADC, it follows
that F is the midpoint of AC. Then a circle of center D and radius DE will cut AD at
G between A and D and will cut DF extended at H. Therefore, sector DEH > triangle
DEF , sector DEG < triangle DEA, and triangle DEF : triangle DEA < sector DEH :
sector DEG. Since the two triangles have the same altitude, the ratio of their areas is the
same as the ratio of their bases. Also, the ratio of the sectors is the same as the ratio of
the corresponding angles with vertex at D. Thus EF : EA < 6 EDH : 6 EDG. If we add
1 to each side of the inequality, we get the new inequality AF : EA < 6 GDH : 6 EDG.
27

28

Chapter 5

If we double the numerators, we then get AC : EA < 6 ADC : 6 EDG, or, subtracting
1 from both sides, that EC : EA < 6 EDC : 6 EDG. The left side of this inequality
is equal to BC : AB, while the right side is equal to the corresponding ratio of arcs,
namely : . Thus we have the final result that crd : crd < : , as desired.

8. At the vernal equinox at latitude 40 at noon, the sun is 40 below the zenith. Using
figure 5.19, CF = crd 80 = 77; 8, 5 and CE = crd 100 = 91; 55, 31, so the shadow
60
= 91;55,31
77; 8, 5 = 50; 21.

9. Note that  is the latitude where the sun is directly overhead at noon on the summer
solstice. The angular distance between the noon altitudes of the sun at the summer and
winter solstice is, given the assumption that at any given time the suns rays to every
point on the earth are parallel to each other, equal to the angle between the sun at noon
on the summer solstice and the sun at noon on the winter solstice, as viewed from the
center of the earth. And this angle, by Figure 5.40, is twice .

10. At noon on the summer solstice at latitude 36 , the sun is 12 12 below the zenith, so the

length of the shadow is 60 tan 12 12 = 13; 18, 6. At the winter solstice, the sun is 59 12

below the zenith and the shadow length is 60 tan 59 12 = 101; 51, 35.
11. When = 90 , then = 23 510 and = 90 . When = 45 , we have sin =
sin(23 510 ) sin(45 ) and = 16 370 . Also tan = cos(23 510 ) tan(45 ), so = 42 270 .
By symmetry, the values for the declination at 270 and 315 are the negatives of the
values at 90 and 45 , respectively.
12. To calculate (60 , 45 ), we note that if = 60 , then = 20 300 and = 57 440 . Since
sin = tan tan 45 , we have = 21 570 and = = 35 470 . If = 90 , then
= 23 510 and = 90 . So = 26 140 and = = 63 460 .

13. L(, ) = 180 + 2(, ). When = 60 and = 36 , we calculate that sin =

tan tan = tan(20 300 ) tan(36 ); so = 15 460 and L = 211; 32, which corresponds to
14 hours, 6 minutes. Therefore, sunrise is 7 hours, 3 minutes before noon, or 4:57 a.m.
and sunrise is at 7:03 p.m.
14. If the length of day is 15 hours when = 90 , then 180 + 2(90 , ) = 225 . Therefore
sin(22 300 )
0
= 22 300 and, since sin = tan tan , we have tan = tan(23
510 ) , so = 40 53 .

51 )
sin
0
Also, since sin = sin(90)
= sin(23
sin(49 70 ) , we calculate that = 32 20 . That is, the
sunrise occurs at 32 200 north of east and sunset at the same angle north of west. By
symmetry, the positions of sunrise and sunset at the winter solstice occur 34 200 south
of east and south of west respectively.

15. The expression tan tan will be greater than 1 for = 23 21 when .4348 tan > 1, or

Mathematical Methods in Hellenistic Times

29

when tan > 2.2998, or when > 66 12 . When that occurs, the formula for L no longer
makes sense. Since when tan tan = 1, we know that L = 360 or 24 hours, it follows
that the sun does not set at all on the summer solstice when the latitude is greater than

66 21 .
16. If = 45 , the = 16 370 ; so SZ = = 45 16 370 = 28 230 . Similarly, if = 90 ,
then = 23 510 and SZ = 21 90 .

17. The sun is directly overhead at noon at latitude 20 when = 20 . Since sin = sinsin
23.5 ,

we find that = 59 . This value for the longitude of the sun occurs at approximately 60
days after the spring equinox and 60 days before the fall equinox, or at approximately
May 20 and July 21.
18. The maximal northerly sunrise point occurs when = 90 and therefore when = 23 510 .
When = 36 , we calculate that
sin
sin 23 510
sin 23 510
sin =
=
=
= 0.4998,
sin(90 )
sin(90 36)
sin 54

so = 29 590 .
sin

19. When = 75 , we need to find so that sin

15 = 1. Clearly, = 15 , and since

0
sin 15 = sin 23 51 sin , it follows that = 39 48 . This value occurs approximately 40
days after the vernal equinox, or about April 30.

20. The exact area A of an equilateral triangle of side s is A = 43 s2 . Thus the Roman

surveyor has approximated 3/4 by 1/3 + 1/10. This is the same as approximating 3
by 4/3 + 4/10 = 26/15 1.733.
21. Suppose points A and B are on the opposite bank of the river. One possible method to
determine the distance from A to B is the following: First determine the distance across
the river from a point C on your side (using the method in the text). For simplicity, we
will assume that line AB is perpendicular to line AC. Choose a point D on the extension
of line AC and construct a line CF perpendicular to AC. Next, determine the point E
on CF where the line of sight from D to B intersects CF . Since triangles ABD and
CED are similar, and since the distances AD and CE are known, the distance AB can
be calculated.
22. In Fig. 5.34, we will take a = 10, b = 7, and c = 4. The method based on Elements
2
2
2
II12, 13 gives us that CD = a +b2ac . Thus CD = 6.65, h = AD = 2.19, and the area
= 12 ah = 10.93. To use Herons formula, we first calculate s = 21
2 = 10.5 and then find

that the area is 10.5 6.5 3.5 0.5 = 119.4375 = 10.93.

23. Divide the pentagon into five equal isosceles
triangles with base a, side r, and altitude
q
 2

r
p. As on page 88 of the text, a = 2 10 2 5. Since p2 = r2 a2 , a computation
shows that
v

u
u 3+ 5
t
a
p=
20 4 5
and therefore, since A5 = 25 pa, that

5
A5 =
2

5+2 5 2
a .
20

30

Chapter 5

This value is roughly approximated by Herons value A5 = 53 a2 .

24. Given that the radius r of the circle is 78 a, where a is the side of the inscribed heptagon, it
q

follows that the area of the heptagon is A = 7 21 207

a2 = 34 23a2 . Heron has therefore
196

43
approximated 43 23 by 12
or 23 by 43
9.

25. Start with the approximation 8 = 3. Then 12 (3 + 83 ) = 17

6.
26. Since the regular octahedron is made up of two pyramids, each with square base of side a,
the volume is double the volume of one of these pyramids. But the volume of a pyramid
is 13 hB, where h is the height and B the area of the base. In this case, B = a2 and h is
one leg
of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is

3
2 a

and whose other leg

is a2 . Therefore,

h = 22 a, and the volume of the octahedron is given by V = 2 13 22 aa2 = 32 a3 , as

asserted by Heron.
27. The actual distance between Alexandria and Syene (modern Aswan) is approximately
850 km or 520 miles. Aswan is located at 24 50 N latitude and 32 560 E longitude, while
the coordinates of Alexandria are 31 120 N and 29 540 E. Thus Aswan is not on the
Tropic of Cancer, but is approximately 150 north of it (using Ptolemys value). Also,
Alexandria and Aswan do not have the same longitude; Aswan is approximately 3 east
of Alexandria. On the other hand, the difference in degrees of the latitudes of the two

cities is 7 70 , which is very close to Eratosthenes value of 7 15 . If there were 5000 stades
between the two cities, then a stade would be approximately 0.17 km = 170 meters.
28. Let the total length of a parallel at latitude be C and the circumference of the earth
at the equator be C. Let the radius of the latitude circle at latitude be r and the
radius of the earth be r. Then C : C = r : r = cos , a relationship easily seen by
constructing the right triangle in a cross section of the earth one of whose sides is r and
whose hypotenuse is r. Thus, C = C cos .
29. Since the ratio of a degree at latitude to a degree at the equator is as cos (by

exercise 28), we just need to check approximations to cos . cos 23 56 = 0.9147, while
7
5
4 12
: 5 = 0.9167. cos 16 12
= 0.9592, while 4 65 : 5 = 0.9667.