PAGE:O1

\#

Ne,eat

E/El7Airlines

AIRCR,TFT
s;IRUCTUREg

CHIrP:

'I'ii,:rc

ay,: iive in"j,ri

5lA

siri:,issl to r.'hi:1,;rll

air(:r,ft

a r t :- u u l , j c r : r rI xf rl g , t r c q i $ r ,
C;ENER..4.I,
'lh,
n i r f r a r r r er . l la l l x e d . w i n qa i i c r a l t i s g c n , : r e l l v
c ( ) r ) 5 i ( l { ) r et o( l c o n s i s i o { G v c p r i n c i p a l u n i t s , t h e
. f . r s , ' i ; t s e a ' i u 6 r s .s t a l r i l i z e r : _f.i i g b t c o n t r o i s , . r r f a c e s .
a n t l , ' l , r n , 1 i n gi { e a r . H e l r c r , ' : r t e a
r irlramff consrst c,{
tire ft,seiagen
. r a i n r o l o r . a n d r e l a t e dg e a r b o x , t a i l
r : ) t o r { o n h c l i r : o i r t r rw
s i t h a s i n g l em a i n r o t o r ) , a n C
ilre iarciing gear.
'l'h:
a i r f r a r r ' e c i ) n r p o n e n t sa r e c ( ) n s t r u c t e df r o n r a
* i d e ' r a r i r : ! t ,c , { n r a t e r i a l . sa n d a r e j o i n e d } r v r i v e t - : , ,
boits, screws, and weiding or 8dhesi!,es. 'i}re airc::aft compont:nts a,'e cornposed of - varicrus
.parts
c , l i j r r i s l r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s ( i . e . , s t r i n g e r s ,l c , n g e r o n ! ,
r r b s , l , u i k t r e a d s ,e i c .) . A i r c r a f r s t r u c t u . r a lm e n . : b e r s
a re drsigrred lo ctrrry a load or t,l resisl slre{}s. /\
s i n g l c m e n r b e r o f t h e s t r u c l u r e m a y b e s u b j e c t e dt o
a cornbin;rtion of str,ses, In rnosi.ca:rest.he slruc.
tural nrenrberi] are ri,:signed to carry end ioads
r a i h c i t i r a n s i , i e i , g a d s :t t r a t i s , . t o b e s u bj c c r e i 1 s
t e n s r o r "orr c o t r r p r e : ] s l o r ra t h e r t h n r r b e n d i n g .
S i r e n g l t rr n a v b e t h e p r i r , c i p e . rl e r j u i r B m e n ti n c e r .
t a i n s t r u c t u r c s w i ; i l e o t h e r - sn r : e d s n t i r e l y d i f i r : r e n r :
q r : a i i t i n s .. i o r e r a l n p l e , c o . * l i r ! , g ,f a i r i n g , a n d : r i m i lar parts usuaill,&re not re(luired to carry the
strcsses inrposed iry fligh'. or tlc, landin,5 lc,ads
H r r x t r g l ' , t h e u : p a r l s r n u s t h a v e s u c h p r o p , : r t i t . sa s
n o i i { a t ) P e a r a D Caor } d s i r e a i r : l i n e ds h a p e s .
M A J O R , S i R U C T U R A LS T R I S S E S
In desir.nini;an aircralL. everv sguarc inch oi
w r n g i i r i d f u s el a g e , e v e r y r . i b , s p a r , a n d e v e n r : a c h
m e t a l l i u i r g r r u s t b e c o n s i d e r e J i n r e l a r i o r rt o t h e
p f r l s i . : , r lr : l i a r a r : t e r i s t i cosf t h e m e t a l o f w h i c h i t i s
n r : r , l c .f - v c r r . p n r t o f t h t : a i r c r a f r .m u s t b e p l a n n e d t o
c s r r r I i r , : l : , a d t o b e i r n p o s c du p o n i t . ' l l r e r J e t e r m i n a t i o n o f : u c h l o a d . " i s c e l l c d s t r e , s sa n a l l s i s . r ' . 1 t h , : r u g i rp l a n r r i l r g t l r e d r : s i g r ri s n o t t _ h ef u n r : t i o n o f
t l t r : a r i a t i t - r nn r t , c h a n i c ,i t i s . n e v e r t l : , e l e sisr ,n u o r ( a n r
that lr. ur,rlcrsr.and
a n t l a p p r c . c i a t et h e s t r e s s e si n ,
v o i l r r J i n , r r r ' i c r t o s v o i d , : l r a n g e si n r h t . , t r i g i n a l
r i r ' . i s 1 1 1 1 ; , 1 p gi rhr r p , r o P rr:rrp a i r s .

Tctrrit,lr.
.

L , cm t l l , : s v i r r n .
Tc rsiorr.
Sl , c u r .
iiendine.

^
Stress is an ir:rtg:-nrrlforce
of .a cubstance vrhich rppo36 or resisls deforrna.
t i o r . S t r s i n i s t l r e d ei c r m a r . i o n o f e m . s t e r i s . l o r
substall:c. Siress. tlre intr:rnql foicc., c:rn cau&g
etrai n.
Tcnsion ifrgriie a
i is the stress lier resists a
{ort:e that i,:;.:rieto oull apart. llhe engili-- prrlls th,:
a i r c r a f t f r - ' r r . , a r l lb, i _ r ta i i ' r e 3 i s t a n c e r r i , - t o h o l c i i t
'fhc
bacx.
rcsuit ie tcnsion, which tri*
to stretch
the airc:ra{r-.T},e tcnsile st:'ength of a ns:rlr:ri.al is
tireasurcd in p.s.i. (rtorr.r:<.is
per sguare incii) and. is
calculated iri' riiviaing the load (in pounds ) required ro irui] :.lrr rrsir:riLi spert b.j- its cr,rsg.sectionalarea iin rcuere r:rchesi.
Gomt,ression (fiqurt b ) is the stre:*< Lhat.resisls a crusirinS iorcc. Tl:e compressive sr:ength of a
m s t e r i B i i s a i s o n r e a . s u r e di n p . s . i . C o m p r e s s i o n l i
the strers thilI tencjr; to shc rten cr 6qu.2eiircra{':
parts.
Torsi,:n is tirc stress thei prodrrces t*'istj.n,i (figure
- C ).. lIIhile rrroving dre aircraft forwa:-i. tl'rr: r:n
gint also tenCs to twist it to one sicie, but otlrer
aircraft cornponents hoid it ,ln cour!. Th!.:s, to!:sion.
is created. T'Lretorsi,:nal srrength o{ e mst.crial is itr
r e s i g t a n c :tro t x i . : r i n r { o r t o r c u c .
S h e s r i s t h e : s r r e . r st h a t r e s i s l , st h e f o r r - t e n d i n g
t o c a u - q eo n e l a y c r o f i , r n z r t e r i a lt , : s l i c i : c ' e e r & n
a d j s c e n t i n v e r . ' l ' r n , or i v e t e r i ; i a t c s i n t e n s i o n ' i f r g r - t r e .
d ) subject the ri!ets tc s sheo.rir:s i,)rce.
U s u ; r l l y ,t h c s h e a :i n g s t r e n g t h o f a n r a t e : ! : r - li e e i * , e r
equal tc' or ic-"s t)-Lru:its tensile or cci.np.:e:3oive
s t r e n g i h . A i r c r e l r p s i t s , t l s D e c i a l i ls, c . r e * ' s .t r o l t s , a n d
r i v e l s , c r e o f t e n , r u h i , : c rt c e s h e a r i n l ; { o : : c , : EtIdine slress is e crnrbination of r:s:r:prer,aion
'{-Lre
end tcnsior,.
iocl in figurc
e hss be::i shortened (c<xnt.':eqsrrdion i.he rrrsicle cf '.he bend anC
,3tret'clred
on ti-,eout.ride .;f ti,e lrt:nd.

$Z

Nepal

Gfunrnes

cHAP:

51-O

Tcnsioo

Coroprcssion

Tcnsion outside of bsnd

Sbeu along
line (dottod)
!arg:rr7

Btodtog

(thc cooburtion

strcss)

PAGE:0j

cFtAP: 51-O

G0 7)
I N n ; c n( ; o M Pi0NNT : i( B 0 E I N 7
Il r I
I

lco:KPr!
L=_J

---i----.._-,7-'
(,,.--\ (])--.:-_--=-I
i..'.-3\-------)(-Q,,---*.'-\--...---.'-...,':
\*1_--_ --ia)----* ----)...
--

--\=-:j-)>'\(
'?S{:/"\\
-l-t=-=
r(

|I .--t"'--,''=/'
/
iENcirNE
!

/'

/*\

I/\

LANDING GE/\R

L_rr__::1___

!_/\,
---.!,/

-l
,--_-l
fHoRrz'lNrAL

ti{llu r,:t ___J

WA

Nepal
lirlines

MA ]ND

CHAP:

51-O

PEP.)
C O M P O N E (NPTi S

Vertical
ste.bi.lizer
Horizontal
stab.ilizer

Elevator

Empennage

nvacelle

Fuselage
Left
aileron

Lar,drng**r'-4
Hring

F I X E D . W I N GA I R C R , A F T
T h e p r i n c i p a l c o r n p o n c n t so f a s i n S l c ' c n l i n e !p r o p e l l e r - d r i v c l a i r c r a f t a r e s l t o w t t t r r h g u . r eQ p
illu.trares the struclural co-mponents
Figure fr
nf iypi."T"turbine 1,o*eredaircrtft' Onc u'ing and
"
thc empennage asscnrf,Iicsar! sir<ix'ri"cxlrl-rri:'iirrkr
the many corn[)onentswhich, w]tett assctn]rled,form
major structural units.

FA3E: OJ

Nepal

$l

STFUCTI]RI]:S

ffiAirlines

crJAP:

51..C,

@ P R C D U C T iB0 RN i : A K(:3i 0 t I N G7 0 7 )

Rudder

Fuselage s{-'ction
Tail ccne

+=,1,i;;:i";';",
statrilizer

Wing llap

/ )"t'"":'"',,:i::'"'
'/1
Spoiler

f--+-f

,(:
\-/

Itlose

1-I

\ V i nq t i p

Nose geal

W i n g c e n t e : rs e c t i o n

alle!'Cn

Dr' stntt

edge

BW Nepat

ENntnes

cHAP:

51-O

\ F a r r e n t r u e so f w e l d e d t u b u l e r g t e e l .

L o n g e r o n ( t u b u l a r s t e e l)
Diagonal web members
(tubrilar steel)

Vertical
r,l'eb
members

FUSELAGE

T r u s sT y p e

T h e f u s e l a g ei s t h e m a i n s t r u c t u r e o r b o d y o f t h e
a i r c r s i t . l t p r o v i d e s s p a c e f o r c a 1 3 o ,c o n t r o l s ' a c c e s '
s o r i e s , l ) a s s e n g c r sa, n d o t h e r e q u i p m c n t . I n s i n g l e '
engine aircraft, it also houses tlre powerplant' In
multi-engine aircralt the engines may either be in

is
T h e t r u s s t y p e f u s e l a g ef r a m e 1 n g u r "@ )
u", aII y*?onli r uciid- o i srEelTi.rTin-gI !l +q " l9g.{her
6'i*tli. ii*t"""n
ifi"t-"-j[ -"*Ii,*
in-=lti-" *";".oi"pi.ition loads.In-somc
eair! both teiision
"na
aiicraft, principally thi light, single'engineruodels,
truss fuselageframes are constructedof aluminum
alloy and may bilivEtbd cr bolied into one piece,
with cross-bracingachievecby using soiid rods or
tubes.

the fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or suspended

from the wing structure. They vary principally in
,ize and arrangement oi the difierent comPartmenLs'
There are two geneial typ<= of fuselage construc'
tion, the truss tyP, and the monocoque tyPe' A
rruss is a rigid iramework made up of members
such as beams, struts, and bars to resist deformat i o n b y a p p l i e d l o a d s . T h e t r u s s - f r a m e d f u s e l a g ei s
generally covered with fabric.

\#

Nepat

STRUCTURES

447air;ines

cHAP: ,1-O

)l:ln

Fo rnt r.'r

I
Brrlkhead

'tisiniy'e shcl!) Iuselage reliea

I'he .nronocogue
largdy ,.rnthe etr:engthof t}e ekin or coveriingto
l'5e desi6n nray be di.
carr'/ the prima;7 six"esses.
vide,Jin:,r thr:c classcs:r'I) Monoco,rue,(2) scmimonocoque,
or (ii) reinforceciailll. the true monocogue constr:uction1frgure
u6es iormers,
@)
lrame as,rembliea,and bulk-heo{sto give shnpe to

-t.-ik;n
tire fusel,rgi,-trrt
c;r:ies tire piiin:r-'lir!
slresses.iiine* no bracing rnenrbcrgalc llr:selli,
okin rnust be et,rong enough tc k:e1; lie irreciag:

trnlL!-

Bgtr Nepat

-Atntnes

cHAP:

51-O

Semim onocoque

Skit:
Fonnc[s
Stlinqer-s
Br-rikireatt

T
}-

to ettsch othcr
at pointc where 6ttings arc used
th" t"inga, powcrplalts' alad otsbili:'
units,' aucb u-s,''7\of the semi'
e r s . F i g u r e ( _ - $ r n o r''s one f orm
! n o t r o c o q u ed e s i g n n o w l n u s e '
tlan iongc'
The stringersarc smaller and Iighter
rigidiil''
some
have
They
fili'ins'
rons and ,J..'.
".
ettacha
n
d
f
o
r
s
h
a
p
e
g
i
v
i
n
g
f
o
r
u
s
e
d
b u l k } , e a d g , t h e s c m i m o n o c o q u e c o n s t r u c treini o n h u'/^s t h c . tb-u t a r e c h i e f l y
mem-beie'fie
iongitudi''tal
by
l
o
n
g
e
r
o
n
sh o l c
h
e
a
v
;
'
s
t
r
o
n
S
,
T
i
l
c
reinforced
skin
rncnt of the skin'
reit'fo'ced by a complae
'!]in
tht
t
u
r
n
' holti
i
n
h*
t
h
e
s
e
,
a
n
d
.;"J,
i
o
r
m
e
r
s
,
i"r..,
t h e b u l k h c a d sa n C
members' Dificrent porf
o
rm a
structural
j
o
i
n
c
d
of
t
o
g
e
"
h
e
r
framework
t i r e s tr i n g c r s . A l i o f t h e s e

of
To overcome tle strength/weiSht Pt:liT
aemiconstruction'a modificationcaUed
-;.;o;.
was dcvelconstruction 16gure rl$)
;.;;"il"
opcd.
{rsne assemblics'arrd
In addition to f ormers'

of
t*"t"ge may belong to ali, one
ffi;;:.u-"
ligid iusclaleiranreu'ork'
to
conside;cd
arc
but mJst aircraft
*""tlr.-.t,*es,
Thcrc is oftcn iitrie difierence between sonre
c
o
n
e
t
r
u
c
t
l
o
n
'
t
y
p
c
mai'
bc of scmirnonocogue
r i n g s . f r a t n e s ,a n d f o r m c r s O n c m a n u { a c t u r e r
constructc4
is
fg.s9!age.
nl--1
the
Thc scmirnonocoque
c a l l a b r a c c a i o r n r c r , w h e r e a sa n o t h c r m a y c a l l
magncs'Yl
and
alumin"r-rn
of
marily of Gc ollol's
santctv[)c of irracc a rin'g cr {rarnc' Manufacturers'
l/l
arc found in aretts.ct
aircra{t
^it.ft""-ft stccl Bnd titanium
f,7
i n s t r u c t i ( ) r t sa n d s l r c c i f r c a t i o n sf o r c s p e c i 6 c
b e n d i n gl o a d sa : e t a k c n ' l
h i s h t - ; r t p . r u t u r c sP' r i m a r y
orc tiic bcst gtridesusually extcnd o"to""^o-.::ii ti," long,r'on', which
and com'
I
- .' Strirrgcrs antl lottgerons Prevent tension
longerons-erc uuPl'1 /
Jiul Jointu of supporl T'irc
r'
are
9tiingers
fuscla;e'
the
-'ironl'"bclrdin6
l ,"1,rcssi.rn
mcmbcro' caUcd
-.nt"a by ot-hcr longitudinal
a
l
l
o
l
'
c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
tion'
a
l
u
n
r
i
n
u
n
r
r r s r r a l l yo f n , t t t c ' p i e c c
numerouE and ligllter-'/
Stringcra o" to"
stringers.-;
5y
s
h
a
p
c
s
v
a
r
i
e
t
y
o
f
a
a n t l t t r c t : t t t t l t t f a c t u r { : di n
on"-lo n g"'o ns' The'vc rtical :ty'lr:,"1i,
;;' ;'";t;,
l
i
r:astirrg,cxtrusiorl, or forming' Longerons' ke
ar -bff=EECi:'lffi'"-t'S'i4
memlrerearc rclcrreo to
m cmbcrr'< rc
s t l i n g c r s ,n r c u s t r a l l ym a d c o f a l u m i n u m a l l o y ; h o w :'T11; lieav i cst' o f t} cse v crtical
I orrrt"i?1'
I
t
and
ioads
conccntratcd
csrry
i#,"a Bt intervelsto

$l
E[

Nepal
Airiines

CHAP:

51.O

a?

.cV

(\\

Ilul'rheaC

(-,rrs:etr

e v e r , t h . e yr n e y b e o f e i t h e r a o n e ' p i e c eo r a b u i l t ' u p
co nstructiot:i.
By themselve*, tire sr.ructu;al menrbers discu:ised
do not givt: str,ength to a {u:elage. TheT r;us: first
be joirred together by sucl:r cc'nne':livc de;'ic'-xras
q u s s e t s ,r i l e t s , n u t : r a n d b o I t s , o r m e t a l s c r e * ' s . A
bracket'
l u s s e t ( f i g u r " @ ) . i t - t t y p ' eo f c o n n e c t i n s
Tl,e bracing beiie,:t lc,ngerons is o{ter, ref erre'i to
a s w e b m q l q b g r s .T n e l ' m a y b e i n s t a l l e dv e r t i c a l i l 'o r
d i a g o na l l y .
The metal skin t,r cc'vcring is rivcte<t to i!g-.]ongerons, bulkheads, arr<l other structural rnembers
i-

---

frT-I.rries part,rf tne load. Tl'e i.rsele5:ski:-'

and the
*iifi'-tl*-I*?-i""i.d
ih=iil;*..,AfG'\
s t r e s s e sl u s , t a i n e da t a 5 ; a r t i c u l a rl o c ; a t i o n '
T h e r e a r e a n u n t b e r o f . r d v a n t a g e si n i h e u s e o l
'Ihe
bulkhesds.
the semirnonoioque f us':lag':.
j
f r a m e s , s t r i n g e : r s ,a n d l o n g c r o n s a c i l i t a t e t h e d e '
s i g n a n d c r ) n s t r u c t i o nc ' f a : i t r e a l n l i n e di u s e i a : e .a n i '

Slringcr.

;6aETFffi""*lE-u

t *ffi

""

*rc"au,il*EIG.,

becruse oi its siress;ed'skincon:ltruction. :nruy r^'ith'

s i a r r d , : o n s i d e r . e b t ed a m a g e a n d s t i l l b e s t r o n g
enough to hold together.
F'use)aget are gr:ner'allY constructed in t''vc' or
m o - e s t : c t i o n sO
. n s m a l i ,a i r c r a f : , * r e y a r e g e r ' e r a l l y
nra,le in tv.'c or three sr:ctions,whiie la::g':r air<:r:L{t
rna; be r'.ta<le
uD of as manl' as sir secti'llls.
()u ici: accessto ',he rccessoriesa'n:l cther ec uio'
r n e n t c a i r i e d i n t h e f u s e l a g e i s p , r o v ' , d r : di o r b y
n u r n e r c u s a c c e , : sd o o r : ; , i n s p e c t i o n p l a t e s , l a n C i n g
*'ir,:-,1v,'clls,and otirer orrenings.Servicing;iliag:'arns
. h o s ' i n g t h , : a r r a n g e m e n to i e q u i p m e n t a r r d l o c a t i c n
crf acccsscioors are supplied by the manu:iacturer in
t h e a i r r : r a f t m a i n t e t r a n c em , r n u a l .

PACE:Q1

\@l Nepal
W4r?E''latE

cHAP: ,2-o

/T

/il

(\//i
\y'

.'l)\- -..=
,:,,.,:,i:::t:,:i;,e"
_-':

(il.
til.
r\r

i : a t s { r ] ) : : v , ' "A, *n ' ' t ,

'its .'".,'
^.''^l' \i
"'il''-n "'''

-,\), \\.-e,u,,^.r51x0,,,,^.

c,so^!

r qLN; oo4r

ililil,l. ono,

\4',

+-r:.r q
(\

\2

)>>-

..7.1..-'

)l,Y^,rN(,F,,j(F
|

,'

r(xt
)i;ii,:-;'.::tlllls'|rr

'(<\'-u''

,.=<S>__

rr('L>,

,S..r==2.]l======

,4{,
t(r,

..,;1' ,nr'"i.'
,r2
'Jf7'"2*ir'
::
t-')--=iKrFG?uRoP/5scxcE^
,'

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SR P O D S
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erlclosureguscll
Nacelle:; <rr pods are streantlineri
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f
t
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of the'wing cn multi'engine
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of tine ir:sehge'
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nd cngirle
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, l t t a c h e cti o t h e f r a n l e w o r k b y r i v e t s '
o{ strtrctural
T h e f r a t t t ' : w o r k t r s u al y c o r t s i s t s
{uselage' The
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cusir'
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ions or pai s' i:igu re
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ed a t v e l d c d t u b u l a r s t c c l
s c n ti r t t < - t t t o r : o t lB
n l o u n t u 3 d w i t h r e c i p r o c a t i t r gc n g i n c s '

mret pa.rtictllar
Eng:.ne mounls are designal tc
t
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s
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h
conditionso{ installation,
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mount is. usually
i n t c n c i e dt o s t l P P c r t . A n e n g i n e
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o
rgirrg: of chros , t e etl u b i n g , a n d
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{
m e / n i c k e l , / n r o l y b < ) e n u r :nr r e u s e d o r t h e
s t r e g s t :fdi : t i n g s .
e u r i n g { 1i g n t ' t h e 'l a n d T o r e d u c er * i n t l r e s j s t a n c d
is
i n g g e a r o f m o s l h i l 5 h ' s p e e do r l a r , l e a i ; c r a 1 :
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of the
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n a c c l l e ;h o r v e v e r o, n s o m ea i r c r a f t t h : l a r l d i n g : e a r
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O R A N GPEE E LC O h I L I N G

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C o w l i n g u s u a l l y r e i c r s l o t h c d e t a c l r a b l "t " ' ' " i i t t F
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3(r'c ae
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)
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t
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c
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tirc
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poeiti'rrr by
lo*'", pu."l is rcstraincd in thc "oPcn"
a apring and cablc.
"closcd" pooi'
itt t-out panelr are locked in tlrc
arc ac'curcd
tion by ovcr-ccntcr atccl latclres, which

iire closed position by spring-loacle<i safeti'

t:atcltesC
. orvi panels are generalil'of altrrrrintrm
n l l o v c < ; n s i r u c t i o n ;h o w e v e r , s t a i n l e s ss t e e l i s g c n e r '
a l i y u s e d : : st h c i n n e r s k i n a f t o f t h e p o * ' c r s c c t i o n '
{ o r c o w i f l a p s a n d n e o r t h e c o w l f l a p o P e r t i t t e s 'a r r d
in

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STRUCIi]RES

( BROKE I N7G0 7 )
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alu!-I

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t i2 x 2 3 u r r o )
\/in:Fl.
irin'11.
riI ,'l mm,,
I)^I,rr'cl.r)i

( .1 , 1 1 m o )

iI
I

___t

t-

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lt

cHAt,.

56-0

(B0EIhrG)
iNSTALLATI0N
I^llND'r'l

il icnetN

lii
ll 1

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"urERSK'|N+A
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ut_
lll,, ;.;;:ir),iL:,,___iL
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tl
tl
ll
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ill
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--- nlli

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ull
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li li
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..",

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)exrnuor

S:'R,NGE

\El

Nepal

l=gAirlines

WING STRIJCTiJRE
'lhc
wings oi an airc'rafl are surfacer wirich are
d e si g n t : d t o p r r c d r . r c eI i f t w h c n m o r e d r a p i d ) y

l)rain lrcles are also placec in the low,:r stlrlat:eto

p r o v i d e f o r d r , r i n a g e o f a c c u r n u l a t e d r r L o i s t u r eo r
f l u i d s . ( J n s o m e ,a i r c r a f t b u r i l t - i nx ' , r i l : w a t s s r " eP r o '

t h r o u g h t h e ,a i r . T h r : p a i t i c u i a r d e s i g ; n{ c r a n y g r v c n
a i r c r ; ' f t d e - ; e n c i so n a n u m b e r o f [ a c t c , r s ,s u c i r a s
siz,:, *eight, use oI l]i,: aircia:it, desirt:d speecl in
f l i p ; h ta n d a t l a n d i n i r , a r , d d t : s i r e dr a t e o l c l i m b . T h e
* ' i n g : o f a f i x e d - w i n g a i r c r a f t a r e d e s i g n e . t e dI e f t
'right
sides
a n r l r i l l h t , : o r r e s p o n d i n gt o t h e l e f t a n d
,
r
p
e
r
a
t
o
r
w
h
'
:
n
i
n
s
e
a
t
e
d
t
h
e
ccckpit.
of the
" .
'l-he
w i n l r s o f s o r n ea . i r c r a f ta r e o f c a n t i l e v e r d e -

vid,irl on tite areas wherc it. is,rafe to rralk or s!ep.

O n s o n r es i r c r s f l j a c k i n g p o i n t s a r e p r c , v i i i t d o n t h e
, u n i . e r s i d eo i e a c h v , i n g . ,

sign; :her-iq-rht_ail- U,jlf -:I_!f1*[_o*;ea"e.p-at

b . a c i i r i r i s n e e d e d .T h , : s k i n i s p a r t c t f t l t e v r i n g
.

etructure;ind

*-,___7..T

cartles Psrt ol

the wlng

slre:rses.

Oiher aiic'aft'wi'r{;i;,;J;ii;;ili1;;i[I-(sti:rG,
w i r - e e ,e t c . , t o a s s . i s ti n s u p p o r t i n l 5 t h e w i n g a n d
Iloth
c a l r,vi n g t I''e a,:rod,y-n-a"rli cjlld.,l*Sl:1i1oatls.
a l r r n i n u n r a l l o y a n d m a g n e s i u r na l l o y a r e u s e d i n
x . i n g r r ; n s t r u c t i o n .T h e i n t e r l t a l s t r u c t u r e i s m a d e
r r p o { s p a r s a n d s t r i n l 3 e r sr u n n i n 6 ; s p , r n w : . s ee, n d

'::*1.|::'j'IIlii:j'

\ , : a r i , : u so o i n t s o n t - h e* ' i n g a r e l , r c a l e d b y s t * t i o n .
n u r n b c r . \ ! i n g s t a t . i o n 0 t ' z e r o ) i s l o c a . t e da t t h c ,
, n d a l l w i n 6 ;s , t a t i o n ::rt r c :
ccnier line of the f rrselegea
inciisur:doutlc,ard frorn thbt point, in inches.
I n g t r : r e r a l ,r . i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i s b a s , : d o n " o n e o l
t h r , : e f u n d a n r e n t a ld e s i 6 ; n i : ( ' l ) I i { o n c , s p a r ,( 2 ) m u l .
ti-s,rar, or (3 ) bo:r beem. IVlodi6cati,rns o1' t.htxc
b a s i c d : s i e n s n r u r ' , o e a d o p t e d . b y \ ' a : : i o u sm a n u i a c .
l u r ( : f s .^
'l'irc
:nonospar wing incorporatas cnly c'ne me.in
lonqitudinai m.:rnbr in its ccrnstrur:tionR
. ibs or
b u i , : l i e a d ss u p p l v t l t e n e c e s s a r yc o n t o u r o r a h r a p et o
the airl'oii. Althou6h'tire strict mtrnos.p{rrting ia
not conlmon. tlris type oi design, moclifie,l by the

rp/-,,ts

-l

onor I yr.-qt'reqgI".E(n 3e
I i 1."s

a d c i i t i o no f f a l s , :s p i r r s o r l i g h t s h e a r w t : b s a l o n 5 ;t h e

t r i t r a i l i n g e d g el . h e s p a r : a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r u c .
tural nrembdrs of tiii r.irig. ni,i;lil;i-'"ii,.,f,..a''t,
'of 'the

t r a i l i n g c d g e a s s u r r p o r t f o r : t h e c o n t r o l r , u r f 8 . c e si s,
sonretinreu
s sed

the inreinal niiriibers and ma,1 irir/

p"rr
w i n g s t r e s s e sD
. uring Ilight, applied ioads w;rich
a r t i m : r o s e i o n t h e w i n g s t r u c t u r i r r r e E , r i m a r i l . .o r r

f i r e r n u l t i - s p a rr r ' i n g i n c o r p o r a t e l t n o r , : r l t a n o n c
n r a i n l c , n 6 i t u d i n a rl n e r r , b e ri n i t s , : o n s t r u c t i o n .i l o
givr: Lirc r.'ij:lg contc)ur, ribs or bull:]reads t,re c,{t,:n
i n c l ud e < l .

tlre skin. From tlre skin"they are tr,rn.mittcll to the

ribs and frorn the ribs to the spars.'lle s1:ars
\--{Tt---1--:f-.--f-r--s u I ) p o r ta l l d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d s a s w e l l a s c o n c e n t r r t e d
w e i g h t s , s r r c h a s f u s e l , r g e ,l a n , l i n g g e a r , , r n d , o n
r n u l t i - e n g i n ea i r c r a l t , t h e n a c e l l e so r p y l , r n s .
'[he
w i n 1 3 ,l i k e t ] r e f r . r s e l a g em, a . y _
be consrru,:trd
i n s e c t i o n s .O r r , :c o r n m o n l y u s e d t y p e i s r n a c l eu p o f
a ( : n t ( : rs < c t i o n w : , t h o u t e r p a n e l s a n C w i r r g t i p s .
A n o t h e r a r r a r l f l e r r ) c n rt n a y h a v e w : . n g s t . u l r sa s a n
i n t , : g r a . lp a r t o ; i t h e f u s e l a g : i n p l a r : c o i t l r r : c e r r r e r
strtion
I n s p r : c t i u n o p c n i r r g s a n d a c c , e s sd o o r c 6 r ( - . : ) r ( r .
v i d c r l , u s u a l l , y ' c nt h e l o w e : s u r f a c e s< ; f t h c w i n g .

T'he t,ox beanr tvpe of wi:ng construction uses trvo

m a i n l c n g i t u d i r i a l r n e n : , b e r sw i t h c o n n e c , i i ; r gt ' u l j t '
hea,js to furnish adciitional stren5lh and to give
c o n t o u r t o L h e w i n g . . ^ \ c c ) r r u r l a t e , is f , e t : t m a ) , r c
p i a c c d l i c t w e e n t l r e b u l k h e a , : l sa n d l i r c :s m o c , t i ro u t c r
s k i r ; s o . t h a t t h c r v i r r g c n n l - r c t t e rc a r r l ' t e n r i i c n n r r r l
c o r n y r t * , s i o r l r r a r l s .I n s . o r r ) tc: a : i e s ,i r e ' a r . yl o l r q i t u c i i n u i - s t i l i e r r e r sl r c s u b s t i t u r . e r lf o r t h e i : o r r u q a t , : d
s l t c t : t s . , i t c o n i L r ; r r a t i c rillri t : o r r u g a t t : r Js n e c t . gr ) , 1t : ) c
u l r p r : r s u r l e c c , , f i S c r n r i n e ; a r r r { s t i f i i c r r c r so r r t l : r c
i o w , : r - " c r laf c c i s s o r r : eitr u c s r r s c d .

P A G E :0 2

\$$tr Nepat

STRUCTURES

Efun!nes

CF{AP:

57-O

RI BS ANDSPAR STRUCTURE
Ing

[,eading edge strip

Nose r i b

A n t i d r a g u'tre
or tie rod

Front spar

\-,-,,

False
or
sDat
r
aileron .sPar

Aileron
L.f

ialserib

Aileron
hinge

Rear spar

shou'sthe basic rib and spar strucFigure

ture of a woodenwing {rame. togetherwith some of
to
riie other r+'ing structurai members' in addition
{alse
o
r
s
p
a
r
,
a
n
a
i
l
e
r
o
n
s
p
a
r
s
!
r
e
a
r
a
n
d
f
r
o
n
t
*re
This ti'pe of spar
spar. is shor.'n in 6gure
s
;
i
a
n
x
'iselength oi tlre
t
h
e
o
f
p
a
r
t
o
n
l
r
'
extends
a
t
t
a
c
h
m e n tp o i n t f o r t h e
h
i
n
g
e
a
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
s
xing and
ai l e r o n .
'illust;atcr'l in figure
\''aricius t1'pesof ribs a:-e also
i n a d d i t i o n t o r h e x ' i n s r i b , s o m e t i m e sc a l i e d
"plain rib" or cven "main rib."- rtoseribs and the
irutt rih are shown' A nose ril'' is also called a false
rib, since ir usualll' extends irom the wing leading
erigelo the front spar or slightlv beyond' The nose
ribs give tlre wing leading crige area the nect=sarl'
'flg
u'ing rib, or plain rib,
curvature and support.
e x t e n d s f r o m t h e l e a c l i n g e c i g eo f t h e u ' i n g t o t h e
r e a r s p a r a n d i n s o m c c a s e st o t h e t r a i l i n g e d g e o {
t h e w i n g , .T h e r ^ i n g b u t t r i b i s n o r r r t a l l r 't h c h e a v i l y
s t r e s s e dr i b s c c t i o n a t t l r c i n b o a r d e n d o f t h e w i n g
n c a r t h e a t t a c l t m e n t p o i n t t o t h e f r r s e l n g e 'f ) e J r e n d '
i r r g o n i t s l o c a t i o n a n d r n c t h o d o f n t t a c h m c n t ,a b u l t

Drag \r'lre

Wing rib or
plain rib

Wing butt rib (or compressionrib )

( or bulkhead rib )
Wing attach
fittings

rib mal' be called a bulkhcad rib or a comPreesron

r i h , i { i t i s d e s i g n e d t o . r e c e i v e c o r n p r e s s i t ' nI o a d s
that tend to force the wing aparstqgether'
Since the ribs are laterally weak, they are
s t r e n g t h e n e di n s o m e w i n g s b y t a p e s t h a t a r e w o v e n
airore ancl belo*' rib sections to Prevcnt siciewise
l , e r r d i n go f t h e r i b s .
are criss'
l)rag and antidrag wires (ftgure
to resist
t
r
u
s
s
a
crosscdhei*ecn thc spars to {orrn
forccs acting on the wing in thc direction of the
x ' i n g c i r o r d . T h e s e t e n g i o nw i r e s a r e a l s o r e f t t t r e d t o
as tic rods. The wire designed to resist thc bacl-'
u'ard forcesis calicd a drag w!re; thc antidrag wi;-e
r c s i s t sr h e f o r * a r < J f o r c e s i n t l r e c h o r d d i r e c t i o n '
The wing attachment 6ttings, shorvn in Iigure
proti,l. a tneans o{ attaching the wing to tie
iircraft fuselage.
to
The wing tip is ofren a removableunit, bolted
for
reason
One
panel'
wing
the
of
thc outboar<i end
this is the vulnerability of the *'ing tips to damage'
c s p e c i a l l yd u r i n g 5 r o u n d h a n d l i n g a n d t a x i i n g '

Pr\GE:$:1

\gl

Nepat

Ef,Airlines

Tap'ereci leading .d9",

straight traiiing edge

cHAP:

57-Ct

'
/l

'fapered

leading
aird trailing edges

Delta win6;

1 ,, , . t. ,

II
I

--TT:- __) i
I

(----

II

-\,1-

(-{LJ
Ssreptback
wings

Sl.raigirtleading and
trailing eCges

n!'(

- o

Straight lerding eCqe,

tapered trailinl4'edi " l

^dh-

fDf i. |, . s h o w s a n ' r m b e r o f t y p i c a l w i n g l e a d i i . r g a n d
t r a r l r n ge d g e s n a P e s .
. [ n a c l d i t i o n t ' r t h a p a r t i c u l a r , : ? n f : g u r , r t i o ror f t h e
l e a d i n g a n d t r a i l i n 6 ; e d S t e sw, i n g s a r e a l s o d e s i g n e d
t o p r o v i d e c e r l a i n d e s r ' r a b l ef l i g h t c h ar a c t e r i s it c s ,

1i

___o_:-L,crv wiiS

---L-l-

r\

Dilrc:dial

sur:h a:i greate::lilt, balance, cr stabilitl'. Figure

sh,owssome common v,ing forrns.
FJfl
\tt
z $ !

F e a t r r r e so ; 1 h s ' v i n g * ' i l l c a r : s e , c t h e rv a r i a t i o n s
i n i t s d e s i g n .T h e w i n g t i p r n a y b e s q u a r e , r , r u n t l e d ,
or even pointed. Iloth the leading edge and the
t r a i l i n g e d g e o f t h e w i n , 3t n : r y b , : s t r a i g h t o r c u r r c d ,
or one edge mav be straiglrt and the other cur','ed.
I n a d d r i t i o n ,o n e o r b o t h e d g e s m a y b e t a p e r e i s o
t h a t t h t : w i n g i s n a r r o w e r a t t h e t i p l h a n ,a t L h e r o o t
w h e r e i t j o i n s . h e i u s e l a g c .I \ ' l a n y t y p e s o f m o i e r n
a i r c r a f l e m p l o , vs r v e p t b a c kv ; i n g : : -

--TJ-High rvirrg

--crGuIl wing

____l

Wing Configurolions

*
, D e p e n d i no
g n t f r e d , = i r e c iI l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
w i r r g sa r e b u i l t i n m a r r ys h a p e sa r r d s i . z e sF. i g u r e

II

5'11q1r"'inf,

__r(\-__
Invet<d gull

W*p Nepal

Eilr,rnes

cHAP:

WINJG
G R O U PS T R U C T U R E-

57-O

T W I NO T T E R
D I ' J C S F I . iI N G E

\.

R E A RS P A BW E B
S T RI N G E R - I N B O A R D
N O S ES P A R

,!4.'.\

;|l/
ltj

R 1 8S O T T O MB O O M
M A I N S P A RW E B
STRINGER-oUTBOARD

REARSPAR
MAINSPAR

Figure

shows a crcss arctioncl vlcw of an

a l l . n r e t a lf u l l e a n t i l e v e : ( : r o c x t e r : r n l l r r a : : i n g ) x ' i n g
'l'he
strtionwirrg is rnade uir of spar!, riLs, and
lower and uo;rer wing skin coverirrg.With ferv cx.
'ccptions, wings o{ this typc are of the stresged-skin
design (the skin is part of the wirrg structurc and
carries parl of thc wing strcsses,.

'l'he

t o n r t i i ( l i r , ' l t . , n rx i r r g s k i n a u r e r s t r e
"lude
u J . ,rr i , . c v c r r t il r r i , ' r : r a i i vs t i f i c r r e ds c c t i o n : .T h r s t T p c
o f x : i i i , . rr i , n . r t : ' u , ' 1 i , ,|:-rr ' r r r i t - rt h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
I l u t i t l c r - t ) l ' , :i r r , ' l , ' r l l s i r r t l r e r ^ . i n g so r i s e e a l e dt o
l r < - t l ,fl, , r i t t i i ! r o r r i l l r ( : u j i r a l f u e l c e l l s o r t a n k s . A
w i r r g r v l r i c i ri s r ; , u r s;.ut ( j t e ( j t o a l l o w i t t o b e u s e d a s
a f u c l , : t ' i lr i r t : r r r l ,i.s r t : l c r r e , l t o B J a " w e l - w i n g . "

\Bl

Nepat

WAirlines

cHAi: 11 -0

M I J L T l - S P AMRE I A LI ' I I N G

|tfi

R.i3S

TDGI

1)
ia-)
Y-// \zz

i
Wing Spcrrs
'fht:
m a i n s t . r u c t u r a pl a r t s o f 3 w i n g a r e l l t e s l r a r : ; '
t n r r i b s , r r b u l k h e a d : , a r ' d t l ' e 5 r ' r i n g . e rosr : ; l i f i t : '
n . e r s ,a s s l r o w n i n f i g u r e g
S p : i r s a , r et h e p r i n c l , p a ls t r u ( : t u r a ll n ' : : n t l r r : ro: fr t h r :
w i n g . T h r : y c o r r e s p o n ' Cl o t h e l o r t g e r o r r so f t h e { u v - ' '
(rr
lage.'lhey run parallelto the lateral ar(is, torrard
t h e t i p o f t h e w i n g , a n d a r e u s u a l l y a t ' t a < : h c ldo t i r c
I u s e l : r g eb y w i n g l i t t i n g s . p l a i n b c a n r s , o r e t r t r ' s s
:,ystern.

Vling Rib:
tl)c structul ill cr';":lic':es llr'rt mslie up
usualiy exi':rj
i i r , , :f r ; , n t e r , i , r l . ; { i h c x i r r S " i h e v
oi tc
ir,-ri:::ire riing leading ed,3etr: []]c rcar sDar
'')re
tirr: t:r,jlirrt cdge of 1}r3 rrintr"i-]rc ribs gi"e
l(rl.

ur.

irorn
x r r r i l ; : . c u n r b c r e i s h a ; > ea n C t r a n s m i i t i r c l o a d
also
t):r: sxirr und.strir:gers to the spars' Ribs urt:
use,l r'l ailerons, elevBtors, ru'Jders, lrrd stabilizers'
EiItiL: arc nr,rnu{acturcd from wood gr metnl'
sllars
w
o
c
'
d
t
:
n
w
i
d
r
u
s
e
d
a
t
e
r
i
t
,
s
;
I
r
)
c
'
.
3
1
o
r
,ilrcr o,.)tl
.wlrilc mctal ribs are usually used with

krr:tnl spars'

P A G E0: 6

*#gENepal
Efunrnes
@r'rrrni sPARS

oi
shows .ih'e batiJ
Figur" @
"6n6gut"iion
are'built
spars
ti'picJ nretal spars. lvlost nretal
s<-,nre
up f rorn extruded aluminum -alloy sections, with
riveted aluminum alloy web sections to provide
extra stren(th.
,A,,
are typi'
,{lthougi the spar shapes of figure ff
configura'
cal of most basic shapes, the actual spar
e
x
a
m
p
le' a sPei
F
o
r
f
o
r
m
s
'
t i o n m a y a s s u m em a n y
plate
web'
The
type
mav have either a plate or truss
with
p
l
a
t
e
of a solid
*.[
]
16gur. @
"on.itts
the
vertical .tifi"nH which increase the strength of
dif{er'
constructed
are
webs
web. Some spar plate
ently. Some have no stifieners; others contain
flanged holes {or reciucing weight' Figure @
shows s truss ipar made up.of an upper caP' I
iower cap,. and connecting vertical and diagonal
tubes.
A structure may be designedso es to be consid'
ered "iaii-safe." In other words, should one nrember

of s complex structure fail, some o''her rnember

w o u l d a s s u m et h e l o a d o i t h e f a i l e d m e m b e r .
A spar with "fail-safe" construction is shown in
. This spar is made in trvo sections' The
finur.'ffi
ro"o .".Fon .or,ri.t. of e cap, riveled to the upper
*.b p1",.. The lower section is a single extrusion'
consisting of the lower cap and web plate' These
two sections are spliced togetber lo form the spar'
If either section'of this t1'pe of spar breaks, the
other seclion c8n still carry the load, which is the
"fail-safe" {eature.
As a rule, a' wing has two spars' One spar is
usualiy located near the front of the wing, and the
other about two'thirds o{ the distance toward the
x ' i n g ' s t r a i l i n g e d S g .R e g a r d l e s so f t y p e , t h e s p a r i s
^parr
of the wing' When other
the most imbortailt
of the wing are placed undcr
structural ,rr"-b...
m
o
s
t
of the resultingstrs on to tlre
p
a
s
s
t
h
e
v
load,
wing spars.

PLATE

StiJfener

R i b a t t a c ha n g l e

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s h o xs a r e n r o v a b l er . ' i n g t i p f o r e
l a r g e a i r c r a f t w i n g . T i r c r ' i n g . t i p a s s e m b l y 'i s o f
a l u m i n u m a l i o y c o n s t r u c t i o r ,T
. l,e wirig"tipcap is
s e = u r e dt o t h e t i p w i t h c o u n t e r s u n k s c r c w s a n d i s
t h r o u g h a l o u v e r o n t - h et o p s u r f a c c o f t h e t i p . V / i n g
porition lighta are locatcd at t}e center of the tip
+ccurcd to thc interspsr slructure at {our;roinl.s
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heat enti-icing duct. Wi:rg-hearcd air ie exharrsted
artd are not directly visible from tlre c.tckpit. As an
i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t - h cw i r r g t i t r l i g i r r i s o p c r a t i n g , s o m c
wing tips are equippcd r.'itlra lucite ro<i to transrnit
thc light to the leadinB oili".

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