Haramaya University

College of Education and Behavioral Sciences

Department of Educational Planning and Management

Information Resource Management

Compiled By: Muhammed Kedir Hiko (Asst. Professor)

March 2016
Haramaya, Ethiopia

Table of Contents
1.

Definition of Information ......................................................................................................... 1

2.

Difference between Data and Information ............................................................................... 2

3.

Importance of Information ....................................................................................................... 3

4.

Characteristics of Information ................................................................................................. 5

5.

Types of Information ............................................................................................................... 7

6.

Sources of information ............................................................................................................. 9

7.

Information Life Cycle .......................................................................................................... 11

8.

Information Resource Management (IRM)............................................................................ 14

8.1.

Concepts of IRM ............................................................................................................ 14

8.2.

Importance of IRM ........................................................................................................ 15

8.3.

Evolution of IRM ........................................................................................................... 15

8.4.

Barriers to IRM .............................................................................................................. 17

Information Assets of an Organization .................................................................................. 18

9.

9.1.

Types of Information Asset............................................................................................ 18

9.2.

Attributes of Information Asset ..................................................................................... 19

9.3.

Techniques of Managing Information Assets ................................................................ 19

10.

Information Literacy .......................................................................................................... 22

11.

Education Management Information system ..................................................................... 23

11.1.

Definition of EMIS .................................................................................................... 23

11.2.

The purposes of EMIS ............................................................................................... 24

11.3.

The Components of EMIS ......................................................................................... 25

11.4.

The changing functions of EMIS ............................................................................... 26

11.5.

Design and Development Stages of the EMIS ........................................................... 29

11.6.

Challenges Facing EMIS Deployment ....................................................................... 32

12.

Reference ........................................................................................................................... 34

1. Definition of Information
Information is broad concept which can be defined in several ways. Some of the
definition related to disciplines, values and processes. Thus, it is hard to get common
single definition agreed up on by all users throughout the world. However, there are some
definitions frequently used by scholars at different time. These are:

Information is processed data.

Information is knowledge gained or given; facts; news or the communicating or

receiving of knowledge.

Information is a means of communicating knowledge, helping us to find out what

we need to know.

Information is data that have been recorded, classified, organized, related, or

interpreted within a framework so that meaning emerges.

Information is the process of selecting data, summarizing it and presenting it in

such a way that it is useful to the recipient.

Information the act of communicating knowledge to another person.

Information usually implies data that is organized and meaningful to the person
receiving it.

Information is data that has been transformed into a meaningful and useful form
for specific human beings. The meaning that a human assigns to data by means of
the known conventions used in its representations.

Information is that which results when some human mental activity (observation,
analysis) is successfully applied to data to reveal its meaning or significance.

Information is processed data that can be accessed, generated and created,

transmitted, stored, sent, distributed, produced and consumed, searched for, used,
compressed and duplicated.

Generally, information is a meaningful data that can be stored, shared, duplicated,

modified and changed over time based on the context and interest of the users. In
education, information is processed data which is the base for development of
knowledge, skill and attitude of students, teachers, leaders, experts and other
stakeholders. It is the life-blood of education system.

2. Difference between Data and Information

Data is the bases of information. So they are related to each other. But, sometimes people
use them interchangeably. However, they differ in many ways especially in their
meanings. Some the differences are discussed in the subsequent paragraphs.

Data refers to the lowest abstract or a raw input which when processed or arranged makes
meaningful output. It is the group or chunks which represent quantitative and qualitative
attributes pertaining to variables. Information is usually the processed outcome of data.
More specifically speaking, it is derived from data. Information is a concept and can be
used in many domains. Information can be a mental stimulus, perception, representation,
knowledge, or even an instruction. The examples of data can be facts, analysis, or
statistics. In computer terms, symbols, characters, images, or numbers are data. These are
the inputs for the system to give a meaningful interpretation. In other words, data in a
meaningful form is information. Information can be explained as any kind of
understanding or knowledge that can be exchanged with people. It can be about facts,
things, concepts, or anything relevant to the topic concerned.

If data is at the lowest level in the series, information is placed at the next step. As an
example, if you have a list on the Seven Wonders of the World, that is a data; if you have
a book giving details about each wonder, it is information. Data can be in the form of
numbers, characters, symbols, or even pictures. The raw input is data and it has no
significance when it exists in that form. A collection of these data which conveys some
meaningful idea, it gains significance and is information. It may provide answers to
questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how. Data is raw, unorganized facts
that need to be processed. Data can be something simple and seemingly random and
useless until it is organized. When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in
a given context so as to make it useful, it is called information.

Data lack meaning while information is meaningful. Indeed, numbers and figures alone
lack meaning. They can never tell you something unless they are interpreted and
explained. This is what data are. On the contrary, information is full of meanings. They're

data which are explained or interpreted to be understood by individuals. Data are

valueless while information is useful and valuable. Data alone are meaningless. What's
the use of gathering them if you don't know what they are about or what they stand for?
Information on the other hand is something you can readily understand and use. You can
benefit a lot from information since you can apply them in your daily life.

3. Importance of Information
Information is regarded as a valuable resource which should be managed like other
resources, and should contribute directly to accomplish organizational goals and
objectives. Information is important to any organization. Information, which is a catalyst
for change, has become as important as life itself. Good and quality information can
improve decision making, enhance efficiency and allow organizations to gain competitive
advantages.

Information is power and an essential ingredient in decision-making. All management

functions starting from planning up to evaluation as well as re-planning depends on the
information. Information has become a vital source for world economies and is certainly
the basic component of education. Information is a vital element to technological and
scientific change. It poses several challenges to individuals of all walks of life: students,
workers, and citizens of all types. Thus, information is the life blood of an organization or
system.

Some of the specific importances of information are:

It support decision making. Decision-making is the process of selecting an action
or actions from those possible based on the information available. If decision may
not depend on reliable and up to date information, it becomes valueless. It is not
acceptable by implementer and not fruitful as per the expectation. Sometimes if
decision was made based on wrong information it leads to conflict, wastage of
resources and unexpected disaster. Example: If Ministry of Education decide on
allocation of annual budget for different sub-sectors based on wrong or

incomplete, it will be resulted in shortage of financial resources which in turn

causes various problems in the sector.
It supports planning. Planning should be based on good information. Planning is
not an end in itself; its primary purpose is to provide the necessary structure for
decision-making and resulting actions, throughout the organization. The process
of planning provides an opportunity to construct a sequence of actions that, when
executed, will achieve the required aims and objectives. Basically, planning
means decisions by management about: what is to be done in the future, how to
do it, when to do it, who is to do it. The answers provided to these questions are
only appropriate if it depends on real information. Example: if project or program
preparation may not depend on reliable information it affects the entire process of
its management and final output will be negative.
It helps for effectiveness of controlling activities. Controlling comprised of
monitoring and evaluation of current progress against the steps of a pre-defined
plan or standard. If these tasks are not proceeding in line with expectations then
action is taken to bring the project/program back in line with what had been
planned. Control activities attempt to keep the organization in line with the
original plan or to enable the organization to change to meet the new conditions.
Control measures actual progress against what is expected and provides
information upon which remedial action can be taken, if required, either to change
performance in order to conform to the original plan or to modify the plan.
Example: Haramaya University want strengthen the controlling system to
improve the quality of education. Thus, right information required at the right
time to compare what was planned with action on the ground. But if there is no
such required data, the efforts may not bring about expected improvement in
quality of education.

In general, all individual, group and organizational activities requires relevant

information in order to successfully achieve their goals. It is hard to be effective and

efficient without information. Management functions are cyclic process in its nature. If
planning process faced shortage of information, the remaining process also affected
negatively. To its worst context, absence of required information leads to the collapse or
death of an organization.
4. Characteristics of Information
Good information is relevant for its purpose, sufficiently accurate for its purpose,
complete enough for the problem, reliable and targeted to the right person. It is also
communicated in time for its purpose, contains the right level of detail and is
communicated by an appropriate channel, i.e. one that is understandable to the user.
Characteristics of good quality information can be defined as an acronym ACCURATE.
These characteristics are interrelated; focus on one automatically leads to focus on other.
These are:

A. Accurate. Information needs to be accurate enough for the use to which it is going
to be put. Information should be fair and free from bias. It should not have any
arithmetical and grammatical errors. Information comes directly or in written
form likely to be more reliable than it comes from indirectly (from hands to
hands) or verbally which can be later retracted. To obtain information that is
100% accurate is usually unrealistic as it is likely to be too expensive to produce
on time. The degree of accuracy depends upon the circumstances.

B. Complete. Accuracy of information is just not enough. It should also be complete

which means facts and figures should not be missing or concealed. Information
should contain all the details required by the user. Otherwise, it may not be useful
as the basis for making a decision. Ideally all the information needed for a
particular decision should be available. However, this rarely happens; good
information is often incomplete. To meet all the needs of the situation, you often
have to collect it from a variety of sources.

C. Cost-beneficial. Information should be analyzed for its benefits against the cost of
obtaining it. It business context, it is not worthwhile to spend money on
information that even cannot recover its costs leading to loss each time that
information is obtained. In other contexts, such as hospitals it would be useful to
get information even it has no financial benefits due to the nature of the business
and expectations of society from it. Information should be available within set
cost levels that may vary dependent on situation. If costs are too high to obtain
information an organization may decide to seek slightly less comprehensive
information elsewhere. In that situation, the organisation would probably decide
that a less costly source of information should be used, even if it may give inferior
information.

D. User-targeted. Information should be communicated in the style, format, detail

and complexity which address the needs of users of the information. Example
Academic Vice President need brief reports which enable them to understand the
position and performance of the college, while department heads need detailed
information which enable them to make day to day decisions.

E. Relevant. Information should be relevant to the purpose for which it is required. It

must be suitable. Information should be communicated to the right person. It
means person which has some control over decisions expected to come out from
obtaining the information.

F. Authoritative. Information should come from reliable source. It depends on

qualifications and experience and past performance of the person communicating
the information.

G. Timely. Information should be communicated in time so that receiver of the

information has enough time to decide appropriate actions based on the
information received. Information which communicates details of the past events
earlier in time is of less importance than recently issued information like

newspapers. Information must be on time for the purpose for which it is required.
Information received too late will be irrelevant. What is timely information
depends on situation to situation. Selection of appropriate channel of
communication is key skill to achieve.

H. Easy to Use. Information should be understandable to the users. Style, sentence

structure and jargons should be used keeping the receiver in mind. If report is
targeted to new-comer in the field, then it should explain technical jargons used in
the report.

5. Types of Information
Different scholars categorize information in to different types based on characteristics,
form of display to users and how it is available and accessible. Based on its
characteristics, information can be divided in to three major groups. These are:
-

Factual (facts) Vs Analytical (interpretation)

Objective (without bias) Vs Subjective (Opinions and views)

Primary (original) Vs Secondary (Repackaged)

According to Buck (1983), information classified in to five on how it displayed to users.

These are:
1.

Instructions: refer to information that guides behavior in a particular way. In other

words, it supports performance to carry out a task by prompting on what to do and
when to do it.

2.

Command: messages give a very straightforward statement on what is or what is not

permitted. 'Do not enter', 'do not smoke', 'do not eat or drink', are examples of
command messages. Sometimes they are similar to instructions, but are much more
focused on simple statements that refer to high priority items.

3.

Advisory: messages are somewhat watered down versions of command messages. In

some cases, these will be recommendations to avoid a situation, at other times they
would be information allowing for the preparation or planning of particular
activities.

Answers: information may be provided in response to a particular enquiry that has

4.

been made. This is typical of an interactive information-handling situation, where we

have a particular question in mind or degree of uncertainty and we seek information
from a source with regard to removing that uncertainty.
Historical: displays are used to look back at the state of a variable over a period of

5.

minutes, hours, days or even years. A graphical representation of road accidents over
the last century would be a historical display of information.
Predictive: displays are much more specialized, but increasingly found in complex

6.

processes. Predictive information enables examination of the current value and

indicates any likely change in the future.

Moreover, based on formats information is available and accessible for users, information
is grouped in to two main types namely, print and non-print or published and unpublished
sources. Information could be in print format and these include: all printed books,
periodicals, maps, bibliographies, indexes and abstracts, photographs, government
documents, technical reports, etc. In addition to printed materials, information is also
produced in other formats (non-print) including audio, audiovisual, multimedia,
microform and electronic books, journals, images, texts/records from the Internet and etc.

Taylor (1991) identifies eight classes of information uses, based on the information need
perceived by users in particular situations,

Enlightenment. Information is used to develop a context or to make sense of a

situation by answering questions such as: Are there similar situations? What are
they? What is our history and experience?

Problem understanding. Information is used in a more specific way than

enlightenment it is used to develop a better comprehension of a particular
problem.

Instrumental. Information is used so that the individual knows what to do and how
to do something.

Factual. Information is used to determine the facts of a phenomenon or event, to

describe reality.

Confirmational. Information is used to verify another piece of information.

Projective. Information is used to predict what is likely to happen in the future.

Motivational. Information is used to initiate or sustain personal involvement, in

order to keep moving along on a particular course of action.

Personal or political. Information is used to develop relationships; enhance status,

reputation, personal fulfillment.

6. Sources of information
An Information Source is a source of information for somebody, i.e. anything that might
inform a person about something on provides knowledge to somebody. Information
sources may be observations, people speeches, documents, pictures, organizations etc.
Sources of information are divided into different groups. Such as;

A. Information sources: primary and secondary

Information is usually categorized into two main types: primary and secondary.

Primary sources of information come directly from a person or organization

they are completely original and have not been altered in any way. Examples of
primary sources include: patents, diaries, newspaper articles, artifacts,
photographs, transcripts of conversations or interviews, speeches, music, art,
legislation and policy, novels, poems, plays, parliamentary papers.

Secondary sources of information interpret and comment on primary information.

Examples of secondary sources include: books or articles that summarize the
work of others, literature reviews and biographies.

It is important to distinguish between the two in order to critically evaluate the

information. If the information comes from a source that is five or six times removed
from the original (primary) source, it is easy for ideas to be misinterpreted or for details
to be lost.

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B. Primary, secondary and tertiary sources of information

I. Primary Sources

Written and created during the time being studied

Factual does not interpret

Firsthand account of the event

Original documents

Creative works poems, songs, photographs

Artifacts chairs, clothing

Results of a scientific experiment

II. Secondary Sources

Interpret and analyze sources

Removed from the events being written about

Second hand account of the event such as;

Textbook

Journal

Book about the history of the cold war

Analysis of a scientific experiment

III. Tertiary Sources

Sources that contain summaries of both primary and secondary sources

Typically will reference you back to the primary or secondary sources

A good place to start research to get an overview of a subject

Encyclopedias

Handbooks

C. Documentary and Non-documentary sources of information

I. Documentary sources of information. These are generally published or recorded
documents of knowledge. Documentary sources can be also grouped in to:

Primary sources of information are the first published records of

original research and development or description of new application or
new interpretation of an old theme or idea. There are original
documents representing unfiltered original ideas.

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Secondary sources of information are those which are either compiled

from or refer to primary sources of information. The original
information having been casually modified selected or reorganized so
as to serve a definite purpose for group of users. Such sources contain
information arranged and organized on the basis of some definite plan.
These contain organized repackaged knowledge rather than new
knowledge.

Tertiary Sources of information. This is the most problematic category

of all. However, people rarely expected to differentiate between
secondary and tertiary sources. Materials in which the information from
secondary sources has been digested- reformatted and condensed, to put
it into a convenient, easy to read form. Sources which are once
removed in time from secondary sources and works which index,
organize and compile citations to, and show you how to use, secondary
sources.

II.

Non-documentary sources information: are live sources which are

extremely important in the process of communication. It provides information
instantly and it is very easy to handle. The main disadvantage of non
documentary sources of information is that it involves high cost when distance
between the people is large and that it also demands the use of highly
sophisticated techniques i.e. computer system, video conference, telephone
etc. It includes research organizations, societies, industries, government
establishment, departments, learned and professional bodies, universities,
technological institutions, etc.

7. Information Life Cycle

There are different information life cycle used by several scholars and institutions. The
most commonly used information lifecycle includes five distinct phases. These are:
creation, retention, maintenance, use and disposal.

12

1. Creation: When creating information in the first instance, the following should be
adhered to, the information must be:

To enable a reconstruction of activities or events that have taken place;

The information must be located and displayed in a way consistent with its
initial use and that the current version is clearly identified where multiple
versions exist;

The context of the information must be clear and be able to be interpreted

appropriately, i.e. who created or added to the record and when, during which
business process and how the record is related to other records;

The information must reliably represent the initial data that was actually used
in, or created by, the business process whilst maintaining its integrity. The
authenticity must be demonstrable and the content relevant;

The information must be secure from unauthorized or inadvertent alteration or

erasure. Access and disclosure must be properly controlled and audit trails
used to track all use and changes. The information must be held in a robust
format which remains readable for as long as the information is
required/retained;

For reasons of organizational efficiency, or in order to address problems with

storage, consideration should be given of the option of scanning into
electronic format, records which currently exist in paper format.

2. Retention: The retention period varies dependant on the type of information

being stored. The information must be relevant, fit for the purpose it was intended
and only retained for as long as it is genuinely required.

3. Maintenance: All information needs to be maintainable through time. The

qualities of availability, accessibility, interpretation and trustworthiness must be
maintained for as long as the information is needed, perhaps permanently, despite
changes in the format. The use of standardized filenames and version control
methods should be applied consistently throughout the life of the information.

13

4. Use: All information must be used consistently, only for the intentions for which
it was intended and never for an individual employees personal gain or purpose.

Disclosure. Only the specific information required should be disclosed to

authorized parties and always in accordance and with strict adherence to the
existing rules and regulation.

Transfer. The mechanisms for transferring information from one

organization to another should also be tailored to the sensitivity of the
material contained within the records and the media on which they are held.

Closure Information held in records should be closed (i.e. made inactive

and transferred to secondary storage) as soon as they have ceased to be in
active use other than for reference purposes.

5. Disposal. Data disposal involves the appropriate removal or archiving of data that
is no longer required to meet statutory requirements, support business or
operational requirements. It is particularly important under freedom of
information legislation that the disposal of records, which is defined as the point
in their lifecycle when they are either transferred to an archive or destroyed, is
undertaken in accordance with clearly established policies which have been
formally adopted by the trust and which are enforced by properly trained and
authorized staff.

Disposed of appropriately - using consistent and documented retention and

disposal procedures, which include provision for appraisal and the permanent
preservation of information with archival value. Information lifecycle
management is the responsibility of all staff and therefore managers are
responsible for ensuring weeding exercises to review information held within
departments are undertaken on a regular basis.

Destroyed appropriately records can contain sensitive or confidential

information. It is therefore vital that confidentiality is safeguarded at every
stage and that the method used to destroy records is fully effective and secures
their complete illegibility and inability to be reconstructed. Any records that

14

have been identified for destruction must be destroyed as soon as possible

after they are eligible.

8. Information Resource Management (IRM)

8.1.Concepts of IRM
Information Resource Management is a managerial discipline which views information as
a resource equal to financial, physical, human, and natural resources. It addresses the
efficient and effective handling of information resources (raw data) and the resulting
information assets (knowledge). Information Resource Management means the planning,
budgeting, organizing, directing, training, promoting, controlling, and management
activities associated with the burden, collection, creation, use, and dissemination of
information

by

agencies

or

organizations.

It

deals

with

the

acquisition

of information from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that
information to those who need it, and its ultimate disposition through archiving or
deletion.

This cycle of organizational involvement with information involves a variety

of stakeholders:

for

example

those

who

are

responsible

for

assuring

the quality, accessibility and utility of acquired information, those who are responsible
for its safe storage and disposal, and those who need it for decision making. Stakeholders
might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to
organizational information management policies. Information management can also be
seen as the conscious process by which information is gathered and used to assist in
decision making at all levels of the organization

Information Management (IM) is the means by which an organization seeks to maximize

the efficiency with which it plans, collects, organizes, uses, controls, stores, disseminates,
and disposes of its Information, and through which it ensures that the value of that
information is identified and exploited to the maximum extent possible (Oracle, 2013).
Information management has been defined as the application of management principles
to the acquisition, organization, control, dissemination, and use of information, and is

15

ultimately concerned with the value, quality, and use of information to improve
organizational performance (Wilson, 2003). Information management practices: the
capability to manage information effectively over the life cycle of information use,
including sensing, collecting, organizing, processing and maintaining information.

Information resource management embraces all the generic concepts of management,

including: planning, organizing, structuring, processing,

controlling,

evaluation

and

reporting of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of
those with organizational roles or functions that depend on information.

8.2. Importance of IRM

Some of the most important relevance of information resources management in
organizations: to control the in and out flow of information; to reduce operating costs; to
improve efficiency and productivity; to assimilate new information management
technologies; to ensure regulatory compliance; to minimize litigation risks; to safeguard
vital information; to support better management decision making; to preserve the
institutional memory and to foster professionalism in running the organizational
activities.

8.3. Evolution of IRM

Information resource management was evolved around 1960s. Many bits of gathered
information were put together to form a corpus of knowledge which can be used today
for any organized human activity in need of it. Regarding determining the very beginning
of IRM and its evolutionary path/researchers still there are uncertainty. There is no firm
evidence as to who might have been the pioneer in using the term 'information resource
management'. Some authors, such as Hoxie and M. (1976) claim that they have coined
the term information resource management (IRM) as a phrase "for an organizational
approach that encompasses all corporate information resources". They regarded IRM as
the first hot button facing management at that time and it appeared to them that IRM had
far reaching longer-term implications.

16

The inception of information resource management, as has been the case with many other
concepts, was not just a pure coincidence. It was rather an outcome of a set of events
which preceded it and influenced its beginning. An analysis suggests that there are at
least three events which, when combined together, triggered the inception of IRM. These
main events are information explosion; proliferation of paper; and extensive use of
information handling technologies.

Information explosion or 'information pollution' as Horton (1979) likes to call it, is an

important development of the twentieth century which brought many changes to the way
we perceive the world around us. (At the beginning, computer specialists preferred to call
it 'data explosion'). Tremendous quantity of information unfortunately does not satisfy, on
its own, the need for information, and does not solve problems; in fact it brings some new
challenges. The most implicit are economic storage, efficient retrieval, and effective use
of such a mountain of information. It is a paradox that there are difficulties in finding the
right information when living and working in a flood of information. It appears that the
critical piece of information is always somewhere else; it is missing when needed it the
most. There is an obvious need for a well organized retrieval system which will allow
someone to quickly find exactly what he/she wants. This a system has, therefore, to meet
at least two objectives such as to bring us the information that we are looking for, not
something else instead; and to bring the required information fast, it has to be a time
saving device which will be appealing and easy to use.

The second event which influenced the appearance of IRM is closely related to the above
mentioned information explosion. It is the proliferation of paper. Most information is still
stored in paper form. Statistically consumption of writing and printing paper today is very
high even per a day. This tremendous amount of paper files and paper documents still
available almost everywhere, lead us to at least two related conclusions. We have an
obligation to direct our attention to our own paper records. The fact that we are still living
in a 'paper world' should not limit our thinking to the present 'state of the art'. This
situation should be improved and changed through the application of new and presently
available technology, such as computers, networks, imaging. Still, it is better to

17

concentrate on ways to organize efficiently this 'pile of paper files' while reducing its
quantity and increasing its usefulness. Obviously IRM, with its objectives of economic
sharing and pooling of information resources towards a common goal, comes as a way
out of this paper tunnel.

The third event which helped to bring about IRM, was the extensive use of information
handling technologies, mainly computers and telecommunications. In his book The Third
Toffler (1980) suggested that the world will never be the same after the computer
revolution. The 'information civilization' which came after the industrial revolution (the
second wave) brought us some dramatic changes. Every single aspect of society was
affected. It changed the way we organize business and governmental affairs, run the
economy, plan agriculture, and changes in our social and cultural lives followed. The
computer technology offered an opportunity to reorganize our activities, such as the way
we store, retrieve and process information. It was left to people to start exploiting this
new opportunity. The attention of human minds switched from tangible resources such as
raw materials, equipment, property, finance, energy and labour, to some more elusive
resources such as information and knowledge. Hundreds and hundreds of books and
articles were written with one goal in common - to explain the way people can benefit
from the new concept of information handling based on powerful computer technology.
Management of information resources, using the great capabilities of computers to store,
retrieve and process information, became the main topic for many researchers and
information scientists.

8.4.Barriers to IRM
Ineffective information resources management (IRM) often results in massive cost
overruns, long schedule delays, and systems that do not perform as intended and do not
improve an agencys ability to fulfill its mission. Some other barriers that affect IRM are:

Lack of well-defined IRM concepts

Lack of IRM training/awareness

Lack of ability to attract and retain skilled people

Lack of a strategic management process

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Lack of management focus on IRM

Lack of effective management of the system development life cycle

Lack of accountability and incentives

Lack of performance measures

Lack of authority to implement IRM throughout an organization

Lack of long-term budget

Lack of agreement on objectives

9. Information Assets of an Organization

An information asset is a body of information resources, defined and managed as a single
unit so it can be understood, shared, protected and exploited effectively. Information
assets have recognizable and manageable value, risk, content and lifecycles. Like some
other intangible assets, a distinguishing feature of information assets over conventional
assets is that, although they can depreciate over time if not maintained, they are not
depleted by use. The marginal cost of exploiting them may be very low. This is an
important reason why intangibles can be so valuable.

9.1.Types of Information Asset

There are a number of information assets that were consistently identified across
organizations. Some of these information assets are:

Customer Information

Competitor Information

Product Information

Process Information

Management Information,

Human Resource Information

Supplier Information

Legal and regulatory information

Institutional information

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9.2.Attributes of Information Asset

A literature review was undertaken to identify the attributes of information as an asset.
Many of the attributes which have appeared in the literature over the years are
summarized by Repo (1986) as follows:

Information is human. It exists only through human perception;

Information is expandable. The free flow of information maximises its use;

Information is compressible;

Information is substitutable. It may save money by substituting the use of other

resources;

Information is easily transportable by using applications of new information

technology;

Information is diffusable. It tends to leak though we try to contain it;

Information is shareable; giving it away does not mean losing it (Repo, 1986).

9.3.Techniques of Managing Information Assets

Skyrme (1999) outline the following points as techniques for managing information as an
asset to the organization:A. Understand the role of Information
Information can add value to your products and services. Improved information flows can
improve the quality of decision making and internal operations. Yet many managers do
not fully understand the real impact of information - the cost of a lost opportunity, of a
poor product, of a strategic mistake - all risks that can be reduced by using the
appropriate information.

B. Assign responsibility for leading your IRM initiative

Developing value from information resources is often a responsibility that falls between
the cracks of several departments - the user departments in different business units, and
corporate planning, MIS units or librarians.

20

C. Develop clear policies on information resources

Policies for ascertaining information needs, acquiring and managing information
throughout its life cycle. Pay particular attention to ownership, information integrity and
sharing. Make the policies consistent with your organizational culture.

D. Conduct an information audit

Identify current knowledge and information resources (or entities), their users, usage and
importance. Identify sources, cost and value. Classify information and knowledge by its
key attributes. Develop knowledge maps. As knowledge management gains prominence,
this is sometimes called a knowledge inventory "knowing what you know".

E. Link to management processes

Make sure that key decision and other management process are supported with high
leverage information. Assess each process for its information needs.

F. Systematic scanning
Systematically assess your organizational environment. This includes the wider
environment - legal and regulatory, political, social, economic and technological - as well
as the inner environment of your industry, markets, customers and competitors. Provide
selective and tailored dissemination of vital signs to key executives. This goes beyond the
daily abstracting service provided by many suppliers.

G. Mix hard/soft, internal/external

True patterns and insights emerge when internal and external data is juxtaposed, when
hard data is evaluated against qualitative analysis. Doing these comparisons leads to
reach on valuable information.

H. Optimize your information purchases

You don't have to control purchasing, but most organisations do not know how much
they are really spending on external information. By treating consultancy, market

21

research, library expenses, report and databases as separate categories, many

organizations are confusing media with content.

I. Introduce mining and refining processes

Good information management involves 'data mining', 'information refining' and
'knowledge editing'. You can use technology such as intelligent agents, to help, but
ultimately subject matter experts are needed to repackage relevant material in a user
friendly format. One useful technique is content analysis, which is being used in analysis
information contents. The classifying, synthesizing and refining of information combines
the crafts of the information scientist, librarian, education experts, economists, business
analyst and market researcher/analyst. Yet many organizations do not integrate these
disciplines.

J. Develop appropriate technological systems

Continual advances in technology increase the opportunities available for competitive
advantage through effective information management. In particular, intranets, groupware
and other collaborative technologies make it possible for more widespread sharing and
collaborative use of information. Advances in text retrieval, document management and a
host of other trends in knowledge management technologies have all created new
opportunities for providers and users alike.

K. Exploit technology convergence

Telecommunications, office systems, publishing, documentation are converging. Exploit
this convergence through open networking, using facilities such as the World Wide Web,
not just for external information dissemination but for sharing information internally.

L. Encourage a sharing culture

Information acquires value when turned into intelligence. Raw information needs
interpretation, discussing and analyzing teams of experts, offering different perspectives.
This know-how sharing is a hall-mark of successful organizations.

22

10. Information Literacy

The basic definition of literacy is the condition of being literate according to the
Chambers English Dictionary (2003). Information literacy is a set of abilities requiring
individuals to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate,
evaluate, and use effectively the needed information. Information literacy is knowing
when and why you need information, where to find it, and how to evaluate, use and
communicate it in an ethical manner. To be information literate, a person must be able to
recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use
effectively the needed information.

Information literacy is the ability to identify what information is needed, understand how
the information is organized, identify the best sources of information for a given need,
locate those sources, evaluate the sources critically, and share that information. It is the
knowledge of commonly used research techniques. Moreover, information literacy is the
set of skills needed to find, retrieve, analyze, and use information.

Information literacy is critically important because we are surrounded by a growing

ocean of information in all formats. Not all information is created equal: some is
authoritative, current, reliable, but some is biased, out of date, misleading, and false. The
amount of information available is going to keep increasing. The types of technology
used to access, manipulate, and create information will likewise expand. It has become
increasingly clear that students cannot learn everything they need to know in their field of
study in a few years of college. Information literacy (IL) equips them with the critical
skills necessary to become independent lifelong learners.

Information literacy, in its central features, has always been influenced and determined
by the current information environment. The concept itself appeared partly as the result
of a growing heterogeneity and complexity of information, information resources and
information structures. With the growth of complexity of various information resources
the need for emphasizing evaluation, critical awareness and selection became more
evident and thus enabled the rise of information literacy. It is a critical skills to become

23

lifelong learners, including the abilities to: (1) determine the extent of information
needed; (2) access the needed information effectively and efficiently; (3) evaluate
information and its sources critically; (4) incorporate selected information into ones
knowledge base; (5) use information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose; and (6)
understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information, as
well as access and use information ethically and legally (ACRL, 2000).

In summary, information literacy is assumed to be the knowledge and skills necessary to

correctly identify information needed to perform a specific task or solve a problem, costefficiently search for information, organize or reorganize it, interpret and analyze it once
it is found and retrieved (e.g. downloaded), evaluate the accuracy and reliability of the
information, including ethically acknowledging the sources from whence it was obtained,
communicate and present the results of analyzing and interpreting it to others if
necessary, and then utilize it for achieving actions and results.

11. Education Management Information system

11.1.

Definition of EMIS

The acronym EMIS stands for "Educational Management Information System". By

definition an EMIS is an organized group of information and documentation services that
collects, stores, processes, analyzes and disseminates information for educational
planning and management.

It is a collection of component parts that include inputs processes outputs and feed backs
that are integrated to achieve a specific objective. It is a system for managing a large
body of data and information that can be readily retrieved, processed, analyzed, and made
available for use and dissemination. It is a tool that uses systems theory, together with
developments in computerization, to create a comprehensive approach to the collection
and use of vast quantities of information on the education and training system. As the
potential users of data, managers are systematically provided with accurate and timely
information so that decision-making, planning, project development and other
management functions and operations can be carried out effectively. It is therefore

24

imperative that all educational managers and programme implementers be conscious and
capable of performing or managing their information systems either manually or with
computers. The latter is preferred considering the new knowledge and power of the
information age.

An Education Management Information System is a data collection, storage, retrieval,

processing and dissemination system that is specifically designed for use by decision
makers and administrators to plan and manage education systems in an efficient, effective
and sustainable manner.

An Education Management Information System (EMIS) is a system for the collection,

integration, processing, maintenance and dissemination of data and information to
support decision making, policy-analysis and formulation, planning, monitoring and
management at all levels of an education system. It is a system of people, technology,
models, methods, processes, procedures, rules and regulations that function together to
provide education leaders, decision makers and managers at all levels with a
comprehensive, integrated set of relevant, reliable, unambiguous, and timely data and
information to support them in completion of their responsibilities.

11.2.

The purposes of EMIS

The main purpose of an EMIS is to integrate information related to the management of

educational activities, and to make it available in comprehensive yet succinct ways to a
variety of users. These include teachers, principals, curriculum planners, inspectorate
officials, financial controllers, planners, policy advisers and political leaders, as well as
parents and students. In this way, the combined information resources of the EMIS are at
the service of the entire community.

The overall concept of an EMIS has given to the following purposes:

1. To improve capacities in data processing, storage, analysis and supply of
educational information so that education planners and administrators can avail
themselves of reliable and timely data

25

2. To co-ordinate and further improve dispersed efforts in the acquisition,

processing, storage, transmission, analysis, repackaging, dissemination and use of
educational information.
3. To facilitate and promote the use of relevant information by various agencies and
individuals at all levels for more effective educational planning implementation
and management
4. To streamline the flow of information for decision-making by reducing and
eliminating duplications as well as filling information gaps
5. To provide information for policy dialogue and scenarios for development of the
education system

11.3.

The Components of EMIS

Typical Education Management Information Systems comprise three interrelated

components:
The organizational unit, people, networks, hardware and software that are set up
to collect, organize, produce, manage and disseminate educational data in support
of policy making, planning, resource allocation, research, monitoring and
evaluation. Such a unit is often located within the Ministry of Education either as
a standalone department or attached to a larger entity such as a planning
department.
A formalized and integrated operational process, procedure and partnership
arrangement between the key stakeholders that are involved in teaching, learning
and administration of educational systems. EMIS is a process by which data and
information about schools, learning, facilities, teachers and students is integrated
from

multiple

sources

and

disseminated

throughout

the

educational

establishments.
A culture and environment that facilitates data-driven decision making and that in
turn promotes sustainable demand for information and knowledge sharing.

26

Expected Information obtained from EMIS

Some of the expected information obtained from EMIS includes;
(1) Demographic information
(2) Literacy information
(3) School-related information

(7) Socio-economics information

(8) Financial and budgetary information
(9) Labor force and human resource information

(4) Institutional information

(10) Infrastructure information

(5) Community information

(11) Curriculum information

(6) On-going programme information

11.4.

(12) Documentation facilities information

The changing functions of EMIS

A key question facing government and decision makers, especially in the light of
increased competition and resource constraints, is how to maximize individual learning
opportunities and encourage human capital formation using minimal resources. In order
to achieve these objectives decision makers must understand how resources are translated
into learning outcomes, particularly with regard to the efficiency and effectiveness of
existing processes. EMIS can play an important part in these processes by providing
analysts and decision makers with the information to understand how educational inputs
are transformed into educational outputs. Access to quality and timely data can improve
decision-making and ensure that resources are targeted at areas in most need and where
returns will be highest. Conversely, a lack of education data can act as a constraint on
decision-making and lead to poor resource use.

However, it is important to understand that the demands for information are not static or
limited to measuring certain variables. Policy makers are under pressure to respond to
new policy demands and it is important that they have the appropriate information to
make informed decisions. EMIS must respond to such demands and those working in this
area must understand how this impacts on the demands for information, particularly in
relation to the following:

i.

Changes in the nature and objectives of education policy Until recently, EMIS
was primarily concerned with providing information on education inputs, such as

27

the number of schools, enrolment levels and the number of teachers. However, as a
result of the recent drive towards increased transparency, combined with the need to
demonstrate value for money, information systems are increasingly required to
produce more complex information about educational processes and outputs,
resource utilisation, the effectiveness of new learning techniques and the
responsiveness of existing provision. The demand for more analytical information
has been given momentum following EFA and MDG commitments which require
countries to gather data which measures equity and quality across schools in
different regions.

ii.

Decentralization of education provision In the past, EMIS provided information

to support planning processes at the national level. However, with the process of
educational decentralization across the world, regional and district offices
increasingly require disaggregated data in order to formulate their own
operational plans and to develop budgets for their implementation. Similarly,
schools require improved administrative data and improved record-keeping in
order to manage resources in a more transparent, effective and efficient manner.

iii.

The growth of private schools During the 1980s and 1990s the majority of
education data focused on public sector provision. However, over the past 10
years there has been an expansion in the number of private or non-governmental
organizations involved in educational provision, yet limited information has been
collected on this area. The extent of growth of non-governmental and private
schools should not be underestimated; analysts argue that in some countries nongovernmental provision amounts to over 50% of all primary and secondary
education (Chapman & MahlkcK, 1997). Failure to record such information could
undermine the legitimacy of existing information systems and result in Ministries
of Education becoming Public Ministries of Education (Haiyan & Herstein,
2003).

28

iv.

Civil Society Over the past decades, the movement towards democratic societies
and widespread market reforms have increased the pressure on all public
institutions to provide more accurate records on resource allocation. This is
particularly evident in the field of education, where parents are expecting more
from their schools in terms of effectiveness and results. Pressure also comes from
community groups, who demand increased accountability and transparency in
education spending and management. Ministries of Education are normally
responsible for helping to define ways of measuring performance and resource
utilization, as well as for putting in place the appropriate systems for
understanding transparency and accountability.

v.

The movement towards using qualitative data Quantitative data helps analysts
and policy makers understand progress towards achieving targets or pre-defined
objectives. However, quantitative data does not explain why difficulties were
experienced in achieving a particular target or exploring the context in which
learning takes place. EMIS must therefore evolve to capture complementary
qualitative information.

vi.

Transition of young people onto the labor market Demands are also being
placed on EMIS to help measure the performance and appropriateness of existing
education provision in helping young people find employment. This stems from
attempts to introduce vocational subjects into the school curriculum and the
demands from parents that education provides their children with the skills to
obtain productive employment. Increasingly, it will become important for
policymakers to understand what happens to young people once they have
completed their compulsory education, especially in the light of the increased
access to primary education as result of EFA.

vii.

Need for information from other education sectors Other sectors of education,
including non-formal and higher education, also require timely and accurate
information for planning purposes. For instance, in the case of higher education,

29

countries need to know the efficiency of a particular programme measured as the

degree to which it is helping young people obtain employment.

11.5.

Design and Development Stages of the EMIS

There is a need for Government and the private sector to coordinate data collection
activities to minimize duplication and overlap and to maximize the impact of the data
collection results. A comprehensive EMIS will assist in this process. Managing education
through informed decision-making requires the availability of accurate and timely
information which links together resource inputs to education teaching and learning
conditions and processes and appropriate indicators of the knowledge acquired by
students. In some countries the widespread use of information based decision-making has
resulted in more effective and efficient planning and the identification of new information
needs.

In others however failure to supply information that is timely and reliable has contributed
to management inefficiencies and reluctance on the part of decision-makers to use
information. Some Ministers of Education know that data collection does not function
properly and thus they do not trust it. This is also true of other senior decision-makers in
education and other ministries.

The description and activities for each stage area likewise presented as follows:
First stage: definition of the national development goals; statement of mission and
objectives of the education system; and setting short and long-range targets. These are
usually reflected in the national development plan of the country. From these goals, the
national objectives of education are formulated to synchronize with the national vision
for development in a given time frame. The mandates of the Constitution on education
and other relevant educational legislation have to be carefully reviewed with reference to
the development of the management information system.

Second stage: policy decision for purposes of implementation and monitoring. The
resources needed to establish the EMIS are identified at this stage of the development. It

30

is critical to determine the appropriate manpower to operate the system, the cost of
services and activities, the overall structure, the timetable of activities and the overall
strategies of implementation.

Third stage: identification of data needs and requirements. The necessary data needed to
support the various measures in determining the attainment of the objectives of the
system shall be carefully identified through consultations with the different sectors, and
key officials, school administrators and other potential data users. This will ensure that
the data requirements and needs of the policy and decision-makers and other key users
are taken care of while at the same time minimizing overloads of unnecessary data. The
specific purpose and use of these data shall be made clear at this stage of the process.

Fourth stage: establishment of databases. A database is an integrated collection of data

and information, organized and stored in a manner that facilitates retrieval. Both manual
and computer based databases determine the nature of the files or the filing system.
Proper labeling of these databases and the corresponding data elements is necessary for
easy viewing and access to the hard/printed copies. The label is patterned after the cluster
of similar data or related to the major component of the programme: students, teachers,
curriculum, finances, physical facilities and equipment, and others.

Fifth stage: design of monitoring/data gathering forms. These forms are designed to
capture the required and needed data identified during the third stage of development.
The designer of the questionnaire has the option to choose the appropriate modes and
channels of collecting data from various sources. Forms are pilot-tested to ensure that the
instructions, data definitions and data elements requested are understood by the data
providers before these forms are administered on a wider or national scale.

Sixth stage: data and information collection. A Manual of Operation has to be prepared
to spell out the essential information about data collection in terms of the objectives the
schedule of activities, guidelines for conducting the survey/data gathering, the duties and
responsibilities of the monitors/ surveyors and supervisors, the specific instructions on

31

how to administer the questionnaire including definition of terms, and the collection or
submission of completed questionnaire forms. It is also at this stage that training takes
place for those who will be involved in data gathering activities both at the national and
sub-national levels for purposes of uniformity and common terms of reference.

Seventh stage: data processing. A system of data verification and control procedures
should be applied before processing takes place. These forms are verified as to the
accuracy and consistency of the data entries. All data elements are coded according to the
system designed by the programmer. A training session may take place at this stage to
train data encoders/data entry operators to interpret instructions, define data elements and
apply software in uniform ways. The specifications of the reports to be generated from
the processed data are also defined at this stage.

Eighth stage: data dissemination and report generation. The packaging of these data into
statistical bulletins, reports, profiles and others will help facilitate the dissemination and
use of the data by the users. At the national level, the Ministers, legislators, the members
of Cabinets/ Parliaments and heads of international bodies need this information for
policy making, legislation, programme development and other national concerns. The
middle-level managers, including bureaucrats, need it for organization and control,
project implementation, budget preparation, programming, monitoring and evaluation. At
the operational level, coordinators, local organizations/ units and desk offices need
information for their day-to-day operations, supervision, reporting, action planning, and
advocacy and mobilization activities. The general public, such as the business sector the
community, the professionals, the students, the media and academic or educational
institutions are considered interest groups for data consumption and information users
who participate in sustaining the development process.

Ninth stage: evaluation of the output. The ultimate end of an EMIS is to produce
relevant and timely information of good quality. Towards this end, an evaluation
mechanism should be designed to identify the strengths and shortcomings encountered in

32

the development and operation of the EMIS. The results of the evaluation process are the
basis for the strengthening of the system.

11.6.

Challenges Facing EMIS Deployment

Notwithstanding the progress in technology and tools, EMIS development in Africa faces
a considerable challenge in graduating from a minimalist approach towards decentralized
and integrated data exchange at all levels using web, GIS and wireless tools. As stated,
EMIS was largely donor driven, thus there is limited progress in promoting organic
capability in collection, management and use of educational data. The deployment of
EMIS lacks sustained funding and financing models especially the contribution from
schools and districts to financing their own data gathering and dissemination.

The limited involvement of policy makers and users in the design of EMIS is
compounded by lack of political will and sustained support from decision makers. The
lack of coordination and shared vision between various stakeholders (horizontally
between ministries and agencies and vertically between schools, districts, regions and
federal ministries) means EMIS development has remained ad hoc and often left to the
ministry of education EMIS unit and school principals who gather and send data on an
annual basis. Consequently EMIS data is often incomplete and inaccurate. Other
challenges include:
Inadequate clarity between the mandate of ministries of education and statistical
offices in collection, managing and dissemination of EMIS data;
Tendency to view EMIS as a threat by some teachers and principals and very low
level of enthusiasm for its implementation;
Absence of policy and regulatory frameworks that address the legal requirements
of all education and training institutions to provide timely and accurate data;
Difficulties in integrating data from multiple sources and multiple years due to
lack of harmonized and interoperable coding of key educational variables;
Absence or unreliable data on private education sector;

33

Absence of tertiary, pre-primary and non-formal education data and other data
including data on finances and resources; and
Lack of multiple data dissemination strategies.

There has also been a tendency to overemphasize technical issues rather than
organizational and capacity issues including literacy of users and information providers.
While it is often easier to roll out the technology and database, actual data collection and
integration remains tedious and difficult. Most countries face high EMIS staff turnover
and skill shortages in advanced web-based content management systems, data
aggregation, indicators development and analysis. Moreover, the availability of a wide
range of tools poses significant interoperability problems. Other technical challenges
include:
Data conversion from historic records to new web-based interactive
environments,
Limited capacity to utilize modern distributed web-based tools and apply business
intelligence tools to make sense out of the data,
Limited connectivity to the Internet and absence of broadband networks at
schools and district level, in particular in the remote areas that have not been able
to access to modern communication networks.

Generally, the diversified problems affecting the effective utilization of Education

Management Information System in turn seriously harming the overall performance of
education system.

34

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