CHAPTER 1: Minerals

What do all minerals have in common?

All minerals:
1. occur naturally
2. are inorganic.
3. are solid.
4. are elements or compounds with a unique chemical
makeup
5. are made up of particles that are arranged in a pattern
that is repeated over and over (called a CRYSTAL)
What is a Mineral?
A mineral is any naturally-occurring, inorganic solid that has a definite chemical
composition and a distinctive internal crystal structure.
Mineral Groups
Mineral Group
Silicates

Non-Silicates

Characteristics
Contain oxygen
& silicon
The most
abundant
group of
minerals

Examples
Quartz, mica

Make up only
5% of the
Earths crust
Include some of
the most
important
minerals

iron, copper, gold,

silver, diamonds,
rubies

Carbonates

Carbon &
oxygen and a
positive ion,
such as calcium

Calcite (CaCO3)

Oxides

Metallic ion and

oxygen

Hematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4

Sulfides

Halides

Sulfur and a
metallic ion
Halogens

Pyrite (FeS2)
Galena (PbS)
Fluorite (CaF2)
Halite (NaCl)

Minerals are
grouped by
the
elements
they are
made of.

Emer
ald

Calci
te
Amet
hyst

Barite on Calcite BaSo4 / CaCO3

Barite BaSo4
Physical Properties of Minerals
(can be used to identify the mineral)
Color
Can be misleading
Can vary with the type of impurities
Crystal form
external expression of a minerals internal orderly arrangement of
atoms.
Luster

Surface reflection
metallic = shiny like metal
nonmetallic = dull, non-shiny surface

Streak

The color of the powdered form of the mineral

Minerals must be softer than the streak plate
The streak is constant for different samples of the same mineral.

Streakcan help identify quartz

Hardness
The resistance of a mineral to being scratched or its ability to scratch other
minerals.
Mohs Hardness Scale
Scale from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest)
Tested by using different objects (like human fingernail, copper, penny, glass,
steel file)

Cleavage & Fracture

Cleavage tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding
Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface
Specific gravity
~collates the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal
volume of water.
(If 1 cubic centimeter of a mineral weighs three (3) times as much as an
equal volume of water, its specific gravity is 3.)

Other Properties
Attraction to magnets
Bending of light
Reaction with hydrochloric acid

 Smell & taste

What is a gem?
A mineral or rock that is RARE and has a VALUE
Mineral Resources
Reserves
~ pre-identified deposits from which minerals can be extracted
profitably
~ deposits that are not yet recoverable under present economic
conditions or technology
Ore
~ useful metallic minerals can be mined at a profit
What is a Rock?
Naturally-occurring mixture of minerals, mineraloids, glass or
organic matter.
Rocks are divided into 3 groups based on how they are formed:
IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
What is the difference between a rock and a mineral?
ROCKS are made up of one or more MINERALS.
Igneous rocks are also formed when volcanoes erupt, causing the magma
to rise above the earth's surface. When magma appears above the earth, it is
called lava. Igneous rocks are formed as the lava cools above ground.
Rocks that form when lava solidifies are called volcanic or extrusive
igneous rocks while those that formed by some magma that cooled beneath
the ground are called plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks.
Andesite is a fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase
with other minerals such as hornblende, pyroxene and biotite. The specimen shown
is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Basalt is a fine-grained, dark-colored extrusive igneous rock composed mainly of
plagioclase and pyroxene. The specimen shown is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.
Diorite is a coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock that contains a mixture of
feldspar, pyroxene, hornblende and sometimes quartz. The specimen shown above
is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark colored, intrusive igneous rock that contains
feldspar, augite and sometimes olivine. The specimen shown above is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
Granite is a coarse-grained, light colored, intrusive igneous rock that contains
mainly quartz and feldspar minerals. The specimen above is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.

Obsidian is a dark-colored volcanic glass that forms from the very rapid cooling of
molten rock material. It cools so rapidly that crystals do not form. The specimen
shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Pegmatite is a light-colored, extremely coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock. It
forms near the margins of a magma chamber during the final phases of magma
chamber crystallization. It often contains rare minerals that are not found in other
parts of the magma chamber. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.
Peridotite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that is composed almost
entirely of olivine. It may contain small amounts of amphibole, feldspar, quartz or
pyroxene. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Pumice is a light-colored vesicular igneous rock. It forms through very rapid
solidification of a melt. The vesicular texture is a result of gas trapped in the melt at
the time of solidification. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.
Rhyolite is a light-colored, fine-grained, extrusive igneous rock that typically
contains quartz and feldspar minerals. The specimen shown above is about two
inches (five centimeters) across.
Scoria is a dark-colored, vesicular, extrusive igneous rock. The vesicles are a result
of trapped gas within the melt at the time of solidification. It often forms as a frothy
crust on the top of a lava flow or as material ejected from a volcanic vent and
solidifying while airborne. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.
Earths external process:
Weathering disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near Earths surface.
Mass wasting transfer of rock material downslope under the influence of gravity.
Erosion incorporation and transportation of material by a mobile agent usually
water, wind, or ice.
When rocks are exposed at the surface of Earth, they undergo weathering, in
which the day-in and day-out influences of the atmosphere slowly disintegrate and
decompose the rock. The resulting material is picked up, transported, and deposited
by various erosional agents gravity, running water, glaciers, wind, or waves.
Once this material, called sediment, is deposited, usually as horizontal beds in the
ocean, it undergoes lithification, a term meaning conversion into rock. Sediment
becomes lithified when it is compacted by the weight of overlying layers or when it
is cemented as percolating groundwater fills pore spaces in the sediment with
mineral matter. The result is sedimentary rock.
Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock that is composed of large (over two millimeter
diameter) angular fragments. The spaces between the large fragments can be filled
with a matrix of smaller particles or a mineral cement which binds the rock together.
The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Chert is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock material composed
of silicon dioxide (SiO2). It occurs as nodules and concretionary masses and less

frequently as a layered deposit. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture, often producing

very sharp edges. Early people took advantage of how chert breaks and used it to
fashion cutting tools and weapons. The specimen shown above is about two inches
(five centimeters) across.
Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that forms mainly from plant debris. The plant
debris usually accumulates in a swamp environment. Coal is combustible and is
often mined for use as a fuel. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five
centimeters) across.
Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater then two
millimeters in diameter) rounded particles. The space between the pebbles is
generally filled with smaller particles and/or a chemical cement that binds the rock
together. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Limestone is a rock that is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. It can form
organically from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal and fecal debris. It can also
form chemically from the precipitation of calcium carbonate from lake or ocean
water. Limestone is used in many ways. Some of the most common are: production
of cement, crushed stone and acid neutralization. The specimen shown above is
about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock made up mainly of sand-size (1/16 to 2
millimeter diameter) weathering debris. Environments where large amounts of sand
can accumulate include beaches, deserts, flood plains and deltas. The specimen
shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Shale is a clastic sedimentary rock that is made up of clay-size (less then 1/256
millimeter in diameter) weathering debris. It typically breaks into thin flat pieces.
The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Siltstone is a clastic sedimentary rock that forms from silt-size (between 1/256 and
1/16 millimeter diameter) weathering debris. The specimen shown above is about
two inches (five centimeters) across.
Agents of Metamorphism:
Heat provides the energy to drive chemical reactions that result in the
recrystallization of minerals.
Pressure force per unit area.
Chemically active fluids enhance the metamorphic process, most commonly
water containing ions in solution.
Amphibolite is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock that forms through recrystallization
under conditions of high viscosity and directed pressure. It is composed primarily of
amphibole and plagioclase, usually with very little quartz. The specimen shown
above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock that has a banded appearance and is made up
of granular mineral grains. It typically contains abundant quartz or feldspar
minerals. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Hornfels is a fine-grained nonfoliated metamorphic rock with no specific
composition. It is produced by contact metamorphism. Hornfels is a rock that was

"baked" while near a heat source such as a magma chamber, sill or dike. The
specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Marble is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the metamorphism
of limestone. It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. The specimen shown
above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-grained
mica. The surface of phyllite is typically lustrous and sometimes wrinkled. It is
intermediate in grade between slate and schist. The specimen shown above is
about two inches (five centimeters across).
Quartzite is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock that is produced by the
metamorphism of sandstone. It is composed primarily of quartz. The specimen
above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Schist is metamorphic rock with well developed foliation. It often contains
significant amounts of mica which allow the rock to split into thin pieces. It is a rock
of intermediate metamorphic grade between phyllite and gneiss. The specimen
shown above is a "chlorite schist" because it contains a significant amount of
chlorite. It is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Slate is a foliated metamorphic rock that is formed through the metamorphism of
shale. It is a low grade metamorphic rock that splits into thin pieces. The specimen
shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.
Once a rock is formed, does it stay the same rock forever?
Rocks are continually changed by many processes, such as
weathering, erosion, compaction, cementation, melting, and cooling.
Rocks can change to and from the three types.
What is the process through which rocks change?
The Rock Cycle

CHAPTER 2
Lesson:
Plate Tectonics: A Scientific
Revolution Unfolds
Pangaea approximately 200 million years ago

Continental drift: An idea before its time

Alfred Wegener
First proposed his continental drift hypothesis in 1915
Published The Origin of Continents and Oceans
Continental drift hypothesis
Supercontinent called Pangaea began breaking apart about 200
million years ago

Continental drift: An idea before its time

Continental drift hypothesis
Continents "drifted" to present positions
Evidence used in support of continental drift hypothesis
Fit of the continents
Fossil evidence
Rock type and structural similarities
Paleoclimatic evidence

Matching mountain ranges

The great debate

Objections to the continental drift hypothesis
Lack of a mechanism for moving continents
Wegener incorrectly suggested that continents broke through
the ocean crust, much like ice breakers cut through ice
Strong opposition to the hypothesis from all areas of the
scientific community
Continental drift and the scientific method
Wegeners hypothesis was correct in principle, but contained
incorrect details
A few scientists considered Wegeners ideas plausible and
continued the search
A scientific revolution begins
During the 1950s and 1960s technological strides permitted extensive
mapping of the ocean floor
Seafloor spreading hypothesis was proposed by Harry Hess in the early
1960s
Plate tectonics: The new paradigm
Earths major plates
Associated with Earth's strong, rigid outer layer
Known as the lithosphere consists of uppermost mantle
and overlying crust
Overlies a weaker region in the mantle called the
asthenosphere
Earths major plates
Seven major lithospheric plates

Plates are in motion and continually changing in shape and size

Largest plate is the Pacific plate
Several plates include an entire continent plus a large area of
seafloor

Earths major plates

Plates move relative to each other at a very slow but continuous
rate
About 5 centimeters (2 inches) per year

Cooler, denser slabs of oceanic lithosphere descend into

the mantle
Divergent plate boundaries
Most are located along the crests of oceanic ridges
Oceanic ridges and seafloor spreading
Along well-developed divergent plate boundaries, the seafloor is
elevated forming oceanic ridges
Divergent plate boundary

Mid-oceanic ridges
Convergent plate boundaries
Older portions of oceanic plates are returned to the mantle in these
destructive plate margins
Surface expression of the descending plate is an ocean trench
Also called subduction zones
Average angle of subduction = 45
Oceanic-continental convergence
Denser oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere
Along the descending plate partial melting of mantle rock
generates magma
Resulting volcanic mountain chain is called a continental
volcanic arc (Andes and Cascades)
Oceanic-continental convergence

Convergent plate boundaries

Oceanic-oceanic convergence
When two oceanic slabs converge, one descends
beneath the other
Often forms volcanoes on the ocean floor
If the volcanoes emerge as islands, a volcanic
island arc is formed (Japan, Aleutian islands, Tonga
islands)

Oceanic-oceanic

convergence

Trenches
Convergent plate boundaries
Continental-continental convergence
Continued subduction can bring two continents
together
Less dense, buoyant continental lithosphere does
not subduct
Resulting collision between two continental blocks
produces mountains (Himalayas, Alps,
Appalachians)
Continental-continental

convergence
Transform fault boundaries
Plates slide past one another and no new lithosphere is created or
destroyed
Transform faults

Most join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge along

breaks in the oceanic crust known as fracture zones
A few (the San Andreas fault and the Alpine fault of New
Zealand) cut through continental crust

Transform faults

Plate motions

Forces driving plate motioN

CHAPTER 3 THE EARTHQUAKE

What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of
energy. The energy released radiates in all directions from its source, the
focus, in the form of waves.

Important terms:
Seismology the study of earthquakes and seismic waves.
Seismograph an instrument that records earthquake waves.
Seismogram the record made by a seismograph.
Earthquake waves

Travel through Earths interior and Travel along the

Earths outer layer
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude
Mercalli intensity scale a 12-point scale originally developed to evaluate
earthquake intensity based upon the amount of damage to various types
of structures.
Richter scale a scale of earthquake magnitude based on the motion of a
seismograph.

Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude

Earthquake Distribution Map

Effects of Earthquake

Earthquakes reveal Earths interior!

From seismograms of earthquakes, seismologists accurately measure the
time required for seismic waves to travel from the focus of an earthquake
to a seismographic station.
But the time required for P and S waves to travel through Earth also
depends on the properties of the rock materials encountered.
Layers of the Earth
Crust a very thin
outer layer (5-40 km).
Mantle a rocky layer
(2885 km or 1789 mi)
Outer core a layer
that exhibits the characteristics of a mobile liquid (2270 km or 1407
mi)
Inner core a solid metallic sphere
radius: about 1216 km or 754 mi)
Discovering Earths Structure
By studying seismic records, Andrija Mohorovii found that the velocity
of seismic waves increases abruptly below about 50 kilometers depth.
This boundary separates the crust from the underlying mantle and is
known as

Mohorovii discontinuity.
Discovering Earths Structure
Beno Gutenberg observed that P waves diminish and eventually die out
about 105 degrees around the globe from an earthquake. Then about 140

degrees away, the P waves reappear. The belt where P waves are absent
has been named the shadow zone.
Two important zones:

Asthenosphere consists of hot, weak rock that is easily deformed.

Lithosphere cool, rigid layer, including the crust and the upper mantle.
Stress
u As Earths lithosphere moves, the rock in the crust is squeezed,
stretched, and twisted. These actions exert forces on the rock. The
amount of force that is exerted on each unit of area is called stress.
Stress: Compression
u Compression is the type of stress that squeezes and shortens a body.

Stress: Shear
u Shear distorts a body by pushing parts of the body in opposite
directions.

Strain
u When stress is applied to rock, rock may deform. Any change in the
shape or volume of rock that results from stress is called strain.
Brittle deformation is the fracturing of an object once its strength is
exceeded.
u Ductile deformation is a type of solid state flow that produces a change
in the size and shape of an object without fracturing the object.
Fold

u When rock responds to stress by deforming in a ductile way, folds

commonly form. A fold is a bend in rock layers that results from stress.
Types of Folds
Anticlines are most commonly formed by upfolding, or arching, of
rock layers.
Synclines are downfolds, or troughs, that are usually found in
association with anticlines.
Monoclines are large step-like folds in otherwise horizontal
sedimentary strata.
Block Diagram of Folds

Monocline

Normal Fault
u Normal fault is a fault in which the hanging wall moves downward
relative to the footwall.

Reverse Fault
u Reverse fault forms when compression causes the hanging wall to move
upward relative to the footwall.

Thrust Fault
u Thrust fault is a special type of reverse fault in which the fault plane is
at a low angle or is nearly horizontal.

Strike-Slip Fault
u Strike-slip fault is a fault in which the movement is horizontal and
parallel to the trend, or strike, of the fault surface.

What is a mountain?
Mountains are spectacular features that often rise several hundred
meters or more above the surrounding terrain.
All mountain systems show evidence of enormous forces that have
folded, faulted, and generally deformed large sections of Earths
crust.
Mountain Building
Orogenesis is the collection of processes that result in the forming
of mountains.
Mountains are classified by the dominant processes that have
formed them.
Folded Mountains (formed by folding)

Fault-Block Mountains (formed by large-scale normal faults)

Dome Mountains (formed by uplifting of rock layers by magma)

Volcanic Mountains (formed by eruption of magma onto Earths surface)

Sites of Mountain Building