Introductory Study of Soils

For the Master Gardeners

Wendy Sue Harper, Ph.D.

Vegetable and Fruit TA Advisor
Northeast Organic Farming Association of
Vermont

www.nofavt.org
 What We Will Cover Tonight
• Introduction.
• Ecological agriculture perspective to
understanding the physical, chemical and
biological properties of soil for gardeners.
• Compost basics for home and community
gardeners.
Soil: the Foundation of
Gardening

WSH
 A Plant & Soil
Ecosystem Light
Air
Water, etc

Moisture Pollutants
Temperature
Nutrients
Air
Texture pH

Structure CEC
Microbes,
Earthworms, etc
OM = Organic Matter
 Mi
c ro Nutrients Moisture
be
s

CEC

atter
g an ic M
O r Air

ure
uct
tr
S
Pollutants
ture
Tex
pH
A Simplified Soil Ecosystem
 Soil Fertility is
The ability of a soil to provide a physical,
chemical, and biological environment for
the plant that is health sustaining.

This is along term ecosystem based or

ecological agriculture perspective!
 Seven Principles to Maintain
Soil/Water/Plant Resource Base
1. Maintain proper air/water balance
2. Maintain soil tilth
3. Prevent erosion
4. Maintain biological diversity
5. Maintain proper SOM levels
6. Maintain a proper pH
7. Maintain a proper balance of nutrients

(A systems approach means you gotta do them

all. Alone each will not build soil fertility.)
 A Good Loam Soil:

50% Solids
45% Mineral
5% Organic Matter

25% Water 25% Air

50% Pores
Small Pores Big Pores

So why is this important?

 Roots:
1 Support the plant
2 Absorb water and nutrients
3 Exchange gases
4 Store starches and sugars
5 Transform nutrients
6 Produce plant hormones
7 Interact with microbes for disease suppression
 An Undisturbed Soil Profile:

Organic matter

Zone of biological activity

Ap

Zone of accumulation

Mix O + A + E = Ap A = topsoil p = plowed or disturbed

Mountain Forest
Sandy Soils
• O Organic Matter or
A Topsoil Layer
• E Leached Layer
• B Accumulations of
Iron, Aluminum and
Organic Acids
• C Parent Material

(NRCS/USDA)
Valley Clay Soils
• Ap Topsoil Layer
(O Organic Matter tilled in)
• E Leached Layer
• B Clay Accumulations
• C Parent Material

(NRCS/USDA)
 1.Air/Water Balance Depends On:

1 Location on the landscape

2 Soil depth

3 Soil texture
(lines=surface area)

4 Soil structure: inside vs. in-between

5 Soil organic matter content: it holds water!

 Soil Textural Triangle: (Brady and
Weil, 2002)

Here, amounts are equal.

*Loam Soil: The influence of the sand, silt and clay on its physical
properties is equal. (Not the quantity or amount, but its influence!)
 Soil Particles That Make Up
Texture Feel:
• Sand Gritty

• Silt Smooth, like baking flour

• Clay Sticky

‰Not apart of Texture:

Organic Matter Greasy
 1.Air/Water Balance Depends On:

1 Location on the landscape

2 Soil depth

3 Soil texture
(lines=surface area)

4 Soil structure: inside vs. in-between

5 Soil organic matter content: it holds water!

 Soil Structure
Shape of individual peds
*Granular, Crumb *Prismatic

*Platy

*Subangular Blocky Columnar

Angular Blocky
*Structureless
1. Single grained
* Note: found in Vermont 2. Massive
 You worked your soil when it
was too wet?
What did you get?
• You get: CLODS

• It is called: PUDDLING YOUR SOIL

Promote Structure With OM Additions
• And Thus:
– Drainage in clay soils (macropores)
– Water holding capacity in sandy soils (micropores)

*Cause it Creates the Pores You Ain’t Got!*

Macropore hold air and drain (in-between)

Micropores hold water (inside)

OM = Drought Prevention Insurance

 Soil Too Dry?
Manage to Prevent Water Loss By:
Mulching to conserve moisture
Prevent runoff
Build OM content to improve the water
holding capacity
Control weeds (competition) or used them
to your advantage
Plant tolerant species
Water deeply and consistently
 Soil Too Wet?
Manage for water loss by:
Raised beds
Shape of beds
Follow good Management Practices
Add OM to improve drainage (clays)
Don’t work wet soil
Plant after soil warms up
Plan “wet in early spring” areas for late season crops
like tomatoes
Plant tolerant species
Put in a drainage system to drop the water table
 2. Soil Tilth:
All the Physical Properties of Soil
Related to Plant Growth

• Including: structure, drainage, aeration,

moisture holding capacity, bulk density….

¾Work a soil when it has dried out enough

¾Add OM to improve physical properties
¾Treat soil gently
¾Keep soil covered
 3. Prevent Erosion:
Erosion is the process of detachment and
transport by wind or water
Prevent it by:
Make the wind or water less erosive by slowing it down.
Protect the soil from exposure to wind or water.
Build the soils resistance to erosive forces. (Brady and Weil, 2002)
 Seven Principles to Maintain
Soil/Water/Plant Resource Base
1. Maintain proper air/water balance
2. Maintain soil tilth
3. Prevent erosion
4. Maintain biological diversity
5. Maintain proper SOM levels
6. Maintain a proper pH
7. Maintain a proper balance of nutrients
4. Maintain or Create Biodiversity
& SOIL

DFW
4. Maintain or Create Biodiversity
Rotate Crops
Plant Mixtures of Species
Interplant, Under-sow, Companion Plant, Polyculture
Add Compost
Mulch
Plant Biological or Ecological Islands
Habitat and Food For Beneficials
Selective Weeding
Change Tolerance Levels for Pest
Use IPM

Cautions?…..
4. Maintain or Create Biodiversity
Provide Diverse Food: Organic Matter
Add Organic Residues
Add Manure or Compost
Grow Cover Crops
Provide Diverse Habitat
Rotate Crops; Include Cover Crops
Plant Mixtures of Species
Interplant, Under-sow, Companion Plant, Polyculture
Plant Biological or Ecological Islands; Habitat and Food For
Beneficial Organisms
Bio-strips, Flower Strips, Beetle Banks, Strip Insectary
Intercropping, Vegetative Corridors, Hedge Rows or
Selective Weeding
Use Mulches; Reduce Tillage and Bare Land
Change Tolerance Levels for Pest
Reduce Chemical Inputs: Use Integrated Pest Management
 Biological or Ecological Islands www.sare.org

www.attra.org
www.sare.org

www.sciencemuseum.org.uk
Syrphid Fly Parasitic Wasp

www.sare.org
NCSU-IPM

NCSU-IPM

Lacewings NCSU-IPM
 Refugia or Conservation Head Lands

www.ukagriculture.com

www.sare.org

University of Minnesota Extension www.sare.org

NCSU-IPM
 Hedge Rows as Habitat
www.sare.org

University of Idaho

USDA/NRCS/NAC

Vegetative Corridors
Wind Shelter Belt
National Corn Growers Association
Spined Soldier Bug

Texas A&M University

Vegetation Barriers Praying Mantis

 Mulch as Habitat
Spiders

DFW

Ground Beetles

DFW
Beetle Banks: Britain

http://www.orc.govt.nz/

www.snh.org.uk/

Ground Beetles
and other
Predatory Beetles

Oregon State University Extension

DFW
 Intercropping: Living Mulches

www.sare.org

www.omafra.gov.on.ca/
www.dereila.ca NCSU-IPM
Bigeyed Bug Minute Pirate Bug
Rover Beetle
 Time for……..
A. Questions?

B. A Break?

C. A Nap?

D. A Snack? Some Compost Tea?

5. How Can You Get OM Into
Your Soils?
Animal Manures

Composts

Cover Crops
Mulches

Peat Moss
Others?

Any Cautions? ……C:N Ratio or Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio

 What is Compost?

• Compost is the biological reduction of

organic wastes to humus. (Golueke)

MICROBIAL ROT

Scientific American, 1991

 Principles of Composting
• C:N Ratios
– Recipe
• Moisture Balanced with Oxygen
– Recipe
– Particle Size
• Temperature
– Recipe
– Size of pile
– Microbes and Macrobes
– Time
• Management
– Assess Your Level of Interest
 C:N Ratio
• If hot compost is desired, the ratio preferred is
about 25-30:1, but 20-40:1 is acceptable.
• High C Materials: straw, hay, woody materials,
dried corn stalks, paper wastes.
– Not are Carbon behaves the same.
• High N Materials: manures, green material, food
wastes.
• Start with 1 handful of N wastes to 3 of C wastes.
• Cornell’s WWW site for recipe design:
– http://compost.css.cornell.edu/science.html
Moisture Balanced with O2
• If hot compost is desired, a range of 50-60% is
preferred, but 40-65% is acceptable.
• Field Test: Compost should feel like a damp
sponge. Moist, but you can’t ring water out of it.
• Generally, if the C:N ratio is OK, moisture will be
OK too.
• Cornell’s WWW site for recipe design
– http://compost.css.cornell.edu/science.html
• Particle size and thus pile porosity are
important too!
 Temperature
• Thermophilic over 105o F
– Recipe more critical
– Size is important
– Quicker
– More management
– More labor
– Destroys weed seeds
– Destroys pathogens
– Mainly microorganisms:
Mostly BACTERIA,
Some fungi and
actinomycetes
– Less disease suppression
SMB
• Mesophilic 50-105oF
– Recipe less critical
– Size is not important
– Slower
– Less management
– Less labor
– May not destroy weed
seeds and pathogens
– Diversity of both micro
and macro-organisms
involved
– More disease suppression
SMB
SMB
 Troubleshooting Hot Compost
• Wet and stinky?
• Add C materials and turn
in sunny weather. Shape
to shed water. Break up
matting or compaction.
• Add N materials and turn
• Dry not working? when raining. Shape to
hold water.
• Look at material if dark
and crumbly with good
earth smell, may be
• No heat when turned? curing. No? Check size
and consider additions.
 Management

VS.

Compost a Recipe for Trouble!

Gardener’s Easy Practical Compost Method
• In bins or free standing.
• Build pile by adding 1 handful
of green/wet stuff for every 3 SOIL

handfuls of brown/dry stuff, ORGANIC MATERIALS

added overtime. SOIL

• Add soil/old compost for odor ORGANIC MATERIALS

control.
1-2” SOIL

1-2” manure
6-8”

• Turn and rebuild pile in fall,

ORGANIC MATERIALS - Grass, leaves, weeds, etc.
SOIL
LINE

mix in garden cleanup debris.

• Wait 2-3 years before using. Cross Section of Layering in Compost Bin

• Do not add weeds gone to seed

or plants infected with viruses.
 What Composting Does for You!
1. Decrease bulk of the pile (CO2 gas)
2. C:N ratio
3. Odor
4. Hot composting kills weed seeds & pathogens
5. Cool composting provides disease resistance
6. Humified (turning to humus) material is a slow
release fertilizer
7. Wastes become useful material
Î gardener’s brown gold
6. Maintain A Proper pH

Which is: pH

7. Maintain A Proper Balance of the

Nutrients

How to Know?
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR PLANT GROWTH
Plant Available Major Source
Form of Nutrients
MACRO-NUTRIENTS
Carbon CO2 Air
Oxygen O2 Air
Hydrogen H2O Water

Nitrogen NO3-, NH4+ Soil OM

Phosphorus H2PO4-, HPO42- Soil OM
Potassium K+ Soil Minerals

Calcium Ca2+ Soil Minerals

Magnesium Mg2+ Soil Minerals
Sulfur SO42-, SO2 (gas) Soil OM, Air
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR PLANT GROWTH
Plant Available Major Source
Form of Nutrients
MICRO-NUTRIENTS
Iron Fe2+ Soil Minerals + OM
Manganese Mn2+ Soil Minerals + OM
Copper Cu2+ Soil Minerals + OM
Zinc Zn2+ Soil Minerals + OM
Boron H3BO3 Soil Minerals + OM*
Molybdenum MoO42- Soil Minerals* + OM
Chlorine Cl- Soil Minerals + Rain*
Cobalt Co2+ Soil Minerals + OM
Nickel Ni2+ Soil Minerals + OM

OTHERS??
Sodium, Selenium, Silica, Vanadium, Iodine, Fluorine???
 Soil Solution:
The Thin Skins of Water that Coat
Everything.

r
ai
H
ot
Ro
Cation Cations
Exchange +++ We are
positive!
Capacity +
++

pH near neutral Acid pH

K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ H+ Al3+

NO3-
The pH of pH 0
Acid
1
things in our 2 Lemons
Vinegar, Grapefruit, Wine
lives. 3
4 Grass silage
Tomatoes
5 Beer
Boric Acid
6 Distilled water
Soils
7 Cows milk
Neutral Human blood
Manure
8
Seawater
9 Bicarb of Soda
Acid + Base = Water 10
Milk of Magnesia
11
H+ + OH- = HOH = H2O Ammonia
12
13 Lye
14
* Distilled water or rain water = pH 5.6
Basic
pH Effects on Nutrient Availability
pH P
refere
nces
for S
electe
dP lants

(Foth, 1992)
 DO
YOU N-P-K??
pH?? KNOW
What’s
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 Soil Test
Report
• Soil Test Results
• Recommendation
– Limestone
– Nitrogen
– Phosphorus
– Potassium
• Management Info
• Who to call
 On Back
• Interpretation of soil
test results to help
you figure out what
all this soil test
information means.
 Useful Soil Resources
• Start with the Soil: The Organic Gardener’s Guide to
Improving Soil for Higher yields, More Beautiful Flowers, and
a Healthy Easy Care Garden by Grace Gershuny.
Rodale Press. 1993.
• The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle
C. Brady and Ray R. Weil. Prentice Hall.
2002.
http://pss.uvm.edu/ag_testing/forms.html
 Useful Compost Resources
• The Rodale Book of Composting
by Deborah L. Martin & Grace Gershuny.
Rodale Press. 1992.

• On-Farm Composting Handbook

by Robert Rynk. NRAES-54. 1992.

• Cornell’s WWW site:

– http://compost.css.cornell.edu/Composting_homepage.html
– http://compost.css.cornell.edu/science.html
 Biological Slide References
• DFW: The Decomposer Food Web: Ecology
of organisms of compost and soil litter by
Dr. Daniel Dindal, Professor Emertius, Soil
Ecologist, SUNY-Syracuse

• SMB: Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry

from Soil Science Society of America

• WSH: Wendy Sue Harper, Ph.D.

More Questions on Soils or Compost?

WSH
WSH

WSH

WSH

WSH
The End