AIRCRAFT CABIN PRESSURIZATION (PRE-FINALS)

The crew and passengers of modern, high-performance aircraft are physically unable to survive
the extreme environment in which these airplanes fly without some sort of conditioning of the air
within the cabin and cockpit. Primarily because of the various altitudes at which an aircraft
operates, the cabin atmosphere must be controlled to increase the comfort of the occupants or
even to sustain their lives. This chapter will discuss the physiology of the human body that
determines the atmospheric conditions required for life, how oxygen and cabin altitude are
controlled to provide a livable atmosphere for the aircraft occupants, and how the comfort needs
of the passengers and crew are met.
THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere envelops the earth and extends upward for more than 20 miles, but because air
has mass and is compressible, the gravity of the earth pulls on it and causes the air at the lower
levels to be more dense than the air above it. This accounts for the fact that more than one-half of
the mass of the air surrounding the earth is below about 18,000 feet.
The atmosphere is a physical mixture of gases. Nitrogen makes up approximately 78% of the air,
and oxygen makes up 21% of the total mixture. The remainder is composed of water vapor, carbon
dioxide and inert gases. Oxygen is extremely important for both animal and plant life. It is so
important for animals that if they are deprived of oxygen for even a few seconds, permanent damage
to the brain or even death may result. Water vapor and carbon dioxide are also extremely important
compounds. The other gases in the air, such as argon, neon, and krypton are relatively
unimportant elements physiologically.
The density of air refers to the number of air molecules within a given volume of the atmosphere.
As air pressure decreases, the density of the air also decreases. Conversely, as temperature
increases the density of the air decreases. This change in air density has a tremendous effect on
the operations of high altitude aircraft as well as physiological effects on humans. Turbine enginepowered aircraft are efficient at high altitudes, but the human body is unable to exist in this cold
and oxygen-deficient air, so some provision must be made to provide an artificial environment to
sustain life.
Standard conditions have been established for all of the important parameters of the earth's
atmosphere. The pressure exerted by the blanket of air is considered to be 29.92 inches, or
1013.2 hectoPascals (millibars), which are the same as 14.69 pounds per square inch at sea
level, and decreases with altitude The standard temperature of the air at sea level is 151 Celsius,
or 591 Fahrenheit. The temperature also decreases with altitude, as illustrated in figure 14-1.
Above 36,000 feet, the temperature of the air stabilizes, remaining at -551 C (-69.71 F).
HYPOXIA
Any time the body is deprived of the required amount of oxygen, it will develop hypoxia. As
hypoxia becomes more severe, a person's time of useful consciousness decreases. Time of
useful consciousness is defined as the time a person has to take corrective action before
becoming so severely impaired that they cannot help themselves. One of the worst things about
hypoxia is the subtle way it attacks. When the brain is deprived of the needed oxygen, the first
thing people lose is their judgment. The effect is similar to intoxication; people are unable to
recognize how badly their performance and judgment are impaired. Fortunately, hypoxia affects
every individual the same way each time it is encountered. If a person can experience hypoxia
symptoms in an altitude chamber under controlled conditions, they are more likely to recognize
the symptoms during subsequent encounters.

CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING

Carbon monoxide is the product of incomplete combustion of fuels which contain carbon and is
found in varying amounts in the smoke and fumes from burning aviation fuel and lubricants.
Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless, but since it is normally combined with
other gases in the engine exhaust, you can expect it to be present when exhaust gases are
detected.
The decrease in pressure as altitude increases makes it more difficult to get the proper
amount of oxygen. If there is carbon monoxide in the cabin, or if a person is smoking tobacco
while flying, it will intensify the problem and even further deprive the brain of the oxygen it needs.
Most small single-engine airplanes are heated with exhaust-type heaters in which the cabin
ventilating air passes between a sheet metal shroud and the engine exhaust pipes or muffler. If a
crack or even a pinhole size leak should exist in any of the exhaust components, carbon
monoxide can enter the cabin. The possibility of this type of poisoning is most likely in the
winter months when heat is most needed and when the windows and vents are usually closed
to keep out cold air. Combustion heaters that burn fuel from the aircraft tanks to produce heat can
also be a source of carbon monoxide. This type of heater is found on many small and mediumsized twin engine general aviation aircraft as well as on older airliners.
SOURCES OF SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN
Aircraft oxygen systems employ several different sources of breathing oxygen. Among the more
common ones are gaseous oxygen stored in steel cylinders, liquid oxygen stored in specially
constructed containers called Dewars, and oxygen generated by certain chemicals that give off
oxygen when heated. A Dewar, sometimes called a Dewar flask, is a special type of thermos
bottle designed to hold extremely cold liquids. Recently, a system using microscopic filters to
separate oxygen from other gases in the air has been developed for medical uses, and is
being investigated for use in aircraft.
GASEOUS OXYGEN
Most of the aircraft in the general aviation fleet use gaseous oxygen stored in steel cylinders
under a pressure of between 1,800 and 2,400 psi. The main reason for using gaseous oxygen is
its ease of handling and the fact that it is available at most of the airports used by these aircraft.
It does have all the disadvantages of dealing with high-pressure gases, and there is a weight
penalty because of the heavy storage cylinders.

Most general-aviation aircraft store oxygen in steel, highpressure cylinders

LIQUID OXYGEN
Most military aircraft now carry their oxygen in a liquid state. Liquid oxygen is a pale blue,
transparent liquid that will remain in its liquid state as long as it is stored at a temperature of
below 2181 F. This is done in aircraft installations by keeping it in a Dewar flask that resembles
a double-wall sphere having a vacuum between the walls. The vacuum prevents heat
transferring into the inner container.

Liquid oxygen installations are extremely economical of space and weight and there is no high
pressure involved in the system. They do have the disadvantage; however, of the dangers
involved in handling the liquid at its extremely low temperature, and even when the oxygen
system is not used, it requires periodic replenishing because of losses from the venting
system.

Military aircraft usually use liquid oxygen, stored in special insulated

containers called Dewars.

CHEMICAL, OR SOLID, OXYGEN

A convenient method of carrying oxygen for emergency uses and for aircraft that require it only
occasionally is the solid oxygen candle. Many large transport aircraft use solid oxygen generators
as a supplemental source of oxygen to be used in the event of cabin depressurization.
Essentially, a solid oxygen generator consists of a shaped block of a chemical such as sodium
chlorate encased in a protective steel case. When ignited, large quantities of gaseous oxygen
are released as a combustion by-product. They are ignited either electrically or by a mechanical
igniter. Once they start burning, they cannot be extinguished and will continue to burn until they
are exhausted. Solid oxygen candles have an almost unlimited shelf life and do not require any
special storage conditions. There are specific procedures required for shipping these generators
and they may not be shipped as cargo aboard passenger carrying aircraft. They can be shipped
aboard cargo only aircraft and must be properly packaged, made safe from inadvertent activation,
and identified properly for shipment. They are safe to use and store because no high pressure is
involved and the oxygen presents no fire hazard. They are relatively inexpensive and lightweight.
On the negative side, they cannot be tested without actually being used, and there is enough
heat generated when they are used that they must be installed so that the heat can be
dissipated without any damage to the aircraft structure.

Solid oxygen generators, called candles, are used in many large aircraft to
provide supplemental oxygen for the passengers in case of
depressurization. They are also found in some smaller business aircraft.