CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
In 1973 oil crisis leads to search the new alternative fuels for fulfilling the
requirements of petroleum products. Those innovations were given a number of
alternative fuels for universe.
1.1 History of Biodiesel
The usage of vegetable oil started in 1893 when Dr.Rudolf diesel developed
the first diesel engine to run on vegetable oil. Diesel demonstrated his engine at
theworld exhibition in Paris in 1900 using peanut oil as fuel.The engine stood as an
example of diesel's vision because it was powered by peanut oil - a biofuel, though
not biodiesel, since it was not transesterified. He believed that the utilization of
biomass fuel was the real future of his engine. But during 1920's, diesel engine
manufacturers altered their engines to utilize the lower viscosity of petro diesel (a
fossil fuel), rather than vegetable oil.
1.2 Basic definitions of Biodiesel
Very often, a broad, general description is used to define biodiesel in a way that is
easy to understand by the general public.
1.3 Technical definition for Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a fuel comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived
from vegetable oils or animal fats, designated B100, and meeting the requirements of
ASTM.
1.4 Need of biodiesel
Many alternative biodiesel fuels have been shown to have better exhaust
emissions than traditional diesel holds promised as fuel alternatives for diesel
engine.
Depletion of the primary fuels
Biodiesel is agriculture oriented.

 A number of researches have shown that biodiesel has fuel properties and
provides engine performance that is very similar to diesel fuel.
Biodiesel are non toxic, biodegradable and renewable fuel.
The severe emission regulations in the world have placed design limitation on
heavy duty diesel engines. The trend towards cleaner burning fuel is growing
world wide and it is possible through biodiesel.
Biodiesel includes a high cetane number, low sulphur, low volatility and the
presence of oxygen atoms in the fuel molecule.
Expected efficiency is achieved through biodiesel. Biodiesel performs better
than petroleum diesel.
Reduces serious air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxides,
hydrocarbons and air toxic. A mutagen city study shows that biodiesel
dramatically reduces potential risks of cancer and birth defects.
Table 1.1.Production of oilseeds in 2002-2003 in India
Oilseed

Production (million tons)

Total oil availability

(million tons)

% Recovery

Oil Cost

(Rs. Per to

soya been

World
122

India
4

0.55

17

4200

Cottonseed

32

0.49

11

3300

Groundnut

19

0.68

40

6200

Sunflower

25

0.5

35

5560

Rapeseed

34

1.49

33

5167

Sesame

2.5

0.62

--

--

5800

Palm kernels

4.6

--

--

--

--

Copra

4.7

0.65

0.42

65

3000

Linseed

0.20

0.06

43

--

Castor

1.5

0.51

0.23

42

--

Niger

0.5

0.8

0.021

30

--

Rice bran

--

--

0.67

15

2100

1.5 Chemical compositions

Vegetable oils is also known as triglycerides, have the chemical structure

given in comprise of 97% triglycerides and small amounts of mono- and
triglycerides.. The fatty acids vary in their carbon chain length and in the number of
double bonds.

Figure 1.1: Structure of a typicaltriglyceridemolecule.

CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The following journal papers are used for literature review purpose which gives basic
knowledge about present work
P.Ravindrakumar et.al [1] carried out experiment work to investigate
performance of cotton seed and neem oils,The methyl esters of Cottonseed and Neem
seed along with diesel reduce the environmental impacts of transportation and also
reduce the dependency on crude oil imports, and also provide employments in
agricultural field. There was increase in Brake Thermal Efficiency of CSOME C20
as compared to Pure Diesel because of complete combustion. It was observed that the
smoke and emissions for the blends of CSOME and NOME are less as compared to
Pure Diesel. Properties of the 20% blend of LSOME are nearer to the Diesel Fuel.
Bhojraj N. Kale et.al [2] used Cotton methyl esters.At constant speed of 1500
rpm it is observed that brake thermal efficiency ( bth)with use of CSO methyl ester
is slightly greator in comparision with jatropha biodiesel and petroleum diesel. It is
also observed that indicated thermal efficiency ( ith) with use of CSO methyl ester is

considerably greator (i.e. 20.70%) in comparision with jatropha biodiesel and

petroleum diesel.
S.D. Rahul Bharadwajet.al[3] carried out experimental work on the performance of
crude neem oil at various injection pressures.At 200 and 220 injection pressure, neem
blends has almost same BSFC as diesel. N20 has high BSFC at low load. At 200 bar
injection pressure diesel had highest peak pressure followed by B30, B20 and B10
this trend remain same as the load increases. Among all blends cylinder pressure of
B20 and B30 were almost same as diesel at all loads.at 220 injection pressure all
blends of biodiesel has comparable value as diesel at 25% load. At 0% load B20 had
least cylinder pressure. It is observed that the there is no variation in peak pressures
for neem oil blends and neem biodiesel blends. But in case of neem oil blends, the
peak pressures is highest at 200 bar. In case of neem biodiesel blends the peak
pressure at 200 bar and 220 bar is almost same.

S.Kirankumar [4]They conducted experiment on the four stroke single

cylinder water cooled diesel engine at constant speed (1500 rpm) with varying loads
by using cotton seed oil blends of C10, C20 and C30 by varying the injection
pressures from 165 bar to 210 bar. The performance characteristics like brake thermal
efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption and exhaust gas temperatures were
investigated. Based on investigations, a comparison was drawn on engine
performance with pure diesel operation and with different blends.TheirExperimental
results demonstrated that at 195 bar fuel injection pressure, the performance
characteristics were observed better with blends when compared to the pure diesel
operation. Maximum brake thermal efficiency observed was 34.01% with 30% blend
at an injection pressure of 195 bar and lower specific fuel consumption observed was
0.258 kg/kw-hr with 30% blend at an injection pressure of 195bar.
R. Senthil Kumar and R. Manimaran[5] Theyconducted performance test on
horizontal single cylinder variable speed Greaves engine with various blends of
cottonseed oil (B5, B10, B15, B20, B40 & B100) and compared the performance of
cottonseed oil with diesel. Based on the their observations of this experiment, They
concluded that TFC and SFC were found to be the function of load and brake power.
The performance test done on various blends of biodiesel showed that its
characteristics followed the same trend as that of the bio-diesel. The emission test

conducted showed that emission levels for biodiesel were lower than diesel. On
comparing the performance test graphs of B5, B10, B15, B20, B40,They concluded
that TFC and SFC of B100 and B40 is very high compared to that of diesel . So the
usage of these blends will be uneconomic but the TFC and SFC of B20 remains very
stable on various loading conditions.
M. Martin and D. Prithviraj[6] in their experimental investigation, the viscosity of
cottonseed oil (CSO), which is considered a potential alternate fuel, was reduced by
blending it in different proportions with diesel, and its viscosity at various
temperatures was analyzed and used as a fuel in a compression ignition (CI) engine.
Performance, combustion and emission parameters at various loads were calculated
using a single cylinder CI engine and compared with neat diesel and cottonseed oil. A
remarkable improvement in the performance of the engine is noticed as the viscosity
of the oil is reduced. Brake thermal and volumetric efficiencies of the engine
increased with a significant reduction in the exhaust gas temperature. Reductions in
smoke, CO and HC emissions are also noticed.Their results show that a blend
containing 60% of cottonseed oil with diesel, which is heated to a temperature of
70C, can be used as an alternate fuel without any engine modification.
A.V. Krishna Reddy et al.[7] They conducted experiments on 5.2 BHP single cylinder
four stroke water-cooled variable compression diesel engine. Methyl ester of
cottonseed oil is blended with the commercially available Xtramile diesel. Cottonseed
oil methyl ester (CSOME) is blended in four different compositions from 10% to 40%
in steps of 10 vol%.They use these four blends and Xtramile diesel brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) were determined at
17.5 compression ratio. They concluded that Properties of the 10% and 20% blends of
CSOME are nearer to the diesel fuel. The performance of the cottonseed oil methyl
ester fuelled engine is comparable with diesel engine. Engine could be run without
any difficulty using cottonseed oil methyl ester blends. These blends of cottonseed oil
can be recommended for present diesel engines without any modification.Thus the
above investigations of their experiment suggest that esterified vegetable oils can be
effectively employed in emergency as a suitable alternative fuel in existing diesel
engine.
M. Harinarh Reddy et al.[8] They investigated the performance of a diesel engine
using diesel fuel and cottonseed oil (CSO) biodiesel in terms of brake thermal
6

efficiency and indicated thermal efficiency for conventional diesel, cottonseed oil, as
well as for Jatropha oil. A Single Cylinder, 4-stroke vertical, water-cooled, selfgoverned diesel engine developing 5 HP at 1500 rpm engine was selected for the
testing with diesel fuel and neat bio-dieselat full load conditions. The evaluation of
theoretical data of their experiment showed that the brake thermal efficiency and
indicated thermal efficiency of CSO biodiesel was slightly higher than that of diesel
fuel and Jatropha oil. Their study reveals that the use of cottonseed oil biodiesel
improves the performance parameters of CI engine compared to conventional diesel
fuel.
Shyam Kumar Ranganathanet al.[9] They investigated the comparative performance
of single cylinder diesel engine with direct use of cotton seed oil methyl ester and
preheated condition at variable temperature such as 50, 70 and 90C.The properties
such as viscosity, flash point, pour point were experimentally measured of COME,
thus obtained are comparable with ASM biodiesel standards. The COME has been
tested in single cylinder four stroke diesel engine coupled with rope brake
dynamometer. They carried out experiment for varying load at constant speed. Their
results revealed that preheating COME up to 90C at higher load lead to increase in
brake thermal efficiency is 2 % as compared to diesel fuel and brake specific fuel
consumption increases at higher load as compared to diesel fuel. There was no
significant change found in brake power where as exhaust gas temperature of all
preheated biodiesel COME was high and break specific energy consumption required
to preheat COME was high as compared to diesel.
S.NagaSaradaet al. (2010)[10]They conducted test with cotton seed oil and diesel. To
improve the combustion characteristics of cotton seed oil in an unmodified engine,
effect of increase in injection pressure was studied. The injection pressure was
increased from 180 bar to 240 bar (in steps of 15 bar). The investigation of their
experiment revealed that the optimum pressure for cottonseed oil as 210 bar and
comparison of the performance of the engine was studied in terms of brake specific
fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency, mechanical
efficiency and exhaust emissions. Increased injection pressure has a significant effect
on enhancing engine performance and lowering emissions. Increase in the injection
pressure from 180 bar to 240 bar with cotton seed oil as fuel lead to: Quieter operation
of the engine was observed when cotton seed oil was used as fuel. Performance of

engine with cotton seed oil as fuel was better at an IP of 210 bar. An increase in the
Brake thermal efficiency from 25.02% to 28.02% was observed with increase in

CHAPTER 3
PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL
3.1 Introduction
There are three ways to run a diesel engine on bio-energy, using vegetable oils,
animal fats and mixture of two. All are works as fresh and pure fuels.

Straight vegetable oil.

Mixing with diesel.

Transfer to bio-diesel.

3.2 Straight Vegetable Oil

To use straight vegetable oil (SVO), first the engine has to be started with
normal fuel. This means having two fuel tanks. SVO can also be used by preheating
the oil before entering in to the engine to reduce the viscosity of the oil.
3.3 Blending of SVO with diesel
Raw oil can be directly mixed with diesel in required proportions and this can
be used in diesel engines. One tank is used for starting and stopping of the engine and
the other tank is used for SVO blended diesel. This method is also not preferable
because this also causes coking in injectors and preheating is also required. To get
good results the proportion of vegetable oil should be low in the blends.
3.4 Preparing raw oil into biodiesel
It has to be processed. But the large and rapidly growing worldwide band of
home brewers don't seem to mind. Many have been doing it for years. Various
advantages of using Biodiesel rather than SVO are shown in table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Comparison of biodiesel with SVO

Kind of fuel

Need for
requirement

Engine
Free trouble

transformatio
n

Less cost

BIO-

OK

DIESEL

OK

NOT OK

RARELY

OK

OFTENLY

STRAIGHT
VEGTABLE LOW

NOT OK

OIL

3.5 Process of producing biodiesel

Sodium hydroxide is often easier to get and it's cheaper to use. The process is
same when potassium hydroxide is used, but it requires 1.4times as much than sodium
hydroxide.
3.6 Chemistry of Esterification reaction
The overall esterification reaction involves the following three reversible
reactions.
Diglyceride + RICOOR

Triglyceride + ROH
Diglyceride + ROH

Monoglyceride + RIICOOR

Monoglyceride + ROH

Glycerol + RIIICOOR

CH-COORI CATALYST CH2OH RICOOR

I

+ 3ROH

CH-COORII CHOH

RIICOOR

CH3-COORIII CH2OH RIIICOOR

Triglyceride

Methanol

Glycerol BIODIESEL

Figure 3.1: Steps involved in preparation of bio diesel

10

3.7 Process variables

The most important variables that influence the esterification reaction are

Alcohols to vegetable ratio

Catalysts

Purity

Mixing intensity

3.8 Alcohols to vegetables ratio:

11

Another important variable is the molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil.

Upto 15 % of methanol should be used on mass basis for an effective reaction
between alcohol and vegetable oil.
3.9 catalysts:
Alkali metal oxides are found to be more effective esterification catalysts
compared to acidic catalysts. Sodium alkoxides are the most efficient catalysts,
although KOH or NAOH can also be used. Methylation occurs in the presence of both
alkaline & acidic catalysts. As they are less corrosive to industrial equipment, alkaline
catalysts are preferred in industrial processes. Increase in catalyst concentration does
not affect the conversion but adds to extra cost, as the catalyst needs to be removed
from the reaction mixture after completion of the reaction.
3.10 Purity:
Impurities in the oil affect the conversion level considerably. The free fatty
acids in the crude oils have been found to interfere with the catalyst. This problem can
be solved if the reaction is carried out under high temperature and pressure conditions.
3.11 Mixing intensity:
It has been observed that during the esterification reaction, the reactants
initially form a two phase liquid system. The mixing effect has been found to play a
significant role in the slow rate of the reaction. As phase separation ceases mixing
becomes insignificant. The effect of mixing on the kinetics of the esterification
process forms the basis for process scale up and design.

CHAPTER - 4
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE TO PREPARE BIO DIESEL
FROM COTTONSEED OIL AND NEEM OIL
4.1 Introduction

12

Bio-Diesel is an alternate fuel i.e. usually obtained from vegetable oils. These
vegetable oils have high fat content and are more viscous as such they cant directly
injected in engine. Basically Bio-Diesel is prepared from trans-esterification process.
4.2 FFA Test
Fats and oils from a major component in every oil Free fatty acids (FFAs)
which present in the crude oils determine the oil quality. Knowing the FFA content is
an important parameter in edible oil refining and biodiesel production. It is necessary
because as it helps to know whether acidic esterification process is required or not.
FFA was calculated by
FFA% = (v - b) x N x 28.2 / w
where: v is the volume in ml of titration solution
b is the volume in ml of the blank
N is the normality of the titration solution
w is the weight of the sample of oil in grams
FFA% = 0.766t

- forNaOH titrations

13

Fig 4.1 : Transesterification process

14

Figure 4.2:Free fatty acids test for biodiesel

The main apparatus required are (a) round bottomed flask,(b) heating mantle
(c)Thermometer (d) Separating funnel (e) Beakers and different chemicals required
are (a) Methanol (CH3OH), (b) Sodium hydroxide pellets (NaOH) (c) conc. Sulphuric
acid The procedure is as follows.
4.3 Acidic transesterification
Reaction temperature and time of 600C & 90 minutes. In the first stage, 135ml
of Methanol & 15ml of conc. Sulphuric acid is prepared and mixed with 400ml of
Calophylluminophyllum L. oil. The mixture is kept on the magnetic stirrer for 30
minutes and poured in separating funnel. After 90 minutes the top layer is separated
off and bottom layer is transferred for the next step.

15

Figure 4.3.Separating funnel

Figure 4.3 :Separatingfunnel

4.4Safety precautions while preparing Biodiesel
(1) Wear proper protective gloves, apron, and eye protection.
(2) Do not inhale any vapours.

16

(3) Be cautious while using methanol. Methanol can cause blindness and death, it
is absorbed through the skin.
(4) Sodium hydroxide can cause severe burns and death. Together these two
chemicals form sodium methoxide. This is an extremely caustic chemical.
These are dangerous chemicals.
(5) Running water needed
(6) Gloves should be wear.
(7) Kids not allowed.
(8) All methanol containers should be kept tightly closed anyway to prevent
water absorption from the air.

17

CHAPTER -5
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE TO FIND THE VISCOSITY OF
BLENDS
5.1 Redwood viscometer:
Viscosity is the property of fluid. It is defined as The internal resistance
offered by the fluid to the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer . It
is due to the Cohesion between the molecules of the fluid. Redwood viscometer is
used to determine the viscosity of the fluid.
The redwood viscometer consist of vertical cylindrical oil cup with an orifice
in the centre of its base . The orifice can be closed by a ball . A hook pointing upward
serve as a guide mark for filling the oil . The cylindrical cup is surrounded by the
water bath . The water bath maintain the temperature of the oil to be tested at constant
temperature . The oil is heated by heating the water bath by means of an immersed
electric heater in the water bath , The provision is made for stirring the water , to
maintain the uniform temperature in the water bath and to place the thermometer ti
record the temperature of oil and water bath . The cylinder is 47.625mm in diameter
and 88.90mm deep . The orifice is 1.70mm in diameter and 12mm in length , This
viscometer is used to determine the kinematic viscosity of the oil.

18

Fig 5.1 : Redwood viscometer

5.2 Experimental procedure:
The apparatus is cleaned thoroughly. The ball valve is placed in
position thus closing the orifice. The sample is poured into the cup up to gauge point.
The standard 50 ml flask is kept under the orifice of the cup. The sample is heated to
the required temperature, which is noted from the thermometer immersed in the oil.
After heating to the desired temperature the ball valve is lifted off. The oil drains in to
the flask placed beneath. The time taken to collect the oil up to the mark is measured
using stop watch.
The kinematic viscosity of the sample is determined using the formula.
Absolute viscosity = A/t,
Kinematic viscosity = A t B/t.
Where t = Redwood seconds to collect the 50 ml sample.
A and B are constants given below
A = 2.7, B = 1120 and C=0.9975
Table 5.1 :Viscosity of blends
S.NO

Type of

Oil

Time to collect Absolute

Kinematic

oil

temperature

50 ml of oil t

viscosity=t/c

viscosity=At-

(0C)

seconds

centipoise

B/t
centistokes

B20

29

29

29.47

1.63

B30

29

30

30.49

2.08

B40

29

31

31.50

2.528

19

CHAPTER 6
METHODOLOGY
6.1. Introduction
To fulfil the objective of the present work various theories, methods and techniques
like DOE and Taguchi is used and has been presented in this chapter.

6.2. Flowchart ofExperiments

Figure.6.1: Methodology Flow Chart

20

6.3. Selection of Process parameters

The following are the process parameter for this work which
causes more influence on IC Engine performance.
Table 6.1: Process parameters and their levels
S.No

Process
parameters

units

Level
1

Level
2

Level
3

Loads

Kg

10

15

Compression ratios _

16.5

17

17.5

Blended %

B20

B30

B40

6.4. Design of Experiments

To study the effect of different control factors on different process responses and for
obtaining the relation between them, DOE is used. From the minimum amount of
experimental runs we get the certain amount of information, thereby saving
machining time, power consumption and machining cost for the experimental
investigation.
The Design of an experiment is the synchronous calculation of two or more
variables for their capacity to influence the resultant normal. To satisfy this in a
successful and accurately appropriate form, the levels of the components are removed
in an energetic method.
The DOE methodology is separated into three fundamental stages

Arranging stage,
Directing stage, and
Analysis stage

6.4.1 Arranging Stage

The arranging stage is most dynamic stage for the test, to give the normal data.
An experimenter will learn currently and over the data is in a positive and negative
sense. Positive data is an ID of which variables and which levels lead to improve
piece implementation. Negative data is a sign of which components don't have quick
change. The elements and suitable levels in the test will have an inclination to yield
positive data and the examination does not incorporate with the inflectional variables.
21

6.4.2 Directing Stage

Directing stage is the most supreme stage, when the test results are actually
collected.
6.4.3 Analysis Stage
Analysis phase is the point at which the positive data regarding the selected
components and levels is produced, dedicated around the past two stages. The
dissection stage is having minimum uncertainty regarding to the whether the trial will
effectively produce positive results or not
Table 6.2: Experimental layout using an L9 orthogonal array

S.NO

Design of Experiments (L9 orthogonal array)

Load (kgs)

01

Compression
ratio
16.5

Blended %

02

17

B30

03

17.5

B40

04

10

16.5

B30

05

10

17

B40

06

10

17.5

B20

07

15

16.5

B40

08

15

17

B20

09

15

17.5

B30

B20

6.5. Taguchi Method

Genichi Taguchi was developed a philosophy and methodology for improving
the quality of Japanese Industrial Products at low cost in 1940, which depends
22

majorly on Statistical tools, concepts, and designed experiments. This Taguchi

technique was followed by several fields of industries, Engineers to approach good
profit values by improving products quality at optimal cost. For this he was received
award and Medal for excellence in International Technology Institute, in 1986. The
key of impact for this method is merging the statistical and engineering methods to
reach hasty progress in quality and cost through optimizing product design and
production steps.
Actually this process involves that, the proper selection of factors as per
responses of processes, number of tests. And these selected factors are arranged in the
form of Lattice Square model with help of Design of Experiments process, and then
this square model is called as Orthogonal Array. The test results are optimizing
through the analyzers like as Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N Ratio) techniques. The
Taguchi's system is the standardize approach, for deciding the best creation of
information and to deliver the result of component influences. Taguchi was able to
determine the control variables and levels. The product will be continued on
performing at target value in the neighbourhood of outer and internal variety.
Methodologies utilize the immediate inspecting of framework implementation,
ordinarily utilizing model and exceptionally minimal testing systems. This is expert
through outline investigation of DOE, is an important tool for design great value
classification on condensation of price. The method proposed parts of quality relation
and the quality of cost.
Taguchi design follows the four steps:

Robust design
Concept design
Structure design (Parameter design) and
Acceptance design (Tolerance design)

6.5.1 Robust design

The design expresses that product and directions must to be planned so that
they are in alienable escape free and of high quality. Design performance is
insensitive to variation in science and engineering.

23

6.5.2 Concept design

Model designing is the development of investigative competition technology
towards the creation of products. In this design area by choosing the correct procedure
and method proposal choice, can decrease the fabrication cost and outcomes in high
feature products.
6.5.3 Parameter design
Operating conditions and dimensional variations are determined by using
noise factors. The design parameter is one which is used to find the feasible design for
optimizing approach, to improve the quality and reduces cost. However the process
leads to expense of time for completing the design.
The outline of investigation is to study the effect of total variables in the
experiment by utilizing orthogonal arrays. They are more important investment
resources in testing for the greater displays.
Taguchi technique has a few quality features together in the choice of
methodology parameters and modified to calculate a few trouble capacities related to
various quality merits. Taguchi parameter design method and flow chart of Taguchi
method are shown in figure 6.2 and 6.3.

24

Figure 6.2: Taguchi Parameter Design Method(Quadratic Loss Function)

1. Problem identification

25

2. Brainstorming section
(Identity: factors, possible iterations, purpose)

3. Investigational strategy
(Select orthogonal selections, proposal test)

4. Route testing

5. Analysing the results

6. Verification of tests

Figure 6.3: Flow chart of Taguchi method

6.6Phases In Taguchi Technique

Selection of control factors as per noise factors of main function with number

of levels.
Selection of the number of tests to be carried out (or) sort of Orthogonal Array

(OA) in the form of matrix.

Selection of noise factor to be optimized.
Running the tests as per predesigned orthogonal array matrix in order.
26

Foretell the optimum levels of control factors with their corresponding

Response factors.
Rerun the tests corresponding to optimum levels to conform them as optimum
levels of control factors.

6.7 Degree Of Freedom

In Taguchi method Control factors refers to input parameters for the process,
and Response factors refers to corresponding output parameters for the process. The
Degree of Freedom (DOF) value for the Overall Mean is 1.
DOF for a Control Factor = No. of Levels 1
For example there is Control Factors X, Y and Z with three levels. Then the DOF for
X, Y and Z are?
Solution: DOF for X (or) Y (or) Z= No. of Levels 1,
DOF for X (or) Y (or) Z = 3-1 = 2.
Total DOF for experiments

= number of control factors DOF for each factor

= 3(3-1)
= 6.
But, DOF for interaction of X and Y is,
DOF for XY = (No. of Levels in X - 1) (No. of Levels in Y - 1)
= (3-1) (3-1)
DOF for interaction of X and Y (DOF for XY) = 4.

6.8 Signal to Noise (S/N) Ratio

In Taguchi method, S/N Ratio is the Statistical measuring process for predict
the optimum factors to respected Responses. Analysis in this content has tended to
identify the components, which are influencing the normal reaction. A few signal to
noise degrees available depending upon the category of characteristics. The Smaller
the best, Higher the best and Nominal the best are three sorts for the S/N Ratio, for
examine the factors enactment.
6.8.1 Lower is best
S/N=-10log10

y2

( )
n

6.8.2 Higher is best

27

S/N=-10log10

( 1n y12 )

6.8.3 Nominal is best

1
( yiS ) 2
S/N=-10log n

6.9Applications Of Taguchi Design

To increase the quality of manufactured goods, a statistical approach was
developed by Taguchi method. The area of applications includes engineering, biotechnology and marketing. The important dimension, property or attribute of a
manufacturing output is the characteristic quality. The Taguchi method is not only
applicable in manufacturing but also in environmental science, agricultural, medicine,
chemistry, physics, statistics, business and management.
6.10 Orthogonal Array (OA)
To investigate the effect of large number of process variables with a small
number of

experiments, Taguchi method uses a mathematical tool called orthogonal

array. OA are fractional factorial designs which are subset of full factorial designs i.e.
when all levels of the all factors are taken into consideration one by one. A number of
standard OAs are available and one of these can be selected for a particular experiment
by knowing the following details.

How many factors are to be studied?

How many treatment levels are possible for each level?

What specific two factor interactions are to be studied?

Would one encounter any particular difficulty during the runs? (For example
some factors may not permit frequent treatment changes). There exists a large
variety of industrial experiments. Each experiment has different number of
factors. Some factors have two levels, some three levels and some even more.
Taguchi has tabulated 18 basic standards OAs. Depending upon the number of

factors and their levels, it is generally possible to select one of these for a specific

28

requirement. However the standard OAs can also be modified to suit complicated
designs. The first step in selecting the appropriate OA involves the total degree of
freedom. In this study L9 orthogonal array is selected having 8 degree of freedom
with three input factors with three levels. The degree of freedom for three levels
test is 3(3-1) = 6. And the degrees of freedom for experiments are 9. So as per
Taguchi technique, the DOF for DOE is less than the DOF freedom for number of
experiments. Hence L9 OA is selected. The control log for the experiment is then
prepared by assigning the levels of each parameter to various rows of the OA. Such
designed experiments are called matrix experiments and individual experiment
constituting one row of the OA is called run (or) treatment.

29

CHAPTER -7
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
7.1 Experimental Setup
The research work as shown in figure 6.1. The engine was coupled with a rope
brake arrangement to absorb the B.P produced by the engine. Necessary weights and
spring balances are included to apply load on the brake drum. Suitable cooling water
arrangement for the brake drum is provided. Separate cooling water lines are provided
for engine cooling and calorimeter cooling. It is also fitted with temperature
measuring thermocouples for measuring various temperatures. A fuel measuring
system consisting of a fuel tank mounted on a stand, burette, three way cock and a
stop watch is provided. Air intake is measured on air box fitted with an orifice and a
water manometer.

Figure 7.1.Experimental set up of 5 HP diesel engine

Figure 7.2 : Schematic Diagram
7.2Engine specifications

Make

- Kirlosker Model AV

Bore

- 80 mm

30

Stroke

- 110 mm

BHP

- 5HP (3.7 KW)

C.R

- 16.5:1

Radius of dynamometer

- 215mm

Fuel

- H.S Diesel Oil

S.P Gravity

- 0.8275

C.V

- 10,833Kcal/Kg

31

Dia of orifice

- 30mm

Dia of brake drum d1

- 0.3m

Dia of rope d2

- 0.015 m

1Kcal/Kg

- 4.188Kj/Kg

7.3 Experimental procedure

1
2

Check the fuel level in the fuel tank and lubricating oil level in the sump.
Open the three way cock, so that the fuel flows to the engine. Supply the

cooling water through inlet pipe.

Now start the engine and wait for few minutes for warming up. If required,

adjust the speed of the engine by screwing in or out the governor nut.
Load the engine by adding the required dead weights upon the hangers and

allow the cooling water to flow in the brake drum to avoid spilling.
After setting the load on the engine at fixed point the time required for 10cc of
fuel is measured and also the difference of manometer reading on the panel

6
7

board.
The values are recorded from experiment.
The same procedure repeated for the three oil blends of B20, B30, B40.

7.4.Formulae used
1. Brake power (BP) =(d1 +d2)(W-S)N/60000
where d1=diameter of brake drum in m
d2 =diameter of brake rope in m
W =net load on dynamometer (kgf)
S= spring balance reading(kgf)
N= speed of the engine in RPM.
measured fuel (10cc) * 3600*specific gravity of fuel
2. Fuel consumption =
Time taken in seconds*1000
3. FP is calculated from the graph in between FC and BP by usingWillians line
method.
Evaluation of frictional power by Willians line method:

32

In this method total fuel consumption (FC) vs. BP at constant speed is plotted
and the graph is extrapolated back to the fuel consumption and the point where the
graph cuts the BP axis is an indication of the FP of the engine at the speed. This
negative work represents the combined loss due to mechanical friction, pumping and
blow by. This test is only applicable to compression ignition engines.
4.

Indicated power (IP) = BP+FP

where BP = Brake power
FP = Friction power

5. Mechanical Efficiency (mech) = BP/IP

Sample calculations (B20):
1

Brake power (BP)

=
=

((d1 +d2)(W-S)N)/60000
((0.3+0.015)*(15-0.8)*1500)/60000

0.338 KW.

measured fuel (10cc) * 3600*specific gravity of fuel

2 Fuel consumption =
Time taken in seconds*1000

10*3600*0.8192

=
32*1000

=
3
4

0.911 kg/hr

FP is calculated from the graph in between FC and BP by Willians line method

FP= 0.09 KW
Indicated power = BP +FP
= 0.168+0.09
= 0.258 KW

Mechanical Efficiency (mech) = BP/IP

=0.168/0.258
33

= 78.97 %

CHAPTER - 8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
8.1 Introduction
This chapter is related about the influence of BP,FC and Mechanical
Efficiency finding the result which combinations of the factors voltage,current and
blended percentage is most efficient with the help of Taguchi method.experiment is
carried out for different blends of Waste cooking oil, Methanol and diesel and the
performance is evaluated for all the blends
34

8.2Response Table
The response table for BP,FC and Mechanical Efficiency are shown in table 6.1 along
with the input factors.
Table 8.1: Response Table
S.NO

Load
(kgs)

Compressio
n ratio

Blended
%

CO
(%vol
)

NOx
(ppm
)

Mechanical

01

16.5

B20

0.02

174

55.22

02

17

B30

0.02

145

58.25

03

17.5

B40

0.02

152

55

04

10

16.5

B30

0.02

415

74.11

05

10

17

B40

0.02

381

71.6

06

10

17.5

B20

0.02

380

71.6

07

15

16.5

B40

0.02

519

78.87

08

15

17

B20

0.01

536

78.97

09

15

17.5

B30

0.02

531

80.9

Here BP,FC and Mechanical Efficiency are calculated by using below formulae

BP

FC = (Measure fuel(10cc) * Specific Gravity *3600)/ (time taken in

=((d1 +d2)(W-S)N)/60000

seconds*1000)
Here Specific Gravity for

B20

B30

B40

0.8192
0.8012
0.8002

35

Pure diesel

0.8527

Mechanical efficiency = BP/IP

Here FP for B20

0.09

B30

0.08

B40

0.09

8.3 S/N Ratio Table

The S/N table for BP,FC and Mechanical Efficiency are shown in table 7.2 along with
the input factors.
Table 8.2: S/N Ratio for BP,FC and Mechanical

36

Load
(kgs)

Compression
ratio

S.NO

Blende
d%

Efficiency S/N Ratio

for
Efficienc
y

CO
(%vol)

S/N
Ratio
For
CO

NOx
(ppm)

S/N
Ratio
for NOx

SMALLER-THE- SMALLER-THEBETTER
BETTER
33.9794
-44.8110
0.02
174

01

16.5

B20

HIGHER-THEBETTER
34.8419
55.22

02

17

B30

58.25

35.2910

0.02

33.9794 145

-43.2274

03

17.5

B40

55

34.8073

0.02

33.9794 152

-43.6369

04

10

16.5

B30

74.11

37.3975

0.02

33.9794 415

-52.3610

05

10

17

B40

71.6

37.0983

0.02

33.9794 381

-51.6185

06

10

17.5

B20

71.6

37.0983

0.02

33.9794 380

-51.5957

07

15

16.5

B40

78.87

37.9382

0.02

33.9794 519

-54.3033

08

15

17

B20

78.97

37.9382

0.01

40.0000 536

-54.5833

09

15

17.5

B30

80.9

38.1590

0.02

33.9794 531

-54.5019

Here S/N Ratio is calculated by using below formulae

HIGHER-THE-BETTER=20Log (Y1)
SMALLER-THE-BETTER=20Log (Y2)
8.4 S/N Ratio plots for Efficiency

37

Fig 8.1:S/N Ratio plots for efficiency

The above figure gives optimized best sequence for efficiency.i.e
Load =15 kg
Compression ratio =17
Blended% = B30

8.5 S/N Ratio plots for CO

Fig 8.2:S/N Ratio plots for CO

38

The above figure gives optimized best sequence for COi.e

Load =15 kg (or) 10 kg
Compression ratio =16.5 (or) 17.5
Blended% = B30 (or) B40

8.6 S/N Ratio plots forNOx

Fig 8.3:S/N Ratio plots for NOx

The above figure gives optimized best sequence for NOxi.e
Load =15 kg
Compression ratio =16.5
Blended% = B20

8.7 Before and After Optimization Results

39

The following are the obtained optimized best sequences for IC Engine from
all techniques
Table 8.3 :Before and After Optimization Results

S.No

Responses

Before

After Optimization

MECHANICAL

Optimization
15 17.5 B30

15 17 B30

15 17 B20

15 16.5 B30 (or)

EFFICIENCY

CO

10 17.5 B40

NOx

5 17 B30

15 16.5 B20

8.8 Conformation Test

By conducting the experiments with the help of above sequences obtained
responses are shown in below table.

Table 8.4:Conformation test Results

40

S.No

Responses

Before

After Optimization

MECHANICAL

Optimization
15 17.5 B30

15 17 B30

EFFICIENCY
CO

(80.9%)
15 17 B20

(82%)
15 16.5 B30

(0.01%vol)

(0.008%)
(or)
10 17.5 B40
(0.009%)

NOx

5 17 B30

15 16.5 B20

(145 ppm)

(142 ppm)

CHAPTER -9
CONCLUSION
Here in this project Cottonseed oil and Neem oil Methanol were used as
blended fuels. By keeping neem at constant proportion and by varying cottonseed oil
and diesel in different proportions blended fuel was prepared. The cost of production
of this fuel is also less compared to conventional fuels.The experimental investigation
was carried out for different blends of Cotton seed oil and neem oil and the
performance was evaluated and compared with diesel. The work has presented the use
of Taguchi Method for optimization of the IC Engine process. The following factor
settings have been identified as to yield the best combination of process variables:
i)

For mechanical efficiency

Load =15 kgs, compression ratio= 17, and Blend=B30.
41

ii)

For Emissions:
CO:
Load=15 kgs, Compression ratio= 16.5, and Blend = B30.
Load=10 kgs, Compression ratio= 17.5, and Blend = B40.
NOx:
Load = 15 kgs, Compression ratio= 16.5, and Blend = B20.

The performance characteristics such as Brake Power were improved through this
approach and the emissions were reduced and inally the IC engine process were
optimized.

References
[1]K.Dilipkumar, P.RavindrakumarExperimental Investigation of Cotton Seed Oil and
Neem Methyl Esters as Biodiesel On Ci Engines, 11th national conference on IC
Engines, IIT Madras, India, 1983.
[2]BhojrajN.kalel, Dr.S.V.Prayagi, performance analysis of cottonseed oil methyl
ester for Compression Ignition engines,Conference of the Italian thermal Machines
Engineering Association, Elsevier,In proc. ATI2013. Energy procedia,45,198-206
[3]ShruthiH.Heroor, S.D. Rahul Bharadwaj ,Production of Bio-fuel from Crude Neem
Oil

and

its

Performance,International

congress

of

chemical

and

process

engineering,CHISA 2012
[4] S.Kirankumar, Experimental Investigation on Performance, Combustion
Characteristics of Diesel Engine by Using Cotton Seed Oil, International Journal of

42

Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT) Volume 5 number 1 - Nov 2013, pp.
47-53.
[5] R. Senthil Kumar and R.Manimaran, Performance and emission characteristics
on 4-stroke single cylinder C. I. Engine using cottonseed bio fuels,Asian Journal of
Engineering Research, ISSN-23192100, Vol. I, Issue II, Jan.-March.2013
[6] M. Martin and D. Prithviraj, Performance of Pre-heated Cottonseed Oil and
Diesel Fuel Blends in a Compression Ignition Engine, Jordan Journal of Mechanical
and Industrial Engineering,Volume 5, Number 3, June 2011 ISSN 1995-6665 Pages
235-240
[7] A. V. Krishna Reddy, M. Shiva Shankar and K. Apparao, Experimental
Determination Of Brake Thermal Efficiency And Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Of diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel, International Journal of Engineering and
Technology Vol.2 (5), 2010, pp. 305-309
[8] M.Harinathareddy, Dr.P.Nageswara Reddy and Dr.K.Vijayakumarreddy,
Experimental Investigation of Compressed Ignition Engine Using Cotton Seed Oil
Methyl Ester as Alternative Fuel, International Journal of Engineering and Science
ISBN: 2319-6483, ISSN: 2278-4721, Vol. 2, Issue 1 (January 2013), pp. 06-10.
[9] ShyamKumarRanganathan,AnilGandamwad&MayurBawankure,Performance
evaluation of C.I. engine with cottonseed oil, International Journal of
Instrumentation, Control and Automation (IJICA) ISSN: 2231-1890, Vol-1 Iss-3, 4,
2012, pp. 23-27.
[10] S. Naga Sarada, M.Shailaja, A.V. Sita Rama Raju1and K. KalyaniRadha,
Optimization of injection pressure for a compression ignition engine with cotton
seed oil as an alternate fuel, International Journal of Engineering, Science and
Technology, Vol. 2, No. 6, 2010, pp. 142-149 9] V. Ganeshan, Internal Combustion
Engines, 2nd edition, Mc Graw- Hill Publishing Company, NY, 2003.

43

APPENDIX
S.No

Process parameters

units

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Loads

Kg

10

15

Compression ratios

16.5

17

17.5

Blended %

B20

B30

B40

parameters and their levels

Table A.2: Experimental layout using an L9 orthogonal array

44

Table
A.1:
Process

S.NO

Design of Experiments
(L9 orthogonal array)
Load(kgs)

Table

01

Compressio
n ratio
16.5

02

17

B30

03

17.5

B40

04

10

16.5

B30

05

10

17

B40

06

10

17.5

B20

07

15

16.5

B40

08

15

17

B20

09

15

17.5

B30

Response Table

45

Blended %
B20

A.3:

S.NO

Load
(kgs)

Compression Blended
ratio
%

CO
(%vol)

NOx
(ppm)

Mechanical

01

16.5

B20

0.02

174

55.22

02

17

B30

0.02

145

58.15

03

17.5

B40

0.01

152

55

04

10

16.5

B30

0.02

415

74.11

05

10

17

B40

0.02

381

71.6

06

10

17.5

B20

0.02

380

71.6

07

15

16.5

B40

0.02

519

78.87

08

15

17

B20

0.01

536

78.97

09

15

17.5

B30

0.02

531

80.9

Load
(kgs)

S.NO

Compress
ion ratio

Blende
d%

Efficienc
y

46

S/N Ratio
for
Efficienc
y

CO
(%vol)

S/N
Ratio
For
CO

NOx
(ppm)

S/N
Ratio for
NOx

01

16.5

B20

HIGHER-THEBETTER
34.8419
55.22

SMALLER-THEBETTER
33.979
0.02
4

SMALLERTHE-BETTER
-44.8110
174

02

17

B30

58.25

35.2910

0.02

33.979
4

145

-43.2274

03

17.5

B40

55

34.8073

0.02

33.979
4

152

-43.6369

04

10

16.5

B30

74.11

37.3975

0.02

33.979
4

415

-52.3610

05

10

17

B40

71.6

37.0983

0.02

33.979
4

381

-51.6185

06

10

17.5

B20

71.6

37.0983

0.02

33.979
4

380

-51.5957

07

15

16.5

B40

78.87

37.9382

0.02

33.979
4

519

-54.3033

08

15

17

B20

78.97

37.9382

0.01

40.000
0

536

-54.5833

09

15

17.5

B30

80.9

38.1590

0.02

33.979
4

531

-54.5019

Table A.4: S/N Ratio for mechanical ,emissions(CO &NOx):

Table A.5: B20( 20% bio diesel,80% diesel)

S.No

Load
(kgs)

Speed Manometer
Time for Fuel
(rpm) readings(cm)
10cc(sec) consumptio
n (kg/hr)
H1
H2
1500

6.5

47

59

0.306

BP(kw)

0.111

FP(Kw IP
) (Kw)
0.09

0.201

10

1500

7.9

6.4

43

0.494

0.227

0.09

0.317

15

1500

7.8

6.3

32

0.911

0.338

0.09

0.428

Table A.6 : B30( 30% biodiesel, 70%diesel)

S.No

Load
(kgs)

Speed Manometer
Time for Fuel
(rpm) readings(cm)
10cc(sec) consumptio
n
H1
H2
(kg/hr)
1500
8
6.4
57
0.327

10

1500

7.9

6.3

42

15

1500

7.9

6.3

32

BP(kw
)

FP(Kw IP
) (Kw)

0.111

0.08

0.191

0.512

0.229

0.08

0.309

0.694

0.339

0.08

0.419

Table A.7:B40 (40% biodiesel, 60% diesel)

S.No

Loa
d
(kgs)

Spee Manometer
d readings(cm
(rpm )

Time for Fuel

10cc(sec) consumptio
n
48

BP
(kw)

FP(Kw) IP
(Kw)

mec
BP/

H1

H2

(Kg/hr)

1500

6.5

58

0.503

0.110

0.09

0.2

10

1500

6.9

6.4

43

0.678

0.227

0.09

0.317

71

15

1500

7.8

6.3

33

0.911

0.336

0.09

0.426

78.

Table A.8: Properties of blends

S.N
o
1

Blend

Viscosity(Cent
i poise)
B20
0.294

Flash point(0C)

Fire point(0C)

46

51

B30

0.304

48

52

B40

0.315

52

55

A.1:S/N Ratio plots for mechanical efficiency

49

Fig

Fig A.2:S/N Ratio plots for Emissions(C0)

50

Fig A.3:S/N Ratio plots for emissions(NOx)

51

52