The Collapse of the Liberal State & the Triumph of

Fascism in Italy 1896-1943

Political unification complete 1870
Constitutional monarchy based on UK model King could appoint & dismiss PM & other ministers but
govt could survive if commanded a maj in parl
King concerned with mil & foreign affairs and stayed out of domestic affairs
Only 2% pop could vote new state dominated by middle classes & wealthy
70% of pop were illiterate
Lack of Italian identity
Only 2% of pop spoke Italian dialects
Only small proportion had a role in bringing about unification
Hostility of Church
Pope refused to recognise new state & instructed Catholics to boycott elections (ban lifted in 1890)
Syllabus of Error 1864 condemned Liberalism
Economy
Agr country 68% dependent on land most peasants lived in poverty
Undeveloped industry lack of natural resources e.g. coal & iron ore
Mountainous geography made communications diff
Poor harvest of 1897 combined with high duty on imported wheat pushed up the price of food this
led to street demoes in 1898 govt crushed them with army
Political System
No clearly defined political parties few differences of opinion
Urban & rural poor didnt have the vote politicians drawn from the profs, wealthy middle classes
TRANSFORMISO: Instead politicians clustered around prominent politicians and formed factions
A number of factions would agree to support one another & form a govt & divide up ministerial posts
Such alliances were fragile when leading politician felt aggrieved over something, hed withdraw his
support & the govt would fall
This lead to 29 PM 1870-22
This gave the impression that Liberal politics was not about the people or good of nation, just the
pursuit of power
Giolittis reforms:
Resp for passage of leg. Forcing employers to grant 1 rest day per week
Outlawing employment of children under 12
Increased govt expenditure on public works 1907 govt spending 50% more than it had done in 1900
improving roads, farming, quality of drinking water in the south
Reduced taxes on food & supplied drug quinine to malaria affected areas
Govt should be seen as neutral in strikes believed employers should be prepared to negotiate with
employees
Managed to strike up a working relationship with moderate Catholics

Challenges to Liberal dominance

1. SOCIALISM: rapid ind. of N 1880s led to sizeable w/c attracted to socialist ideas
concerning pay, working conditions & ownership of industry Liberal reform of 1881 allowed 2
mill more to vote this gave socialists incentive to org. a single socialist party. At Genoa
Congress 1892 it divided into 2 groupings rev dedicated to strikes & more moderate group
had to be involved in local pol first (PSI 1895 27,000 in 1897) 1900 PSI won 32 seats with
200,000 votes. PSI wanted universal suffrage, 8 hr day, income tax & womens rights little
support.
2.
CATHOLICISM: Fear of socialism made him remove ban of Catholics participating in
politics and in 1909 they could be candidates now impossible to ignore Catholics qu = how
liberals deal with them and anti-clerics within own party
3. NATIONALISM: m/c intellectuals support in media accused libs of putting own career
before good of the country. Condemned them for failing to make Italy a great power. They
wanted a larger empire & increased mil spending as well as a more aggressive foreign policy.
Italy on eve of WW1
Positive:
Nat mil service & free primary ed creating sense of nation
Rapid ec progress nat income raised from 61 bill lira in 1895 to 92 bill lira in 1915
- 6 fold increase in foreign trade in 50yrs up to 1913
- Taxes on food reduced
- Improved roads, railways & supply of drinking water
Joined the Triple Alliance with Germany & Austria-Hungary
Built up an empire in East Africa Libya 1911
Stable pol syst vote extended from 1912 effectively universal male suffrage
Giolitti (PM for all but 3 yrs 1903-14) co-opted socialists & moderate Catholics into his coalition
Negative:
Socialists complained:
Capitalist exploitation of workers wages low, hrs long, poor relative to w euro welfare benefits,
army used to crush strikers and other pol parties
Wealth of country squandered on imperialist adventure sin E Afr & Libya
Severe poverty still widespread
5 mill emigrated to USA & S Amer 1871-1915
Nationalists complained:
Claimed they lacked the will to make it a great nation humiliating defeat at Adowa 1896
Emigration = disgrace losing vital energy for the ec or army
They hadnt crushed socialism or provided an alternative creed for workers to believe in
No national spirit
Politicians only concerned with careers e.g. Giolitti allied with socialists & Catholics & attempted to
manipulate results of elections
Catholics complained:
Found it diff to supp Liberals who had trampled over Popes territorial rights in 1870
Increased suffrage encourage cath groups dedicated to helping cath poor funds provided by govt
inadequate Sicily 0.01% pop owned 50 % of the land
Cath looking for social reforms would form part of the Poplari est. After WW1
Cons cath saw regime preferably to socialism
Pope still not prepared to permit a Cath pol party

Political Divisions:
Ec division ind n & poor s
Divisions between urban w/c and m/c employers
Coalition between socialists, libs & cath ended by Libyan war 1911 Socialists condemned it & the revs
of party displaced the moderates in the dom faction of the party Socialist newspaper Avanti
(headed by Muss) called for abolition of private property & advocated violent strikes to overthrow
the state
The right was appalled & began to listen to those who criticised Giolitti & whole liberal system
wanted a return to some sort of auth. System had infl amongst industrialists & landowners
ITALIAN POLITICS WAS POLARISING
WW1 libs remained in power but basis of support was now shallow now vast maj had vote, support
for nats & socialists was growing
Diff exacerbated by divisions amongst liberal leaders thought victorious war would reunite Italy
Italy at War:
Initially neutral despite Triple Alliance govt declared it defunct claimed Austria had broken the
terms by attacking Serbia without consulting Italy most Italians welcomed this decision (as Austria
had resisted unification & still occupied Trentino & Istria inhabited by Italian speakers)
Former PM Giolitti, Cath & Socialists thought Italy was not ready for war but govt feared Triple
Alliance victory would only strengthen Austrian borders against Italy & if Entente won they would not
be sympathetic to Italian ambitions in Mediterranean believed they had intervene on the side which
would offer them the best terms.
Negot in 1915 with Austria clear wouldnt give up Trentino or Trieste but Entente offered these &
Austrian lands Tyrol, Istria, Dalmatia to allow Italy to dominate the Adriatic Coast therefore May
1915 entered on side of Entente.
Mass of pop didnt welcome news Catholic Church made clear Catholics shouldnt denounce enemy as
Catholic country
5 mill conscripts mainly from rural areas appalling conditions, poor rations and low pay
War of attrition on alpine north border heavy body count
Defeat at Battle of Caporetto 700,000 Italians retreated in disorder over 100 miles 300,000 taken
prisoner Commander in Chief blamed it on the cowardice of the troops executed several thousand
as retribution & then sacked by govt
Battle of Vittoorio Veneto - Oct attacked Austrians heavy death count 40,000 killed or wounded
Austrians collapsed & Italians gained 500,000 prisoners of war Austria called for armistice
Economic legacy:
INFLATION
War increased anticipation of territorial gains but never materialised
650,000 men died & 1 mill seriously injured
Financial cost of keeping army had led to borrowing from US and printing of more money prices
quadrupled during war years
Inflation hit middle classes destroyed savings
Purchasing power of wages fell by 25% 1915-1918
But industrialists did well as increased prices Pirelli tyres, Fiat largest manufacturer of
commercial vehicles in Europe in 1918 but profits fell as war ended and demand dropped.
INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES
End of war led to labour militancy as wartime discipline in factories relaxed
Vented frustration of longer hrs, fall in real wages & ban on industrial action

1919 mill plus workers took part in strikes

Socialist trade union membership shot up from mill in 1918 to 2 mill 1920
UNEMPLOYMENT
Returning soldiers found it diff to find jobs
1919 2 mill unemployed
Poor reward for their sacrifices
SOCIALIST THREAT
As ec worsened increased membership of Socialist party (from 50,000 in 1914 60 200,000 in 1919
Calling for overthrow of liberal state dictatorship of the proletariat private property confiscated
& wealth distributed
1st election with manhood suffrage 1919- socialists won 32.4% vote & 156 seats largest single party
in parl
Middle classes fearful socialist deputies interrupted Kings speech shouting Long live the socialist
republic & marched out singing socialist anthem, Red Flag
Govt under Nitti was urging industrialists to make concessions to workers this angered
conservatives, landowners, shopkeepers
Peasants had started occupying uncultivated land & farming it for themselves joining socialist trade
unions
MUTILIATED VICTORY
Nationalists believed govt failed to defend nations interests at peace conference they wanted
territories agreed plus the city of Fiume
Treaty of St Germain ceded land in south Tyrol, Trentino but refused to hand over Fiume as vital to
ec of new Yugoslav state
Italy denied Dalmatia as few Italians lived there & would not share in divisions of German colonies in
Africa
Her sacrifices had only won them mutilated victory
Demobilised soldiers saw peace treaty as further humiliation blamed Liberal govt
SEIZURE OF FIUME
Sept 1919 Gabriele DAnnunzio led 2000 armed men to city of Fiume & occupied it in defiance of It
govt
Nat. & ex-sold. Hailed him of the embodiment of the Italy they wanted to create he showed way to
achieve results was through action rather than talking
Govt lacked courage to end the occupation DAnnunzio ruled for over 1 year he became a public
hero, his dramatic style & eye for publicity copied by Mussolini
BIRTH OF FASCISM
Benito Mussolini 36 yr old editor of Il Popolo dItalia newspaper of combatants & producers
soldiers, farmers & factory workers.
March 1919 called inaugural meeting of a new movement Fasci di Combattimento (combat groups)
100 came to Milan rep wide range of views nationalists, republicans, anarchists & radical poets &
painters, they had little in common except hatred of liberal state & contempt for class struggle
rhetoric
Programme:
New nat assembly set up
Italian republic monarchy abolished
Suppression of all major companies
Control & taxation of private wealth
Workers to have sig. Share of profits businesses they work in

FAILURE:
Lacked cohesion to form disciplined pol party
General election 1919- Muss failed to become a deputy got only 5000 of 270,000 votes cast in Milan.
Fascism did badly everywhere didnt win a single seat
Only 4000 declared Fascist supporters in the whole of Italy!
LIBERAL PROBLEMS IN PARLIAMENT
Libs & allies could only muster 180 of 508 seats in Parl & still lacked cohesion & discipline
Chamber of Deputies contained Socialist Party 156 seats & Catholic Popular Party (PPI set up 1919
cons cath & cath determined to improve lot of peasantry, prepared to support liberal govt in return
for concessions on policy) 100 seats
Nitti survived but relieved on Catholic deputies to maintain fragile majority
Nitts govt discredited by Fiume Cath support decreased, so maj collapsed therefore he resigned
Giolitti returned as his replacement, tried to set up a coalition socialists hostile & he as an anticleric had to rely on cath support
OCUPPATION OF THE FACTORIES
Sept 1920 engineering workers engaged in wage dispute occupied factory to prevent employers from
locking them out within days 400,000 workers from n cities involved
Employers demanded govt crush strike by Giolitti wanted to use old technique of sitting it out &
urged them to make concessions to the workers
Enraged industrialists who saw govt as weak & believed some of factories being used to produce
weapons for the strikers.
Strike collapsed w/in 1 month but industrialists & conservatives would not forgive him.
SOCIALIST ADVANCES IN THE COUNTRYSIDE
Agr strikes & land occupations increasing
Emilia, Po Valley, Umbria & Tuscany Socialist TU expanding mill members gaining stranglehold over
agr employment
Unions in Emilia demanded higher wages & guarantees workers wouldnt be laid off in quieter times of
year
In Ferrara & Bologna a labourer could only gain employment through a job centre run by the Socialist
Labourers Union.
1920 Socialists found themselves in control of 26 of the 69 provinces Emilia Socialists controlled
80% of local councils
Fear from middle classes taxes would be waged on the better off / shop keepers feared being
squeezed out by the new co-operative shops
ANTI-SOCIALIST BACKLASH
Right though they had been abandoned by the govt & fought back
Emilia & Tuscany landowners turned to Fascist groups who shared their hatred of Socialists & needed
little encouragement to attack them
Adept at burning down socialist offices & beating up trade unionists
Enemies could be forced to drink castor oil trademark for Fascist thugs
Violence winter & spring 1921 destroying 80 trade union offices, 200 dead
By Spring Emilia & Tuscany = strongholds of Fascist squads
Police had looked the other way as squadrismo had crushed socialist power

FASCIST SUPPORTERS
Squads = m/c students, demobilised soldiers, ex-army officers & more junior ranks
As proved ability in intimidating socialist they attracted more followers small farmers, farm
managers, sharecroppers
End of 1921 200,000 active supporters 50% ex-service men, landowners, shopkeepers, clerical
workers, teachers. Workers in the squads but leadership = middle class
10% members were students & 25% below the voting age
Fascism was an exciting contrast to Liberal politics
Many prev cons end of Liberals turned to Fascists
Farinacci, Balbo, Grandi all dedicated to violent squadrismo Fascism remained a revolutionary
movement
MUSSOLINIS CONTROL OVER FASCIST SQUADRISMO
Muss hadnt been the guiding hand behind fascist violence Balbo, FArinacci, Grandi built up their
own power
He drove to reassert himself as sole leader reluctance on Ras to surrender independence he
argued his dom personality & newspaper was vital as it presented the national image of Fascism he
could present squadrismo as anti-Socialist crusade
ELECTORAL BREAKTHROUGH: MAY 1921
Muss suggested to libs squadrismo nothing more than bluster Giolitti taken in & believed Fascist
were mere fireworks: theyll make a great deal of noise but only leave smoke behind He assumed
theyd be another pol party absorbed into the liberal system.
Fascists & Giolittian Libs co-op elections 1921 (Fascist violence cont killing 100 socialists
sympathisers) BUT socialists remained largest party 123 seats, Popolari 107
Fascists had secured 7% of total vote & 35 seats. Mussolini was now a deputy.
MUSSOLINI SEIZES THE INIATIVE: MAY 1921-OCT 1922
Elections gave Muss an air of respectability & foothold in parl
Announced Fascists would not support Giolittis govt demoing Liberalism was finished
To appeal to middle classes & conservatives he had to downplay radical ec and social reform ideas
Without muss imposs for govt to survive & collapsed w/in a month
Popolari withdrew supp when govt introed tax which would have had side affect of hitting Vaticans
financial investments now virtually impossible for any govt to survive
Liberals divided amongst themselves as well Giolitti, Salandra, Facta & Orlando all disliked each
other
Therefore the 3 govt May 1921-Oct 1922 were fragile & unable to intro decisive measures to cope
with industrial disruption
Collapse of law & order - Squadrismo cont 1921 socialists attacked socialist deputy even beaten up
on the fall of the chamber by fascists!
MUSSOLINI INCREASES HIS CONTROL OVER THE FASCIST MOVEMENT
Est National Fascist Party Oct 1921 fascism no longer just a movement but a recognised political
party, in the next month the party formally accepted Mussolini at party congress as the leader.
Party to be run & org. by men from Milan faction BUT control over provisional Fascism by no means
total

REASSURING THE CATHOLIC CHURCH & CONSERVATIVES

Nov 1921 direct appeal to Caths Fascists opposed divorce, peasants deserved a better deal,
prepared to settle Roman question on terms acceptable to the Pope
He deplored govt conciliatory approach to labour, dropped left-wing policies of 1919 (he had already
done so in 1920 35 deputies were from the right wing of movement)
From 1921 his speeches focused on what Fascism was against persuading conservative they had
nothing to fear
Muss wanted a strong, expansionist Italy, hated socialism & democracy & despised pal
FASCIST VIOLENCE
When to talking to cons he disassociated himself from worst excesses of fascist violence suggesting
he could curb it used it as pressure to get them to work with the fascists if shared power, he
could make the fascists respectable
Yet still encouraged fascist violence squads rampaged through north-central Italy drove out the
town council of Bologna
Street fighting police unwilling to get involved to protect socialists & in some areas they even
loaned weapons to the fascists
GENERAL STRIKE
End of July 1922 Socialists called a general strike to force govt to act against the fascists
Muss used this to demo left still a threat & that only fascism could deal with it
He publicly declared if govt would not stop the ind action, his fascists would do it for them
Fascists took over running of public transport & ensured postal system still functioned
If strikers protested they were beaten up
Strike = fiasco, badly org. & only attracted partial support from the workers, within days it collapsed
Muss could present fascists as sole defenders of law & order impressed the middle classes, helped
convince them the fascists could be trusted with a share in govt
MARCH ON ROME
Negotiated with Liberal factions over which ministerial posts fascists could have
Talked to party of org coup dtat (they had wanted to seize power after abortive strike & took his
full authority to dissuade them)
Oct started to org Fascist march on Rome squads org into militia & plans drawn up to seize major
towns & cities of northern & central Italy. Around 30,000 fascists would converge on capital & install
themselves in power Muss used this as ultimate piece of political blackmail as well as stressed
nothing to fear from fascist govt and would work with the monarchy
Night of 27th Oct Fascist squads seized town halls, telephone exchanges, railways stations
throughout northern Italy. Early 28th govt acted & persuaded King to declare state of siege police
& troops prepared to disperse Fascists but by 9am King had changed his mind. He now refused to
authorise martial law showed king lacked confidence in govt, may have feared a civil war, disliked
liberals this led the govt to resign Salandra approached by King he tried to negotiate with the
Fascists but Muss accept nothing less than post as PM.
Even other libs didnt support Salandra King asked Muss on 29 th Oct to head the govt.
An aberration result of the times Benedetto Croce
Failure of the state it had be foisted on Italian people, didnt rep the masses
Fear of Socialism Alexander de Grand claims fascism grew out of the fear of the rapid rise of
socialism post WW1
Role of Mussolini Denis Mack Smith Muss made political capital of the disorder, astute political
awareness that route to power lay through the conservatives, reassured the liberals as well

Liberal failings Gramsci rise of Fascism was the deliberate attempt of liberals to crush the growing
power of workers
MUSSOLINIs ICREASING POWER 1922-4
30th Oct 1922 Muss appointed PM black shirts permitted to enter city & paraded in triumph
Complete fascist govt not poss yet no majority & King controlled army
1st govt 14 senior minister 4 fascists (maj = Popolari & Libs)
Libs thought could use Fascists to crush socialists and then co-opt them into liberal syst though
fascist had no coherent ideology
Muss used threat of violence to intimidate parl working to convince MPs if gave him dictatorial
powers he would act in interests of Italy played on threat of Socialist rev (in reality non-existent)
Demanded rule by decree for 12 months to restore law & order speech to parl Nov 1922
Only socialists & communists opposed the notion prominent libs gave support Salandra, Giolitti &
Facta
MPs convinced until 1924 that Muss could be transformed into a respectable politician
Tried to increase power over party
Created GRAND COUNCIL OF FASCISM (Dec) supreme body within the movement which discussed
policy proposals & made all key appointments within the party
Muss gave himself right to make all appointments to the Grand Council of Fascism this meant he
controlled policy
Converted Fascist squads into NATIONAL MILITIA to decrease power of local leaders he now had
army of 30,000 men
Support
CONFINDUSTRIA employers org. convinced them to support his premiership convinced by his
decision not to attack widespread tax evasion (proved he wasnt a radical)
CHURCH confirmed he intended to ban contraception & re led compulsory in schools Pope started
to withdraw support from the Popolari instructed its leader, Don Sturzo to leave Italy! BY 1923
Popolari dropped from the coalition
ACERBO LAW
Proposal = party winning most votes in general election (provided at least of votes cast) would win
2/3 of seats in chamber of deputies
Idea = produce a govt that could count on maj support
In reality mean fascists would dominate & make it difficult to vote then out
July 1923 it got maj support but armed black shirts roamed the chamber but MPs turned blind eye
to arrests & beatings of socialists & welcomed end to coalition govts
Still believed he wanted to work with parl as he was head of a coalition govt
1924 ELECTION April 1924
Fascists campaigned with right-wing liberals (Salandra)
Won 66% of vote seats increased from 35 to 374 out of 535
But despite vote rigging and violence socialists & comms still got 2.5 mill votes Milan & Turin (2
major cities of the north) failed to produce fascist majorities
Creation of the Fascist Dictatorship 1924-8
Limits to power = parl still needed to approve laws
Opposition parties still existed

King could still sack PM

MURDER OF MATTEOTTI
When parl reopened opp MPs tried to publicise illegal fascist action at polls
Socialist Giacomo Matteotti was prominent spokesman produced evidence of fascist terror
Within days of allegation he was abducted in broad daylight by fascist thugs & stabbed to death
SHOCK fascist gone too far links between Muss & crime came out although he denied it
Opposition MPs walked out of parl in protest communists, socialists & Popolari Aventine Secession
in hope to encourage king to dismiss Muss
King refused to dismiss him feared it would strengthen the rev left & libs convinced him this was an
opp to control Muss Giolitti & Salandra still supported Muss as PM
Muss moved to prevent further opposition
PRESS CENSORSHIP July 1924 this lead prev supporting liberals to move to the opposition
August he banned meetings by opposition political parties
Dec 1924 ultimatum presented to Muss from party if he didnt end Matteotti affair & more to
dictatorship, they would withdraw their support
PM 3rd Jan 1925 told parl he accepted responsibility for all fascist actions up to date & that he would
now take measure to increase his own power speech as cheer in chamber
Jan 1925 established a committee to reform the constitution
LEGGI FASCISTISSIME (Dec) passed banned opposition parties & free trade unions
Press censorship tightened
New secret police set up
Special court set up to try political crimes
Control of local govt increased replaced mayors with nominated officials PODESTAS
Jan 1926 Muss granted right to issue decrees carrying the full force of law he could make laws
without consulting parliament personal rule enshrined in law
1928 King lost right to select PM list of potentials to be drawn up by Grand Council of Fascism &
King select from the list
Personal Dictatorship
1926 Muss = dictator
Issue decrees
Parl under his control not a forum for debate
Liberals & Popolari divided & socialists under constant attack
Technically could still be dismissed by the king
PROPAGANDA
1926 opposition newspapers suppressed
Journalists & editors made aware they could be arrested if published anything derogatory towards
the regime
Muss press office issued official versions of events
1924 radio network was run by the state radios given to schools & by 30s party was trying to
ensure even people in rural areas were listening to communal radios
Newsreels before films
CULT OF THE PERSONALITY
Media = key

Stress his superhuman talents

Il Duce
Italys saviour not a mere politician chosen by destiny to save country from the socialist menace
The new Caesar genius, man of action, man of culture, world statesman
Newspapers quoting comments by foreign statesmen- Chamberlain a wonderful man working for the
greatness of his country
Churchill the Duces sole thought was the lasting wellbeing of the Italian people as he see it
Rumour was he worked for 20 hrs a day would leave light on in study when had gone to bed!
Mussolini is always right became a popular phrase infallible
Athletic photos of him horse riding, driving fast cars, and flying
Became known he had digested 35 vols of Italian encyclopaedia & read classics of euro lit including
complete works of William Shakespeare
Accomplished musician idea man of culture
Muss believed public were stupid & preferred to be told what to do one must know how to strike the
imagination of the public: that is the real secret of how to govern
Helped to convince some that there was no alternative to Muss.
MUSSOLINI & GOVT
Muss overawed the King followed protocol of visiting King twice a week but he never asked for
advice
No cab govt role of ministers was to follow instructions, Muss held most imp ministerial posts
foreign affairs, interior & 3 armed services.
Parl no debate, just assent of policies, ceased to vote free elections ceased to exist
Electorate was reduced to exclude most of w/c who had supported the socialists
All parl candidates had to be approved by the fascists
Results were rigged
Jan 1939 Parl abolished itself altogether to be replaced by meaningless Chamber of Fasces &
Corporations
Civil Service didnt dismiss personnel from state institutions most cons sympathetic to him used
power of patronage to reward loyalty & rooted out opposition no fascist rev in govt
Armed forces stressed their common ground expansionist policies, promoted senior generals to
field marshal & demoed that loyalty would be rewarded some resentment at status of the fascist
militia
Judges purge of undesirable elements dozens sacked
Ensured legal system could be relied upon to carry out govt orders
Prison without trial became commonplace
Muss occasionally intervened on some verdicts & sentences
Local govt abolished replaced with officials appointed from Rome
MUSSOLINI & POWERFUL GROUPS WITHIN FASCIST SOCIETY
Church disavowed his earlier anti-clericalism
Emph their common enemies socialism & comm.
Lateran Treaties 1929
Industrialists Vidoni Place Pact 1925 all Socialist & Catholic TU banned

1926 strikes outlawed

CONTROL OF THE PARTY
Grand Council of Fascism
Fascist Militia
1923 local parties were purged of dissidents
June 1925 party congress demanded party should heal internal divisions & listen to their leader
congress lasted a few hrs instead of days
End of 1928 purge of Fascists suspected of disloyalty & est. Principle that all Party posts should be
appointments made from Rome
PNF totally subservient
Only Muss held party together not united movement broad, uneasy coalition of groups with
differing priorities & onions
e.g. Squadristi demanded cont violent raids
ex-socialists wanted reorg of industry
nationalists wanted revision of WW1 peace settlement
conservative hoped for the restoration of law & order as well as normality
Party became dominated by white collar state employees wanting career progression workers &
peasants who had made up 30% of support became a tiny minority
No serious rival ever emerged potential rivals moved from centre of power e.g. Balbo post in Libya,
Dino Grandi despatched to London
Party & state rivalry over who should have control
e.g. ONB control by party or min of ed? Rivalry in armed services between army & militia, local govt
local party secretaries rivalled with provisional prefects.
They looked to Muss to solve disputes & therefore this gave him power could transfer power from
one to the other e.g. ONB taken off party & given to min of ed in 1929.
BUT this made govt slow & inefficient, delays unavoidable
Fact Muss occupied most imp ministerial posts made sit worse decisions made without proper
consultation e.g. new fighter plane with only cursory glance at docs.
Confusion, delay & incompetence below Muss
SUPPORT & OPPOSITION
Opp diff fear due to Matteotti, ban on political activity, dissidents spied on
OVRA secret police beat up, imprisoned without trial
Comm = underground newspaper LUnita 7000 active supporters
Justice & Liberty Carlo Roselli (escaped from fascist jail in 1929 Paris) hoped to create an alliance
between Socialists & Liberals kept international press informed of repression & injustice within
Italy, smuggled in leaflets few thousand supporters but full attention of fascists Roselli murdered
1937
Opp was divided & failed to create a common anti-Fascist front
Set up prison camps on remote islands Lipari & Lampedusa 5000 (diff scale to Nazis)
Regime encouraged coop
Loyal journalists received extra pay in govt grants, Marconi the inventor of radio was made marquis,
DAnnunzio give large pension & palatial villa
Duce created Fascist Academy gave plum jobs & fat salaries to leading professors
Teachers had to join a Fascist Teachers Association to keep jobs
Musicians required to join Fascist Union of musicians
Regime provided moderate prosperity without demanding too much from public

Foreign adventures excited public interest

Renzo De Felice argued Muss genuinely popular esp 1929-36
De Grand Fascism managed to develop a broad, if only passive, consensus after the elimination of any
real alternative in 1925 & the integration of the Catholics into the regime after 1929
Martin Clark The Fascist regime seemed tolerable & was even popular until 1937-8. It was careful
not to alienate vested interests...Active resistance seemed pointless
Economy
Muss = no economist
Initially policies to make position secure
Corporate State Transformation of the ec.
Mid 1930s priority shifted to Abyssinian war autarky
1922-7
Came to power at beginning of boom period exports x2 1922-5 took credit
Appointed ec prof as Treasury Min Alberto de Stefani policy was to reassure industrialists as
limited govt spending which helped to fight inflation
Reduced state intervention in industry telephone network taken out of govt control, reduced taxes
& abandoned some on companies that had made huge profits in the war
Outlawing of Catholic & Socialist TU 1925
Battle for the Lira
1926 boom ending & exchange rate of lira falling 150 lira to the
Announced the Battle for the Lira notion = a vibrant country should have a vibrant currency set
new rate of exchange of 90 Lira to the Dec 1927 (the value it had been the month he came to
power)
Increased prestige with foreign bankers & at home
BUT not beneficial as foreign buyers found Italian goods twice as expensive export industries esp.
Textiles went into depression
Unemployment x3 1926-8
Even Fiat was exporting fewer cars in 1930s than it had in 1920s
It should have helped consumer as foreign goods became cheaper but Duce prevented this by placing
tariffs on them
Only winners = steel, armaments, shipbuilding that needed cheap tariff free imported raw materials
Corporate State
Rev method of running the ec.
Corporations would be set up in each sector of the economy & within in each would be employers &
fascist TU to rep the workers. The corporations would org. production, pay & working conditions in
each industry. If they could not agree, it would go to a labour court administered by the Ministry of
Corporations
Looked like provide more rights for workers but reality rivalries within the party ended this.
Rossoni head of Fascist TU saw a big role for TU but he was opposed by employers org. Giuseppe
Bottai headed Min of Corporations he distrusted Rossoni. All sides looked to Duce for a solution.
He came down on side of industry & Bottai.
Bottai had to write Labour Charter nothing in it to threaten industry
Rossonis influence reduced further when his union was divided into 6 federations & his followers
removed
Min of Corp claimed success in 1929

By 1934 there were 22 corporations covering nearly every area of the economy but workers unable
to choose their own reps in the corporations fascist candidates foisted on them & they tended to
rule in favour of the employers
Only on issues of sick pay & paid holidays did the corporations further workers interests.
Industrialists were allowed to keep their non Fascist employers organisations & largely ignored the
corporations
Regulations issued by the corporations were only advisory
Depression
Large no. Of companies collapsed
Car production fell by 50%
1933 2 mill unemployed
Introed public work schemes building of motorways & hydroelectric plants to provide work
increased circulation of money which stimulated demanded and jobs
Fascist govt bailed out the banks who had given loans to industries who could no longer afford the
repayments
Creation of Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) 1933 took control of shares of the banks
they bailed out. The govt in guise of IRI became effective owner of many of the top companies. IRI
took over responsibility of giving loans to companies from banks.
Italy weathered the depression better than her democratic neighbours (but it cost the taxpayer a
great deal of money)
Preparing for War
Believed war was inevitable & Italy had to be prepared
Italy must become self-sufficient autarky proved his point with ec sanctions imposed by League of
Nations in Abyssinian Crisis
Muss encouraged heavy industry, allowed near monopolies to dev Pirelli dom rubber, Fiat car
manufacturing.
Expanded state control 80% of ship building & 50% of steel prod directed by state
BUT 1940 still importing oil, coal, iron ore
Italy unable to match enemies levels of production & couldnt replace losses in aircraft & shipping
Govt was spending huge amount on rearm programmes & fund mil adventures in Abyssinia & Spain but
didnt want to increase taxes, therefore expenditure exceeded income by late 1930s
Muss refused to recognise prob & it remained unsolved
Impact on Living Standards
Wage cuts in 1920s & 1930s price rises
1925-38 real wages fell by 10%+
Falling consumption of meat, fruit & veget.
Unemploy. Rose 2 mill 1933
Middle classes less likely to suffer unemploy. Govt employed 1 mill
Muss not committed to raising the standard of living
Agriculture
Battle for Grain
1925 promote fascist power & self sufficiency
Traditionally Italy had to import large amount of grain to feed pop = weakness
Push to increase grain production
Provided farmers with grants for tractors, fertilisers free advice on efficient techniques

Average grain harvest increased from 5.5 mill tonnes per year in early 1920s to over 7 million tonnes
1930s
Grain imports fell 75% 1925-35
Surface = success
BUT much of land in central & southern regions turned to wheat was unsuitable more suited to
citrus fruit, wine & olives as a result traditional exports decreased
Land Reclamation (2nd initiative)
Muss expanded prev govt schemes of draining & irrigating farmland
Pontine Marshes (50km from Rome) showpiece for media malaria swamps drained & small farms set
up owned by ex-servicemen
Improved public health & provided thousands of jobs in depression
But amount of land reclamation was limited
Impact on Living Standards
Agr workers suffered even heavier wage cuts in 1930s
Usual route out was emigration but USA stopped immigration, therefore left countryside for towns
mill & 1921-41 pop of Rome x2
Muss dropped law to break up large landowners estates & distribute to farmers failure to break
landowners cemented the agr. Backwardness
Failed to look after south only visited Sicily once in 1924
Little ec change, changes made communications motorways were done for propaganda purposes
Fascism & the Catholic Church
Recognised accommodation with church could bring him great support & prestige
1922 Muss posing as alt. godless liberals & atheist communists
Secured confidence of Pope by restoring cath ed to school & increasing govt payments to priests
Pope withdrew support of Popolari in 1923 neutralised opposition
Lateran Agreements
Officially ended church / state conflict of 60 yrs
Pope agreed tor recognise the Italian state & its possession of Rome
State recognised Popes control over Vatican City as independent from the Italian state & gave 30
mill compensation for surrendering claim o Rome
Catholicism est. as state religion
Pope could appoint all bishops but state could veto nay politically suspect candidates
State would pay salaries of the clergy
Clergy could not belong to political groups
Cath re led compulsory in schools
No divorce without the consent of the church
End to compulsory civil ceremony church wedding had full legal recognition
Clerics could not become the focus for opp but marriage of convenience
Tensions
Relations cooled in the 30s
1931 row over Catholic Action youth groups govt tried to suppress it Cath Action had to be
restricted to rel activities
Cath Church made it very clear regime shouldnt try & close rel schools
Church declared the creed of Fascist Balilla blasphemous
Radio Vatican broadcasted alt news & info limit to Fascists totalitarian claims
But support wars in Abyssinia & Spain as Christian Crusades
Under Pope Pius IX disquiet over anti-Semitism voiced

Women
Fascist & Cath views coincided
Contraception & abortion unnatural, womans place was in the home & role was a mother
Banned contraception & education emphasised traditional gender roles
Battle for Births
1927
Designed to increase pop from 40 to 60 mill by 1950
12 children per family was specified as ideal!
Marriage loans part of repayment cancelled with each child born
Married man with at least 6 children was exempt from taxation
Improved healthcare for mothers & infants
Propaganda suggested all Italians had a duty to produce children
Prizes given to prolific mothers
Bachelors were taxed govt raised 230 mill lira in 1939
Late 1930s jobs & promos in c/s only open to married fertile men
Pressure for women to stay at home state railway company sacked all women appointed since 1915
except war widows
1933 quota system in public service only 10% of jobs to women, 1938 extended to large & medium
private firms exceptions being cleaners & waitresses
Rate of marriage remained unchanged
Birth rate decline until 1936 102 live births per 1000 women of childbearing age compared to 147 in
1911
1950 pop = 47.5 mill!
Duce was bitter & claimed unpatriotic Italians lost him 15 army divisions in WW2!
Despite pressure to exclude women, they still made up 33% of workforce
Youth
Dream = millions of aggressive, athletic & discipline Fascists
Schools
From 1925 teachers of suspect politics dismissed & from 1929 had to take oath of loyalty
1931 Fascist Teachers Assoc to regulate prof & membership compulsory by 1937
Promoted cult of the personality
Duces portrait hung alongside the Kings
Italian history & lit became priorities unpatriotic books banned
1936 a single official text compulsory
View = Italy cradle of European civilisation, claimed Italian victories in WW1 had saved UK!
BUT substantial number left school at 11 so avoided full programme of indoctrination
In private & cath schools full curr & ONB never enforced
Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB)
1926 to org youth movements
Early 1930s membership was compulsory from 8yrs of age
By 1937 7 million + had joined
Focus = moral & physical ed transform Italian body & soul military training & fascist ideology
Uni level = GUF (Gruppi Universitari Fascisti)
Social Life
Doplavoro 1925 provide leisure activities to influence workers towards a Fascist view of life &
compensate for defunct TU

Mid 1930s controlled all football clubs, 1350 theatres, 2000 drama societies, 3000 brass bands,
8000 libraries
Virtually every town & village, even in south, had own doplavoro club house
1926 membership = 300,000, 1935 2.4 mill, 1939 4 mill
Italians quick to take adv of subsidised sports, entertainments & excursions
Only lip service paid to Fascist ideas emphasis was on having a good time
Failures
1937 Fascist salute instead of handshake made compulsory
1938 told to stop using lei polite form of address & use voi a more Italian word
Attempts to change calendar so ear 1 would be 1922
Duce condemned women for wearing makeup & tried to ban them from wearing trousers!
Fascism didnt penetrate the psyche of most Italians outward conformity but little inner conviction
Italian Foreign Policy
Aim = to make Italy great, respected & feared
Rejected earlier anti-imperialist & anti-war views
Italy regain greatness through mil build-up, diplomacy & need be war
Wanted Italy to dominate the Mediterranean, expand empire in Africa & have Balkans as own sphere
of influence
No clear plans
1922-32
Secure position n Europe threat to northern borders removed with friendship of France &
dismemberment of Austro-Hungarian empire
BUT UK & Fr dom forces, any changes to Euro status quo would require their support
Greece & Corfu
Aug 1923 Italian general & 4 of staff assassination in Greece working for international boundary
commission set up by the peace settlement & advising on location of Greek-Albanian border
Muss blamed Greek govt & demanded an apology & %0 mill Lira compensation Greeks refused he
ordered the bombardment & occupation of Greek island Corfu UK & European powers demanded he
withdrew but he did get his 50 mill Lira but no apology
Hailed as dip success showed could bully smaller powers but showed unable to stand up to big
powers
Yugoslavia & Albania
1924 Pact of Rome Italy received Fiume prestige
Wanted to push Yugoslavia around resented Fr infl there
Opp = 1924 when Italian sponsored local chieftain Ahmed Zog took power in Albania on Yugoslavias
border
Fascists supplied Zog with money, encouraged Italian companies to invest in Albanian ec, and advised
army 1926 Treaty of Friendship Albania nothing more than a satellite state
Italy posed threat to Yugoslavia Muss occupied it in WW2
Relations with UK & France
Member of LofN, Locarno Treaty & anti-war 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact
Italy & UK agreement over location of borders of their N African territories but took little care of
details, more concerned with dramatic entrances to international conferences that could be shown at
home
Treaty of friendship with Hungary
Funded right wing pol groups in Germany trained air force
Claimed create Italian air force large enough to blot out the sun
Aggressive f.p a means to distract attention from dom pol/sit

German-Italian Relations 1922-35

Fearful of Austro-German union as would threaten northern borders
Austrian chancellor visited Rome 3 times in 1933 relived when Italy offer protection against
German aggression
Feb 1934 Muss encouraged Dollfuss to set up right wing anti Nazi regime but assassinated by Nazi
sympathisers in July Muss dispatched troops to border to prevent Germany from attempting union
Stresa Front
March 1935 Nazis revealed dev air force in breach of Versailles & into-ing conscription to create
army x 5 size permitted
Italy met UK & France to come up with a joint response Stresa Front collaborate to prevent
anymore breaches in treaties that might threaten peace
Gave him protection against Anschluss
Convinced UK & Fr would be more sympathetic to Italian ambitions to avoid a It-German alliance
Abyssinia
Enhance Italys claim to be a great power
Distract from failing domestic policies corporate state, battle for grain & births
Part of heritage Roman Empire had dom N Africa
Mil success on cheap
Abyssinia lacked means for modern war, neighbours Eritrea & Somaliland were Italian therefore
made attack easier uncertain borders of Abyssinia could make an border incident an easy
justification & revenge Italys humiliating defeat at Adowa in 1896
Despite sponsoring Abyssinias entry into LofN 1923 & Pact of Friendship 1928 by 1929 Italy was
drawing up plans to annex it
Dec 1934 oasis Wal-Wal skirmish between Italian & Abyssinian troops 30 It soldiers killed
Muss demanded apology & hefty compensation
Abyssinia requested a League of Nations invest.
Muss sent mill men to area
Talks with UK & Fr showed prepared to see at least part of Abyssinia acceded
Victory
Oct 1935 invasion Abyssinians suffered effects of modern war with their inadequate weapons
Italians used aerial bombing & poison gas
April 1936 Abyssinian army heavily defeated at Lake Ashangi & next month capital Addis Ababa
occupied
Emperor Haile Selassie fled to UK guerrilla campaign cont
Public Opinion
Initially uncertain but condemnation by LofN caused public to rally around the cause
When war won quickly with only 1000 casualties, muss popularity soared
Fascist philosopher Giovanni Gentile claimed Muss today has not just founded empire in Ethiopia. He
has made something more. He has created a new Italy.
Impact on UK & Fr Relations
Outrage from public at use of gas & support of ec sanctions
Ec sanctions symbolic no ban on oil, coal & steel & Suez Canal was not shut to them could have cut
off supply route to Italian troops
Irritated Muss but didnt hinder war effort
Convinced League & UK & Fr weak Hoare Laval Pact 1935 handed over greater part of Abyssinia
leaving Haile Selassie a small & unviable state

Alliance with Germany

Rome-Berlin Axis
Jan 1936 Hitler agreed not to carry out Anschluss & Muss agreed not to object to his interference in
Austrian politics
Foreign Min Ciano visited Berlin Oct & Nov Muss announced Rome-Berlin Axis public declaration of
friendship
Secret understanding Muss direct expansionist ideas to Med & Hitler E.Euro & Baltic
Spanish Civil War
Both Germany & Italy supported conservatives & Fascists against elected Republican govt
Muss reluctant to get involved sent transport planes when 2 crashed over Morocco & Italys
involvement criticised by the French, he was determined to ensure Fascist victory
With no real planning he committed 40,000 troops officially they were vols.
Troops withdrawn 1939 when Republican efforts collapsed
1937-8
Nov 1937 Anti-Comintern Pact Italy joined Japan & Germany
Anschluss relations cooled as Hitler didnt consult Muss first
1938 UK asked Muss to act as mediator at Munich Conference over Sudetenland Crisis Muss
enjoyed the publicity hailed as architect of peace but confirmed his view of the west as weak
1938 increased demands talking of annexing Nice, Corsica & Tunis and making Albania Italian
clear war necessary to achieve these
March 1939 furious Hitler didnt tell him about plan to invade Czechoslovakia
Invasion of Albania
April 1939 ignored fact in had been a virtual satellite for over 10 yrs
Victory without any major fighting put Italy back in lime light
Pact of Steel May 1939
Invasion of Albania prompted UK & Fr to give guarantees of mil assistance to Greece & Turkey saw
this as aggressive as Greece clearly in his sphere of influence may have convinced him of alliance
with Germany
Pact of Steel committed each nation to join the other in war even if that nation had caused the war
through aggression
F.O took fright convinced Duce at end of May that needed 3 years to rearm fully Hitler didnt even
bother to reply
Non-belligerence
Didnt attempt to delay Hitlers preps for attack on Poland, end of Aug reasserted needed several
years to rearm Hitler demanded he stand by the pact Muss attempting to wiggle out of it, said
Italy only join if supplied with unrealistic quantities of war material.
When Hitler when to war with UK & FR he claimed Hitler had been treacherous & pact was defunct
announced Italy would be non-belligerent & majority of Italians relieved.
Entry into WW2
Embarrassed by neutrality
Appeared western world on brink of defeat Netherlands surrendered, Germans reached coast &
pushed UK troops back
Concerned of facing a Europe dominated by Germany, an angry Germany June 1940 declared war on
UK & Fr
Success?
Expanded African empire
Albania seized

Pro-Fascist regime taken control in Spain

UK & Fr had accorded Italy some respect as a great power
Abyssinia generated a lot of support for the regime
BUT
Too ambitious
Unrealistic to dom Med, expand colonies & ec dom Balkans all at same time needed a modernised
army, committed populace & industrialised ec geared for war didnt have any of these things
Failed to prise major concessions from UK & Fr
UK & Fr didnt fear or respect Italy & Germany didnt take it seriously as a military power
WW2
Brought destruction of the Fascist state & death of muss
War revealed inefficiency & incompetence of regime
Exposed fragility of support for Duce
Military Unpreparedness
No preparations for a sustained war expected war to be over by Sept 1940
1935-8 11.8% of national income spent on armed forces a lot (5.5.% in UK) but spent on inadequate
weaponry & providing luxurious living quarters for officers
Air force = 1000 planes but of inferior quality Fiat CR42 biplane was slow & under-armed &
grounded in large numbers in north African campaign
Claimed 8 mill bayonets ready but army outdated June 1940 fewer than 800,000 ready to fight &
equipped with rifles & artillery dating back to WW1
Lacked tanks -only 1500 armoured cars & light tanks
Inadequate Leadership
Soldiers were poorly trained & badly led
600 generals steeped in defensive traditions of WW1
Navy reluctant to risk new battleships against UK navy in Med defensive strategy
Muss concentrated all power in his hands added to poor leadership
Economic Weakness
Ec far from self-sufficient in 1940
Raw resources for armaments would need to be imported Germans reluctant to divert their
resources 20% fall in steel production 1940-2, meant losses in tanks and aircrafts couldnt be
replaced
Food prod dropped as peasants drafted into the army wheat prod decreased 1.5 mill tonnes
Military Defeats
Sept 1940 campaign to increase empire in north Africa targeting Libya & Egypt as well as opening
up a front in the Balkans by invading Greece
Army didnt have the resources to fight 2 campaigns simultaneously offensives ground to a halt
Armies pushed back into Libya & Albania
Lost half of naval fleet to UK air attack at port of Taranto
Feb 1941 Muss persuaded to accept German General Rommel as Axis commander in North Africa
In April Germans ended stalemate in the Balkans, sweeping through Yugoslavia & defeating Greece
Italy a minor partner to Germany
Loss of Italys east African empire to UK troops April 1941 was final proof of mil failure
200,000 troops sent to Russian front but too poorly trained & equipped to be of any value

1942 Germany on brink of defeat in Stalingrad, full retreat in Africa, Libya abandoned Jan 1943,
May 1943 whole Axis army in Africa surrendered
July 1943 Amer forces landed in Sicily, invasion of Italy looked imminent
Fall of Mussolini
Opinion over entry into the war had been divided
Returning soldiers told stories of the unpreparedness e.g. attack of Greece in rainy season
Food shortages due to UK blockade prices rose as no rationing until 1941 bread ration of 150g of
bread per person a day
Italians sick of war by end of 1940 faith in Duce shattered
Opposition groups emerged Catholics & Communist
1943 shortages led to wave of strikes
Late 1942 industrialists & even Duces own son in law was inclined to make peace belief Duce must go
as he would not agree to this & allies wouldnt negot with him views echoed by conservatives & kings
court
Invasion of Sicily = last straw
Senior Fascists Farinacci & De Bono persuaded Muss to call Grand Council of Fascism to discuss mil
sit sat 24-5th July voted 19-7 to ask King to restore powers to parl, ministers & grand council
seeking a way to get rid of Muss Muss didnt defend position
25th July Duce visited King to ask to name new ministers but King told him he was now the most hated
man in Italy & Marshal Badoglio would be PM to make peace. Duce was arrested.
Dismissal of Muss led to collapse of Fascist regime no public protests fascists tried to ingratiate
themselves with new regime Poplo dItalia just replaced Muss picture!
Armistice 8th Sept 1943
No peace because Germany couldnt afford to let it go occupied northern & central Italy
Hitler ordered the rescue of Duce from alpine ski resort in glider
15th Sept 1943 Muss announced creation of a German sponsored Fascist state Italian Social Republic
Controlled small part of N.Italy lacked real support & rejected by cons & industrialists lacked a
capital city, army, structure
Spawned a militia
Partisans (armed anti-fascist groups) fought the fascist militia Northern Italy fell into a bloody
Civil War
Death of Mussolini
1943-4 UK & US forces pushed northwards
1945 Nazi forces in full retreat Muss disguised as German soldier but stopped at Lake Garda by
Italian Communist Partisans
Duce & his mistress Clara Petacci were killed 28 th April 1945
Bodies taken to Milan publicly strung up by heels from the roof of petrol station in Piazzale Loreto
Aftermath
Revenge killings & executions
June 1945 various anti-Fascist groups set up first free govt dominated by a resistance hero
Ferruccio Parri but replaced by Alcide De Gasperi of Christian Democrats in Nov party to dom for
40 yrs