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A word processor is an electronic device or computer software application, that

performs the task of composition, editing, formatting, printing of documents.
The word processor was a stand-alone office machine in the 1960s, combining the
keyboard text-entry and printing functions of an electric typewriter, with a rec
ording unit, either tape or floppy disk (as used by the Wang machine) with a sim
ple dedicated computer processor for the editing of text.[1] Although features a
nd designs varied among manufacturers and models, and new features were added as
technology advanced, word processors typically featured a monochrome display an
d the ability to save documents on memory cards or diskettes. Later models intro
duced innovations such as spell-checking programs, and improved formatting optio
ns.
As the more versatile combination of personal computers and printers became comm
onplace, and computer software applications for word processing became popular,
most business machine companies stopped manufacturing dedicated word processor m
achines. As of 2009 there were only two U.S. companies, Classic and AlphaSmart,
which still made them.[2] Many older machines, however, remain in use. Since 200
9, Sentinel has offered a machine described as a "word processor", but it is mor
e accurately a highly specialised microcomputer used for accounting and publishi
ng.[3]
Word processing was one of the earliest applications for the personal computer i
n office productivity and was the most popular application on home and personal
computers until the World Wide Web rose to prominence in the mid-1990s.
Although the early word processors evolved to use tag-based markup for document
formatting, most modern word processors take advantage of a graphical user inter
face providing some form of what-you-see-is-what-you-get ("WYSIWYG") editing. Mo
st are powerful systems consisting of one or more programs that can produce any
arbitrary combination of images, graphics and text, the latter handled with type
-setting capability. Typical features of a modern word processor include font ap
plication, spell checking, grammar checking, a built-in thesaurus, automatic tex
t correction, Web integration, and HTML exporting, among others. In its simplest
form, a word processor is little more than a large Expensive Typewriter-like ma
chine that makes correcting mistakes possible before printing.
Microsoft Word is the most widely used word processing software according to a u
ser tracking system built into the software.[citation needed] Microsoft estimate
s that roughly half a billion people use the Microsoft Office suite,[4] which in
cludes Word. Many other word processing applications exist, including WordPerfec
t (which dominated the market from the mid-1980s to early-1990s on computers run
ning Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system, and still (2014) is favored for legal
applications) and open source applications OpenOffice.org Writer, LibreOffice Wr
iter, AbiWord, KWord, and LyX. Web-based word processors, such as Office Web App
s or Google Docs, are a relatively new category.
Contents [hide]
1
Characteristics
2
Typical usage
2.1
Business
2.2
Home
2.3
Literature
3
History
3.1
IBM Selectric
3.2
Mainframe systems
3.3
Impact on office administration
3.4
Dedicated models

3.5
Software models
3.6
WYSIWYG models
4
See also
5
References
6
External links
Characteristics[edit]
Word processors evolved dramatically once they became software programs rather t
han dedicated machines. They can usefully be distinguished from text editors, th
e category of software they evolved from.[5][6]
Text editors offer facilities for typing, storing, replaying, and usually printi
ng text (strings of characters). Text editors do not format lines or documents;
in fact they lack those concepts. (There are extensions of text editors which pe
rform format lines and pages: batch document processing systems, starting with T
J-2 and RUNOFF and still available in such systems as LaTeX, as well as programs
that implement the paged-media extensions to HTML and CSS). Text editors are no
w used mainly by programmers, website designers, computer system administrators,
and, in the case of LaTeX, by mathematicians and scientists (for complex formul
as and for citations in rare languages). They are also useful when fast startup
times, small file sizes, editing speed, and simplicity of operation are valued,
and when formatting is unimportant. Due to their use in managing complex softwar
e projects, text editors can sometimes provide better facilities for managing la
rge writing projects than a word processor.[7]
Word processing added to the text editor the ability to control type style and s
ize, to manage lines (word wrap), to format documents into pages, and to number
pages. Functions now taken for granted were added incrementally, sometimes by pu
rchase of independent providers of add-on programs. Spell checking, grammar chec
king and mail merge were some of the most popular add-ons for early word process
ors. Word processors are also capable of hyphenation, and the management and cor
rect positioning of footnotes and endnotes.
More advanced features found in recent word processors include:
Collaborative editing, allowing multiple users to work on the same document.
Indexing assistance. (True indexing, as performed by a professional human indexe
r, is far beyond current technology, for the same reasons that fully automated,
literary-quality machine translation is.)
Creation of tables of contents.
Management, editing, and positioning of visual material (illustrations, diagrams
), and sometimes sound files.
Automatically managed (updated) cross-references to pages or notes.
Version control of a document, permitting reconstruction of its evolution.
Non-printing comments and annotations.
Generation of document statistics (characters, words, readability level, time sp
ent editing by each user).
"Styles", which automate consistent formatting of text body, titles, subtitles,
highlighted text, and so on.
Later desktop publishing programs were specifically designed to allow elaborate
layout for publication, but often offered only limited support for editing. Typi
cally, desktop publishing programs allow users to import text that was written u
sing a text editor or word processor.
Typical usage[edit]
Word processors have a variety of uses and applications within the business worl
d, home, education, journalism, publishing, and the literary arts.
Business[edit]
Within the business world, word processors are extremely useful tools. Typical u
ses include:

legal copies
letters and letterhead
memos
reference documents
Business tend to have their own format and style for any of these. Thus, versati
le word processors with layout editing and similar capabilities find widespread
use in most business.
Home[edit]
While many homes have word processors on their computers, word processing in the
home tends to be educational, planning or business related, dealing with school
assignments or work being completed at home. Occasionally word processors are u
sed for recreational purposes, e.g. writing short stories, poems or personal cor
respondence. Some use word processors to create rsums and greeting cards, but many
of these home publishing processes have been taken over by web apps or desktop
publishing programs specifically oriented toward home uses. The rise of email an
d social networks has also reduced the home role of the word processor as uses t
hat formerly required printed output can now be done entirely online.
Literature[edit]
Novelists, poets, playwrights, screenwriters, and essayists naturally gravitated
toward word processing once the technology became widely available. Notable ear
ly adopters in the mid- or late-1970s included science fiction author (and BYTE
Magazine columnist) Jerry Pournelle, Larry Niven, Stanley Elkin, James Fallows,
and Michael Crichton. However the first novel generally credited as having been
written on a word processor is Len Deighton's Bomber, which was composed on an I
BM MT/ST in London in 1968-9; Deighton's typist and assistant, Ms. Ellenor Handl
ey, was the person to actually operate the machine.[8] Some writers such as Cory
Doctorow and Neal Stephenson prefer text editors to word processors.
History[edit]
Word processors are descended from the Friden Flexowriter, which had two punched
tape stations and permitted switching from one to the other (thus enabling what
was called the "chain" or "form letter", one tape containing names and addresse
s, and the other the body of the letter to be sent). It did not wrap words, whic
h was begun by IBM's Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter (later, Magnetic Card Se
lectric Typewriter).
IBM Selectric[edit]
A 4-user Astrotype system using a DEC PDP minicomputer and IBM Selectric termina
ls.
The IBM Selectric typewriter was a highly successful model line of electric type
writers introduced in 1961. Expensive Typewriter written and improved between 19
61 and 1962 by Steve Piner and L. Peter Deutsch, was a text editing program that
ran on a DEC PDP-1 computer at MIT. Since it could drive an IBM Selectric typew
riter (a letter-quality printer), it may be considered the first word processing
program, but the term word processing itself was only introduced, by IBM's Bblin
gen Laboratory in the late 1960s.[citation needed]
In 1969, two software based text editing products (Astrotype and Astrocomp) were
developed and marketed by Information Control Systems (Ann Arbor Michigan).[9][
10][11] Both products used the Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8 mini computer
, DECtape (4 reel) randomly accessible tape drives, and a modified version of the
IBM Selectric typewriter (the IBM 2741 Terminal). These 1969 products preceded
CRT display-based word processors. Text editing was done using a line numbering
system viewed on a paper copy inserted in the Selectric typewriter.
By 1971 word processing was recognized by the New York Times as a "buzz word".[1

2] A 1974 Times article referred to "the brave new world of Word Processing or W
/P. That's International Business Machines talk... I.B.M. introduced W/P about f
ive years ago for its Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter and other electronic ra
zzle-dazzle."[13]
IBM defined the term in a broad and vague way as "the combination of people, pro
cedures, and equipment which transforms ideas into printed communications," and
originally used it to include dictating machines and ordinary, manually operated
Selectric typewriters.[14] By the early seventies, however, the term was genera
lly understood to mean semiautomated typewriters affording at least some form of
editing and correction, and the ability to produce perfect "originals." Thus, t
he Times headlined a 1974 Xerox product as a "speedier electronic typewriter", b
ut went on to describe the product, which had no screen,[15] as "a word processo
r rather than strictly a typewriter, in that it stores copy on magnetic tape or
magnetic cards for retyping, corrections, and subsequent printout."[16]
Mainframe systems[edit]
In the late 1960s IBM provided a program called FORMAT for generating printed do
cuments on any computer capable of running Fortran IV. Written by Gerald M. Bern
s, FORMAT was described in his paper "Description of FORMAT, a Text-Processing P
rogram" (Communications of the ACM, Volume 12, Number 3, March, 1969) as "a prod
uction program which facilitates the editing and printing of 'finished' document
s directly on the printer of a relatively small (64k) computer system. It featur
es good performance, totally free-form input, very flexible formatting capabilit
ies including up to eight columns per page, automatic capitalization, aids for i
ndex construction, and a minimum of nontext [control elements] items." Input was
normally on punched cards or magnetic tape, with up to 80capital letters and no
n-alphabetic characters per card. The limited typographical controls available w
ere implemented by control sequences; for example, letters were automatically co
nverted to lower case unless they followed a full stop. Output could be printed
or in upper and lower case using a spe
on a typical line printer in all-capitals
cial ("TN") printer chain or could be punched as a paper tape which could be pri
nted, in better than line printer quality, on a Flexowriter. A workalike program
with some improvements, DORMAT, was developed and used at University College Lo
ndon.[citation needed]
Electromechanical paper-tape-based equipment such as the Friden Flexowriter had
long been available; the Flexowriter allowed for operations such as repetitive t
yping of form letters (with a pause for the operator to manually type in the var
iable information),[17] and when equipped with an auxiliary reader, could perfor
m an early version of "mail merge". Circa 1970 it began to be feasible to apply
electronic computers to office automation tasks. IBM's Mag Tape Selectric Typewr
iter (MT/ST) and later Mag Card Selectric (MCST) were early devices of this kind
, which allowed editing, simple revision, and repetitive typing, with a one-line
display for editing single lines.[18] The first novel to be written on a word p
rocessor, the IBM MT/ST, was Len Deighton's Bomber, published in 1970.[19]
Impact on office administration[edit]
The New York Times, reporting on a 1971 business equipment trade show, said
The "buzz word" for this year's show was "word processing," or the use of electr
onic equipment, such as typewriters; procedures and trained personnel to maximiz
e office efficiency. At the IBM exhibition a girl typed on an electronic typewri
ter. The copy was received on a magnetic tape cassette which accepted correction
s, deletions, and additions and then produced a perfect letter for the boss's si
gnature....[12]
In 1971, a third of all working women in the United States were secretaries, and
they could see that word processing would have an impact on their careers. Some
manufacturers, according to a Times article, urged that "the concept of 'word p
rocessing' could be the answer to Women's Lib advocates' prayers. Word processin

g will replace the 'traditional' secretary and give women new administrative rol
es in business and industry."[12]
The 1970s word processing concept did not refer merely to equipment, but, explic
itly, to the use of equipment for "breaking down secretarial labor into distinct
components, with some staff members handling typing exclusively while others su
pply administrative support. A typical operation would leave most executives wit
hout private secretaries. Instead one secretary would perform various administra
tive tasks for three or more secretaries."[20] A 1971 article said that "Some [s
ecretaries] see W/P as a career ladder into management; others see it as a deadend into the automated ghetto; others predict it will lead straight to the picke
t line." The National Secretaries Association, which defined secretaries as peop
le who "can assume responsibility without direct supervision," feared that W/P w
ould transform secretaries into "space-age typing pools." The article considered
only the organizational changes resulting from secretaries operating word proce
ssors rather than typewriters; the possibility that word processors might result
in managers creating documents without the intervention of secretaries was not
considered not surprising in an era when few but secretaries possessed keyboarding
skills.[13]
Dedicated models[edit]
In 1972, Stephen Bernard Dorsey, Founder and President of Canadian company Autom
atic Electronic Systems (AES), introduced the world s first programmable word proc
essor with a video screen. The real breakthrough by Dorsey s AES team was that the
ir machine stored the operator s texts on magnetic disks. Texts could be retrieved
from the disks simply by entering their names at the keyboard. More importantly
, a text could be edited, for instance a paragraph moved to a new place, or a sp
elling error corrected, and these changes were recorded on the magnetic disk.
The AES machine was actually a sophisticated microcomputer, that could be reprog
rammed by changing the instructions contained within a few chips.[21][22]
In 1975, Dorsey started Micom Data Systems and introduced the Micom 2000 word pr
ocessor. The Micom 2000 improved on the AES design by using the Intel 8080 singl
e-chip microprocessor, which made the word processor smaller, less costly to bui
ld and supported multiple languages.[23]
Around this time, DeltaData and Wang word processors also appeared, again with a
video screen and a magnetic storage disk.
The competitive edge for Dorsey's Micom 2000 was that, unlike many other machine
s, it was truly programmable. The Micom machine countered the problem of obsoles
cence by avoiding the limitations of a hard-wired system of program storage. The
Micom 2000 utilized RAM, which was mass-produced and totally programmable.[24]
The Micom 2000 was said to be a year ahead of its time when it was introduced in
to a marketplace that represented some pretty serious competition such as IBM, X
erox and Wang Laboratories.[25]
In 1978, Micom partnered with Dutch multinational Philips and Dorsey grew Micom'
s sales position to number three among major word processor manufacturers, behin
d only IBM and Wang.[26]
Software models[edit]
Toshiba JW-10, the first word processor for the Japanese language (1971 1978 IEEE
milestones)
In the early 1970s, computer scientist Harold Koplow was hired by Wang Laborator
ies to program calculators. One of his programs permitted a Wang calculator to i
nterface with an IBM Selectric typewriter, which was at the time used to calcula
te and print the paperwork for auto sales.

In 1974, Koplow's interface program was developed into the Wang 1200 Word Proces
sor, an IBM Selectric-based text-storage device. The operator of this machine ty
ped text on a conventional IBM Selectric; when the Return key was pressed, the l
ine of text was stored on a cassette tape. One cassette held roughly 20 pages of
text, and could be "played back" (i.e., the text retrieved) by printing the con
tents on continuous-form paper in the 1200 typewriter's "print" mode. The stored
text could also be edited, using keys on a simple, six-key array. Basic editing
functions included Insert, Delete, Skip (character, line), and so on.
The labor and cost savings of this device were immediate, and remarkable: pages
of text no longer had to be retyped to correct simple errors, and projects could
be worked on, stored, and then retrieved for use later on. The rudimentary Wang
1200 machine was the precursor of the Wang Office Information System (OIS), int
roduced in 1976. It was a true office machine, affordable by organizations such
as medium-sized law firms, and easily learned and operated by secretarial staff.
The Wang was not the first CRT-based machine nor were all of its innovations uni
que to Wang. In the early 1970s Linolex, Lexitron and Vydec introduced pioneerin
g word-processing systems with CRT display editing. A Canadian electronics compa
ny, Automatic Electronic Systems, had introduced a product in 1972, but went int
o receivership a year later. In 1976, refinanced by the Canada Development Corpo
ration, it returned to operation as AES Data, and went on to successfully market
its brand of word processors worldwide until its demise in the mid-1980s. Its f
irst office product, the AES-90,[27] combined for the first time a CRT-screen, a
floppy-disk and a microprocessor,[21][22] that is, the very same winning combin
ation that would be used by IBM for its PC seven years later.[citation needed] T
he AES-90 software was able to handle French and English typing from the start,
displaying and printing the texts side-by-side, a Canadian government requiremen
t. The first eight units were delivered to the office of the then Prime Minister
, Pierre Elliot Trudeau, in February 1974.[citation needed] Despite these predec
essors, Wang's product was a standout, and by 1978 it had sold more of these sys
tems than any other vendor.[28]
The phrase "word processor" rapidly came to refer to CRT-based machines similar
to the AES 90. Numerous machines of this kind emerged, typically marketed by tra
ditional office-equipment companies such as IBM, Lanier (marketing AES Data mach
ines, re-badged), CPT, and NBI.[29] All were specialized, dedicated, proprietary
systems, with prices in the $10,000 ballpark. Cheap general-purpose computers w
ere still the domain of hobbyists.
Some of the earliest CRT-based machines used cassette tapes for removable-memory
storage until floppy diskettes became available for this purpose - first the 8inch floppy, then the 5-inch (drives by Shugart Associates and diskettes by Dysan
).
Printing of documents was initially accomplished using IBM Selectric typewriters
modified for ASCII-character input. These were later replaced by application-sp
ecific daisy wheel printers, first developed by Diablo, which became a Xerox com
pany, and later by Qume. For quicker "draft" printing, dot-matrix line printers
were optional alternatives with some word processors.
WYSIWYG models[edit]
Examples of standalone word processor typefaces c. 1980 1981
Brother WP-1400D editing electronic typewriter (1994)
Electric Pencil, released in December 1976, was the first word processor softwar
e for microcomputers.[30][31][32][33][34] Software-based word processors running
on general-purpose personal computers gradually displaced dedicated word proces

sors, and the term came to refer to software rather than hardware. Some programs
were modeled after particular dedicated WP hardware. MultiMate, for example, wa
s written for an insurance company that had hundreds of typists using Wang syste
ms, and spread from there to other Wang customers. To adapt to the smaller, more
generic PC keyboard, MultiMate used stick-on labels and a large plastic clip-on
template to remind users of its dozens of Wang-like functions, using the shift,
alt and ctrl keys with the 10 IBM function keys and many of the alphabet keys.
Other early word-processing software required users to memorize semi-mnemonic ke
y combinations rather than pressing keys labelled "copy" or "bold". (In fact, ma
ny early PCs lacked cursor keys; WordStar famously used the E-S-D-X-centered "di
amond" for cursor navigation, and modern vi-like editors encourage use of hjkl f
or navigation.) However, the price differences between dedicated word processors
and general-purpose PCs, and the value added to the latter by software such as
VisiCalc, were so compelling that personal computers and word processing softwar
e soon became serious competition for the dedicated machines. Word processing be
came the most popular use for personal computers, and unlike the spreadsheet (do
minated by Lotus 1-2-3) and database (dBase) markets, WordPerfect, XyWrite, Micr
osoft Word, pfs:Write, and dozens of other word processing software brands compe
ted in the 1980s; PC Magazine reviewed 57 different programs in one January 1986
issue.[31] Development of higher-resolution monitors allowed them to provide li
mited WYSIWYG What You See Is What You Get, to the extent that typographical featu
res like bold and italics, indentation, justification and margins were approxima
ted on screen.
The mid-to-late 1980s saw the spread of laser printers, a "typographic" approach
to word processing, and of true WYSIWYG bitmap displays with multiple fonts (pi
oneered by the Xerox Alto computer and Bravo word processing program), PostScrip
t, and graphical user interfaces (another Xerox PARC innovation, with the Gypsy
word processor which was commercialised in the Xerox Star product range). Standa
lone word processors adapted by getting smaller and replacing their CRTs with sm
all character-oriented LCD displays. Some models also had computer-like features
such as floppy disk drives and the ability to output to an external printer. Th
ey also got a name change, now being called "electronic typewriters" and typical
ly occupying a lower end of the market, selling for under $200 USD.
During the late 1980s and into the 1990s the predominant word processing program
was WordPerfect[35]
MacWrite, Microsoft Word and other word processing programs for the bit-mapped A
pple Macintosh screen, introduced in 1984, were probably the first true WYSIWYG
word processors to become known to many people until the introduction of Microso
ft Windows. Dedicated word processors eventually became museum pieces.
See also[edit]
Amstrad PCW
Authoring systems
Canon Cat
Comparison of word processors
Content management system
CPT Word Processors
Document collaboration
List of word processors
IBM MT/ST
Office suite
TeX
Typography
Microwriter
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Computer Aided Typists Produce Perfect Copies". Computer World. Novem
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^ Jump up to: a b Dullea, Georgia (February 5, 1974). "Is It a Boon for Secretar
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Jump up ^ "IBM Adds to Line of Dictation Items". The New York Times. September 1
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transforms ideas into printed communications.'" The machines described were of c
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Automated cordiality will be one of the services offered to physicians and denti
sts who take space in a new medical center.... The typist will insert the homey
touch in the appropriate place as the Friden automated, programmed "Flexowriter"
rattles off the form letters requesting payment... or informing that the X-ray'
s of the patient (kidney) (arm) (stomach) (chest) came out negative.
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Jump up ^ Smith, William D. (December 16, 1974). "Electric Typewriter Sales Are
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^ Jump up to: a b Thomas, David (1983). Knights of the New Technology. Toronto:
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rd/Elliot & Associates, May 1979, p. 7.

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External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning materials about Word processing challenges
FOSS word processors compared: OOo Writer, AbiWord, and KWord by Bruce Byfield
History of Word Processing
"Remembering the Office of the Future: Word Processing and Office Automation bef
ore the Personal Computer" - A comprehensive history of early word processing co
ncepts, hardware, software, and use. By Thomas Haigh, IEEE Annals of the History
of Computing 28:4 (October December 2006):6-31.
"A Brief History of Word Processing (Through 1986)" by Brian Kunde (December, 19
86)
"AES: A Canadian Cautionary Tale" by CBC Television (Broadcast date: February 4,
1985, link updated Nov. 2, 2012)
www.VCmaster.com Technical Word Processing
Business-Software-Books.us - A collection of word processor application books av
ailable for free download.
[hide] v t e
Word processors
Open source
AbiWord Apache OpenOffice Writer Bean (up to v. 2.x) Calligra Words GNU TeXmacs
KWord LibreOffice Writer LyX NeoOffice Writer OpenOffice Writer Ted
Freeware
Adobe Buzzword Atlantis Nova Bean (since v. 3.x) Google Docs IBM Lotus Symphony
Jarte (standard) TextMaker (2008)
Retail
Cross-platform
Adobe InCopy Corel WordPerfect (up to v. 9.0) Hangul Ichitaro Kingsoft Writer Mi
crosoft Word Scrivener StarOffice Writer TextMaker
Mac OS only
Apple Pages Nisus Writer Mellel
Windows only
Atlantis Word Processor Corel WordPerfect (since v. 10.0) IBM Lotus Word Pro Jar
te (enhanced) Microsoft Works PolyEdit Scientific WorkPlace WordPad
Category Comparison (of early word processors) List
Authority control

BNF: cb119347998 (data) NDL: 00575674

Categories: Word processorsComputing terminology
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