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SYMPOSIUM ON
IMPACT TESTING
Presented at the
FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
Atlantic City, N. J., June 27 1955
Published by the
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
1916 Race St., Philadelphia 3, Pa.
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FOREWORD
This publication is based on a Symposium on Impact Testing that was
held at the Fifty-eighth Annual Meeting of the American Society for Testing
Materials in Atlantic City, N. J., June 27, 1955 comprising the First and
Second sessions. The symposium was sponsored by Committee E-l on
Methods of Testing with Mr. F. G. Tatnall, Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Corp.,
Philadelphia, Pa., serving as Symposium chairman.
Mr. Tatnall also presided at the Second session with H. L. Fry, Bethlehem
Steel Co., Inc., Bethlehem, Pa., as secretary and Mr. W. W. Werring, Bell
Telephone Laboratories, Inc., New York, N. Y., presided at the.First
session with W. H. Mayo, U. S. Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., as secretary.
In addition to the papers presented as a part of the Symposium, five other
papers, being appropriate to the general theme of the Symposium, have been
included on "Effects of Manganese and Aluminum Contents on Transition
Temperature of Normalized Nickel Steel," by T. N. Armstrong, and O. 0.
Miller, International Nickel Co.; "Low-Temperature Transition of Normalized CarbonManganese Steel," by T. N. Armstrong International Nickel
Co. and W. L. Warner, Watertown Arsenal; "Effect of Specimen Width
on the Notched Bar Impact Properties of Quenched-and-Tempered and
Normalized Steels," by R. S. Zeno, General Electric Co.; "Stress-Strain Relationships in Yarns Subjected to Rapid Impact Loading," by Herbert F.
Schiefer, Jack C. Smith, Frank McCrackin, and W. K. Stone, National
Bureau of Standards; and "Shock Testing with the Rocket-Powered Pendulum," by R. W. Hager, Sandia Corp.
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CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction
Discussion
10
23
70
Discussion
Automatic Impact Testing
S. DeSisto
75
to 236 CThomas
76
93
The Impact Tube: A New Experimental Technique for Applying Impulse Loads
94
George Gerard
Discussion
110
125
141
149
156
Discussion.
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1
Metallurgical
2
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STEEL SELECTION
A somewhat unusual example of
notched-bar testing to select a steel for a
specific application may be illustrated
by means of a hypothetical case. It is discussed to illustrate how these principles
can be employed.
In this example, a weldment made of
common steel was exhibiting brittle
failures at 30 F. When tested with the
V-notch Charpy bar, the 10 ft-lb transition temperatures of a group of these
steels ran from 30 to 90 F, all temperatures being idealized for purposes of discussion. At the service temperature of
30 F, all of the steels tested including
some of presumably "better" quality,
were completely brittle. While one could
say that one steel was better than
another, there was no way of interpreting
the results to decide which steels, if any,
were "good enough" for the application.
Obviously, these transition temperatures
do not give a sound basis for selecting the
proper steel to use. At this stage of the
example, there was no opportunity to
secure samples from a known satisfactory
weldment for test purposes.
According to one theory, one could
assume that the steel should have a
transition temperature, with the standard bar, which came at a safe margin
below 30 F. While that might be a safe
steel to apply, there would still be no
assurance that it would be "good
enough" or, what is more important in
industrial practice, that it would be
"just good enough." Furthermore, a
glance at steel costs would show that a
steel with that low a transition temperature would price the weldment off the
market. So it became necessary to seek
the solution by other means.
A search through past records suggested that some steels were performing
better than others under much the same
conditions. This revealed that the weld-
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on which approach is used. Steel for acceptance would then have to be tested
at only the one temperature. The justification of this procedure is the finding
that the V-notch bar is a reasonably
satisfactory replica of the ship structure,
which means that both break in essentially the same fashion at the same temperature. The V-notch for ship steel
corresponds to the special notch for
testing steel for the weldment at 30 F.
These are examples of the use of constant- or single-temperature testing for
engineering applications. The method is
that of determining and then using the
notched bar that approximates the component or structure to be tested, whether
the test bar is a so-called standard bar
or one developed specifically for the application. However, it is to be recognized
that in the latter case, the design may be
based on the principle of insuring against
starting a fracture and that, therefore, the
steel thus selected may not have the
ability to stop a fracture from running.
If one does not rely on avoiding starting
a fracture, then a steel should be used in
which a crack does not run under serious
conditions. The latter will usually be
more expensive.
RATING STEELS FOR
NOTCH TOUGHNESS
In the great majority of cases, different
notched bars rate a series of steels in
about the same order of merit. Consequently, studies of the effects of composition, heat treatment, and steelmaking practice generally employ some
one test bar for rating purposes. It is
well that this is so, and it points up the
first requirement of work on brittle
fracture, namely, that an effective notch
of some kind be used for testing. However, in some exceptions two different
test bars may give different ratings for
the same steel, and this raises the question of which to believe or use.
An example of the latter situation is
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Keyhole
Difference between
notches
66
14
52
66
59
7
0
45
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DISCUSSION
1
Metallurgist, U. S. Dept. of Commerce,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D. C.
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2
Chief Metallurgist, National Tube Division, U. S. Steel, William Perm Place, Pittsburgh, Pa.
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starting. There has been, and will continue to be, considerable emphasis on
this matter of the crack initiation. Efforts
will continue in an attempt to develop a
steel in which the crack will not initiate.
That is less difficult for the steel maker
than to develop a steel which will stop
the crack, although both of these objectives can be achieved at a cost. In addition to the toughness characteristics of
steel, it is frequently more important to
improve design and require careful
handling during installation in order to
achieve the best results. Very often great
emphasis is placed on the toughness of
steel when other factors are more important.
MR. T. B. REYNOLDS.3I should like
to ask Mr. Hoyt which type of Charpy
specimen is most used, the V-notch or
the keyhole, and is there a trend toward
one or the other?
I should also like to ask if there are
applications in which one is superior to
the other.
MR. S. L. HOYT (author}.Mr. Rosenberg asked for a definition of transition
temperature. To me the correct transition temperature for any particular
notched test bar is what I have chosen
to call the match point, because that ties
up definitely with the notch properties
of cohesive strength and critical shear
stress. It is the upper temperature of the
brittle temperature range and is the
only point on the whole transition temperature curve that has precise significance. The match point of a structure in
service is presumably the temperature
at which brittle failure occurs, though
this can also happen at lower temperatures.
Mr. Rosenberg asked a question about
the statement that I made of using a
steel whose transition temperature came
below the service temperature. That is
safe provided the proper test bar is used
3
Inspector, Ingersoll-Rand Co., Phillipsburg,
N. J.
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Carbon
per cent
Manganese,
per cent
Silicon,
per cent
Aluminum,
per cent
0.20
0.23
0.19
0.58
0.54
0.35
0.21
0.12
0.01
0.04
0.01
0.01
Soluble
(1:1HC1)
Insoluble
0.006
0.005
0.007
ml
nil
0.003
TENSILE PROPERTIES
(After Normalizing at 1650 F for 1^ hr)
Material
Fully-killed steel.
Semikilled steel. .
Rimmed steel. . . .
Yield Strength,
0.2 per cent
Offset, psi
Tensile
Strength, psi
Elongation in
2 in., per cent
Reduction of
Area, per cent
42 100
39 600
41 200
62 200
64 000
64 000
39.5
38.0
36.5
67.2
63.8
58.0
20701-G
19924-B
20704-K
20705-M
19927-E
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0.45
0.43
0.43
0.49
0.47
0.43
6
6-7
7-8
8
1-3
4.0
10.0
18.0
25.0
60.0
20702-H
20415-S
19925-C
0.04
0.11
0.20
0.74
0.78
0.69
7
8
8
4.0
15.0
25.0
20703-J
20416-T
20412-F
20706-N
0.04
0.10
0.20
0.31
0.98
1.03
0.92
1.05
7
8
7-8
8
4.0
12.0
25.0
40.0
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TEST RESULTS
Amount of Deformation Attending Brittle
Fracture:
A single plate of commercial fullykilled pearlitic steel, in the as-rolled
condition and containing a variation in
grain size from end to end of the plate,
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band intersects the abscissa at approximately 0.04 in. (10 per cent) lateral
expansion. Furthermore, it is deduced
that the deformation measured in fractured test specimens which suddenly
and completely separated at maximum
load was prefracture deformation; that
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FIG. 7.Effect of Carbon on the Energy-Temperature Relationship in Slow Bend and Impact.
NOTE.The steels shown contain essentially constant manganese (0.43 to 0.49 per cent).
FIG. 8.Effect of Carbon on the Fibrosity-Temperature Relationship in Slow Bend and Impact.
NOTE.The steels shown contain essentially constant manganese (0.43 to 0.49 per cent).
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Carbon,
per cent
6 Other combinations of the twelve carbonmanganese heats were evaluated; both elements
were found to affect the transition curve. Carbon
was found to both shift and change the shape of
the curve; whereas, manganese only shifted the
curve in impact, but both shifted and somewhat
changed the shape of the curve in slow-bend.
The effect of increasing carbon in changing the
shape of the transition curve consisted of a
lowering of the maximum energy and a widening
of the range of temperature over which the
transition from ductile to brittle behavior occurred. With increasing carbon the transition
occurred at increasingly higher temperature;
with manganese, on the other hand, the transition was generally lowered.
Temperature, deg
TemperaCent
ture, deg Carbon,
Cent,
per cent
Slow Bend
Slow Bend Impact
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0.45
-90
-100
-60
-60
-20
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0.45
-100
-110
-60
-60
-40
-40
-40
-60
-60
-20
0.04
0.11
0.20
-120
-120
-100
0.04
0.11
0.20
-120
-120
-100
-80
-80
-70
0 . 92 TO 1 . 05 PER CENT Mn
0.10
0.20
0.31
-140
-100
-80
0.10
0.20
0.30
19
-140
-100
-80
-80
-80
-80
Temperature, deg
Cent
Slow Bend Impact
0.43
0.74
0.98
-9a0
-120 0.74
-140 0.98
0.43
0.874
0.9+8
-100
-120
-140
-40
-80
-80
0.43
0.78
1.03
-100
-120
-140
0.43
0.78
1.03
-110
-120
-140
-40
-80
-80
0.47
0.69
0.92
-60
-100
-100
0.47
0.69
0.92
-60
-100
-100
-60
-70
-80
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20
fracture of the V-notch Charpy slowbend bar at maximum load have been
discussed. It has been shown that the
amount of deformation attending the
self-propagating crack is dependent upon
certain matallurgical variables, whereas,
fibrosity is relatively independent of the
metallurgical variables investigated. To
fulfill the objective of this investigation,
temperature is the final consideration as
a criterion of performance in slow bend.
Transition temperature has been defined herein as the highest temperature
resulting in sudden and complete fracture
at maximum load. In other words, transition temperature is the highest temperature at which the initiating crack can
propagate under action of the elasticstress energy alone. For sake of brevity
throughout this report, such a crack is
referred to as self-propagating, and the
highest temperature permitting a selfpropagating crack is referred to as the
onset of brittle fracture.
Table II shows the effect on the onset
of brittle fracture of carbon at three
levels of manganese and of manganese
at three levels of carbon. With increasing
carbon content, self-propagating cracks
tended to occur at increasingly higher
temperature, whereas, with increasing
manganese content, the onset of brittle
fracture tended to occur at progressively
lower temperatures. Thus, transition
temperature based upon the condition of
a self-propagating crack appears to be a
useful and sensitive performance criterion for slow bend.
In order to make a quantitative comparison between impact and slow rates
of loading, it is necessary to apply the
same definition of transition temperature
to both tests. Unfortunately, the condition of a self-propagating crack cannot
be readily determined from conventional
V-notch Charpy impact tests without
special instrumentation for determining
the load-deflection curve. The percentage
FUTURE WORK
Using a modification of the technique
developed at the Naval Research Laboratory by Harris, Rinebolt, and Raring
(5), it may be possible to differentiate
between the various stages of fracture in
the V-notch Charpy impact test, and at
the same time to determine the highest
temperature producing a self-propagating crack. The technique developed at
the Naval Research Laboratory demonstrated that for a given steel there is a
critical energy level above which a crack
occurs in the V-notch Charpy specimen
and below which no crack occurs. Different amounts of kinetic energy were
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DISCUSSION
MR. S. L. HoYT.1This paper throws
a lot of light on this problem of brittle
behavior.
There is one point I should like to discuss, and that is the effect of the low
blows.
Steels retain their ductile behavior
over a wider temperature range with
static loading than they do with impact
loading. I tried to account for that by
means of a diagram which shows that as
you increase the speed of testing you
raise this match point. Increasing the
strain rate raises the yield strength or
the critical shear stress, and the match
point then comes at a higher temperature, at which the lowering of the yield
point is just equalled by the amount by
which it was raised due to the higher
strain rate.
. Work done at the Naval Research
Laboratory seems to indicate that the
low blow effect comes at the lower end
of the transition.
With impact at a given temperature,
the yield strength is at a high level and the
bar is brittle. But with a low-velocity
blow, the metal is strained at a lower
rate, the yield strength is left at its low
level, and therefore the bar is able to
deform.
There is one other question. Mr.
Hartbower has shown slides of test
bars that have a small amount of plastic deformation at the root of the notch.
I once saw a series of test specimens
which showed that, as the temperature dropped, the amount of that plastically deformed metal at the base of
1
Metallurgical Consultant, Columbus, Ohio.
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Manganese
Silicon
Nickel
Aluminum0 Austenitic
Ferritic
Brinell
Hardness
CARBON-MANGANESE SERIES
0.40 MANGANESE
No.
No
No,
No.
1
2
3
4
0.14
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.41
0.42
0.40
0.42
0.18
0.24
0.22
0.19
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.09
0.008
0.024
0.062
0.093
3-5
6-8
6-8
6-8
5-8
7-9
7-8
7-9
108
117
112
114
0.004
0.035
0.052
0.088
2-6
7-8
8-9
7-8
5-8
8-9
8-9
128
127
122
122
0.004
0.030
0.052
0.090
3-7
8
6-8
7-8
8-10
8-10
8-10
6-9
143
144
139
141
0.007
0.030
0.055
0.100
4-8
8-9
7-8
7-8
8-10
8-10
8-10
8-10
143
142
140
141
0.004
0.025
0.052
0.099
4-7
8
7-8
6-8
7-10
9-10
9-10
8-10
153
158
155
156
0.003
0.031
0.050
0.091
3-6
8-9
7-9
6-9
8-10*
9-10fc6
9-10
8-106
191
188
198
195
0.95 MANGANESE
No
No
No
No
5
6
7
8
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.94
0.93
0.87
0.89
0.22
0.20
0.15
0.17
0.05
0.06
0.09
0.06
8-10
1.50 MANGANESE
No
No
No
No.
9
10
11
12
0.15
0.16
0.14
0.16
1.46
1.53
1.55
1.53
0.25
0.25
0.22
0.24
0.05
0.08
0.14
0.06
No.
No.
No
No
13
14
15
16
0.16
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.45
0.43
0.43
0.42
0.26
0.23
0.24
0.25
2.29
2.25
2.26
2.35
0.95 MANGANESE
No.
No
No.
No.
17
18
19
20
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.15
0.96
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.19
0.23
0.23
0.22
2.31
2.28
2.25
2.26
1.5 MANGANESE
No.
No
No
No.
21
22
23
24
0.15
0.16
0.15
0.16
1.46
1.51
1.59
1.53
0.23
0.23
0.25
0.23
2.16
2.30
2.26
2.28
a Aluminum reported is acid-soluble aluminum. Sulfur and phosphorus not determinedunder 0.04 per cent.
b Martensite interferes to give questionable ratings.
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Heat Treatment:
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FIG. 1.Effect of Aluminum Content on Transition Temperature of Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon, Carbon-Manganese, and 2.25 per cent
Nickel Steels.
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FIG. 2.Effect of Manganese on Transition Temperature of Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon
Steels.
these steels. In both the carbon-manganese steels and the nickel steels, the
heats with less than 0.01 per cent acidsoluble aluminum (steels Nos. 1, 5, 9, 13,
17 and 21) have the highest transition
temperature in each manganese group,
because these steels are the silicon-killed
or coarse-grain type, as suggested by
their grain size in Table I. The three
remaining steels of each manganese
group show no major differences attributable to the variation in acid-soluble
aluminum within the nominal range of
0.030 to 0.090 per cent. In the nickel
steels with 0.95 and 1.5 per cent manganese, lowest transition temperatures were
Effect of Manganese:
The effect of manganese is shown in
Fig. 2. These curves are the same as
shown in Fig. 1 for heats containing
nominally 0.03 per cent aluminum but
the curves representing the three different levels of manganese for both the
carbon-manganese steels and the nickel
steels are grouped to show more readily
the manganese effect.
The three carbon-manganese steels,
Nos. 2, 6, and 10, show progressively
lower transition temperatures as the
manganese is increased up to 1.50 per
cent. For the nickel steel, there is a lowering of the transition temperature as the
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Steel Type
Nickel,
per cent
Aluminum,
per cent
None
None
None
None
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
0.005. . . . . . .
0 030
0.055
0.090
0.005 . ...
0.030
0 055
0.090
0.4 Mn
0.95 Mn
1.5 Mn
0.4 to
0.95 Mn
0.95 to
1.5 Mn
0.4 to
1.5 Mn
5
-90
-70
-90
-180
-200
-195
-190
-75
-130
-125
-140
-125
-255
-235
-170
-95
-165
-165
-190
80
40
55
50
-55
55
40
-20
20
35
40
50
100
75
95
100
Effect of Nickel:
Microstructure:
Steel Type
Manganese,
per cent
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
Aluminum,
per cent
0.005
0.030
0.055
0.090
0.005
0.030
0.055
0.090
-135
-125
-140
ture
Caused by
2.25 2.25 per cent
per cent Nickel,
deg Fahr
Nickel
-180
-200
-195
-190
-125
-255
-235
-170
185
110
125
100
50
120
110
30
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FIG. 3.Microstructure of Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon Steels. Steels Nos. 5 7 17 and 19fernte plus fernte, picral-metal etch. Steels Nos. 21 and 22: ferrite (white) plus pearlite (black)'
plus bainite (white with black dots), plus martensite (gray), picral etch. Austenite may be retained
in the martensite.
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site with some bainite. This microstructure raises the transition temperature
significantly.
There appears to be no correlation
between hardness and transition temperature in these data. The presence of
appreciable martensite in the four steels
Nos. 20 through 24 is reflected in higher
hardness; however, the high transition
previous discussion that this is an undesirable combination for low-temperature toughness due to the presence of
appreciable martensite after normalizing.
Application of the well-known statistical test for the significance of a
single mean (8) to the effect of adding
FIG. 4.Effect of Manganese, Nickel, and Aluminum on the Ductility Transition (15 ft-lb) of
Normalized 0.15 per cent Carbon Steels.
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0.090 per cent aluminum are not significantly different in transition temperature; however, there is a real difference between the coarse-grained (0.005
per cent aluminum) and the fine-grained
types (0.030 to 0.090 per cent aluminum)
which could happen by chance alone, if
there were no real effect of aluminum in
lowering transition temperature, less
than one time in 50.
Effect of Tempering:
The relatively high transition temperatures of the nickel steels with high manganese content have been attributed to
the presence of appreciable percentages
of bainite and untempered martensite.
To study the effect of tempering, steels
Nos. 10, 14 and 22 were normalized and
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FIG. 7.Microstructure of Three Steels in the Normalized and Normalized and Tempered Conditions. Steels Nos. 10 and 14: ferrite and pearlite. Steel No. 22 normalized: ferrite (white), pearlite
(black), bainite (white with black dots), and martensite (gray). Steel No. 22 normalized and tempered: ferrite and ferrite-carbide aggregate. Picral etch. (X 500).
34
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FIG. 8.Effect of Grain Size (Normalizing Temperature) on Impact Properties of Two Steels
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minimum aluminum content for insuring low transition temperature in siliconkilled 0.15 per cent carbon steels was
FIG. 9.Effect of Austenitizing Temperature on Ferrite Grain Size of Two Steels. Both steels
show eqiuaxed ferrite and pearlite resulting with the lower austenitizing temperature. Larger ferrite
grains and some Widmannstatten structure result from higher austenitizing temperature.
not determined in this work, but published data indicate that it may be as
low as 0.015 per cent,
3. Manganese significantly lowers the
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REFERENCES
(1) J. M. Hodge, R. D. Manning, and H. N.
Reichhold, "Effect of Ferrite Grain Size on
Notch Toughness," Transactions, Am. Inst.
Mining and Metallurgical Engrs., Vol. 185,
pp. 233-240 (1949).
(2) T. S. Washburn, "Deoxidation Basic OpenHearth Steel," Transactions, Am. Inst.
Mining and Metallurgical Engrs., Vol. 162,
pp. 658-671 (1945).
(3) O. O. Miller, "Influence of Austenitizing
Time and Temperature on Austenite Grain
Size of Steel," Transactions, Am. Soc.
Metals, Vol. 43, pp. 260-289 (1951).
(4) S. L. Case and Kent R. Van Horn, "Aluminum in Iron and Steel," Iron Research
Monograph Series, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, N. Y., pp. 138-178, (1953).
(5) J. A. Rinebolt and W. J. Harris, Jr., "Effect of Alloying Elements on Notch Toughness of Pearlitic Steels," Transactions, Am.
Soc. Metals, Vol. 43, pp. 1175-1214 (1951).
(6) H. M. Banta, R. H. Frazier, and C. H.
Lorig, "Metallurgical Aspects of Ship Steel
Quality," Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 30, pp. 79s-90s (1951).
(7) T. N. Armstrong and A. P. Gagnebin, "Impact Properties of Some Low Alloy Nickel
Steels at Temperatures Down as Low as
-200 F," Transactions, Am. Soc. Metals,
Vol. 28, pp. 1-24(1940).
(8) K. A. Brownlee, "Industrial Experimentation," His Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 4th Ed. (1949).
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Test
temperature,
deg
Fahr
212
4? 7
44.6
45.0
62.1
63.3
70;...
50.2
48.7
42.6 42.1
43.0 43.4
49.1 58.7 57.8 59.9 58.9 57.8 56.0 58.7 58.0 69.6 72.4 69.0 52.4 50.6 51.2 53.1 53.2 57.8 61.8 58.0 30.1 43.1 37.3 38.5
50.7 60.0 58.4 59.0 61.2 55.4 60.9 60.6 58.4 70.2 69.2 67.0 49.7 53.3 52.9 53.6 52.4 57.8 58.3 56.9 31.4 46.5 38.0 38.4
53.9
47.6 56.2
46.2
56.4
54.7
57.1
51.1 40.4
49.9
47.8
47.5
56.2 46.9
46.0
41 4 36.4
44.2 40.6
40.5
-50... 3.8 58.2 37.3 44.3 6.5 59.0 53.4 54.2 37.5
3.6 45.2 35.0 46.5 42.7 56.5 53.8 55.6 36.2
37.7
3.8 39.5 33.6 40.3 36.7
39.3
-75...
68.0 68.2
59.1 60.7
66.2
52.0 38.2
41.2 38.7
31.5
29.5
54.9 48.6
48.1
20.8
21.0
11.6
36.0
29.8
38.0
26.5 23.0
22.5 22.3
13.6
12.2
-100. . . 6.7 3.8 4.0 23.0 2.0 42.3 40.0 42.8 7.3 65.9 57.3 48.8 29.7 37.5 33.3 33.6 21.6 42.2 42.8 32.8 8.6 24.8 25.1 19.6
1.8 3.6 2.5 3.4 2.1 4.0 47.2 54.4 7.8 67.5 52.8 52.0
33.0 34.5 36.3 23.3 44.5 44.0 33.4 7.3 23.3 20.6 18.5
44.2
43.8
2.1 2.4 2.3 3.3 26.1 36.2 33.7 33.5 9.7 63.3
6.5
48.6
37.1 41.1 35.0
1.5
125
24.3 2.8 29.5 1.5 44.5 4.2 38.2 27.2 27.6 28.1 26.6 8.6 36.4 38.4 24.0 3.7 21.9 11.3 6.6
28.0 2.4 2.1 1.4 43.4 40.2 29.9 24.4 28.5 25.0 30.3 9.4 37.7 35.2 24.2 2.5 21.4 12.5 6.2
2.0 27.7 2.4
2.9 42.0 41.8 26.2 22.3 27.3 28.7 7.4
23.8
21.4 10.0 6.6
42.4
2.9
2.2 3.0 1.9
2.0 2.5 3.2
2.0 2.2
-175...
200
1 4
1.7
42.9
41.0
38.0
11.0
20.1
24.0
11.6
11.9
30.6
24.4
35.6
5.2
19.9
11.6
2.2 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.7 28.0 2.4 18.3 21.8 16 0 10.2 1.8 23.1 24.6 5.9 2.0 15.6 6.6 2.6
1.6 1.6 1.9 1.5 1.7 21.7 13.1 1.9 7,8 3.6 3.2 2.9 27.7 22.0 3.8 2.1 7.8 5.1 3.9
1.7 22.6 8.5 16.5 18.0 5.9 3.2 29.8
10.2
16.9
1 6 ^ 8 ? S 1 <1
1.6 4.5 3.2 1.7
225
1 8
1.6
1.8
250 . .
1 6 1 7 7 S ? 1 ? 4 ? 0
0.9 1.0 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.8
1.5
2.1
285 .
320
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76 1 ?? <)
27.5 25.5
?? ^ 1 4 ? 1
13.2 5.6 2.7
16.2 5.2
1 8 ^ 0
2.4 2.2
1.7
39
Charpy Impact
Values, ft-lb
Charpy Impact
Values, ft-lb
Charpy Impact
Values, ft-lb
7 0 . . . . 71.4
68.3
58.1
56.5
65.2
64.8
-100.... 66.5
65.2
0.... 69.7
70.1
58.1
58.3
65.0
63.0
-125.... 44.5
25 .
44.1
44.3
64.0
58.6
-50....
39.8
60.8
-150.... 39.3
41.2
40.6
35.3
40.0
48.0
52.6
-175.... 42.6
29.4
35.5
27.2
27.2
30.1
39.7
39.6
-200.... 21.0
29.5
3.1
21.3
20.8
22.0
2.4
3.8
2.3
5.4
1.9
-225....
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250
33.1
35.5
1.9
1.7
1.6
2.0
1.7
2.5
29.1
31.0
22.6
-285....
4.4
5.4
6.0
-320. . . .
2.1
2.4
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
EXPERIMENTAL STEELS
Melting Practice:
Specimens from nineteen 30-lb induction melts and one commercial melt were
tested. Each experimental steel was made
by melting an ingot iron charge, adjusting the carbon and manganese to the
desired level with ferromanganese and
wash metal, deoxidizing with ferrosilicon
and finally with aluminum, and casting
into 4 by 4-in. ingots. Sufficient aluminum was added, except in the case of one
melt, to ensure in excess of 0.015 per cent
residual. The amount of the aluminum
addition required to obtain the desired
residual percentage varied with the carbon and manganese content. The 4 by
4-in. ingots were hammered and rolled
to f-in. square bars and then normalized.
The normalizing temperature was 1700 F
for all steels except those containing over
0.40 per cent carbon, which were normalized at 1600 F. The average cooling
rate of the specimens was estimated to be
about 4 F per sec between 1400 and
1200 F. Bars of ingot iron were obtained
from a commercial melt, and it was intended to use the test results from these
bars as a standard or control. The temperature of embrittlement, however, was
so much higher for this material than for
any of the experimental steels that the
ingot iron results are included only as
being of incidental importance. The high
transition temperature of the ingot iron
is believed to be due primarily to coarse
grain size, but the degree of deoxidation
is probably a factor also.
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41
Steel
A
B.
C.
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P.
Q.
R
S
T
U.
V.
Carbon
Manganese
Silicon
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.09
0.11
0.10
0.15
0.21
0.20
0.20
0.32
0.31
0.45
0.46
0.44
0.02
0.16
0.19
0.43
0.56
0.74
0.98
1.37
0.43
0.78
1.03
0.49
0.47
0.69
0.92
0.48
1.05
0.43
0.70
1.09
0.04
0.27
0.32
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.26
0.25
0.19
0.27
0.21
0.27
0.27
0.25
0.21
0.25
0.23
0.25
0.28
0.30
Ferritic
5 to 8
6 to 8
5 to 7
4 to 7 (few 1 to 3)
7 to 8
7 to 8
6 to 8 (40 per cent 0 to 3)
1 to 3 (30 per cent 7 to 9)
7 to 8 (few 0 to 3)
7 to 8 (few 1 to 3)
1 to 3 (40 per cent 6 to 8)
7 to 9
1 to 9
7 to 9
7 to 9
3 to 6
-2 to 6
5 to 7
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8 (few 5)
5 to 8
8 to 9
8 to 9
4 to 8
8 to 10 (few 5 to 7)
8 to 10
8 to 10 (few 5 to 7)
8 to 10
9 to 10
8 to 10 (few 6 to 7)
10 to 12
10 to 12
2 to 5
4 to 7
Estimated
Steel
Steel
Carbon, Manganese,
per cent per
cent
Steel
Carbon,
per cent
Manganese,
per cent
CABBON SERIES
A
B
F
G
H
0.02
0 02
0 04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0 02
0.02
0.16
0 19
0.43
0.56
0.74
0.98
1.37
J
K
L.
M
0.09
0.11
0.10
0.15
0.43
0.78
N.
P
0.21
0 20
0 20
0 47
0 69
0 92
R
S
0.32
0.31
0.48
1.05
T
U
V...
0.45
0.46
0.44
0.43
0 70
1 09
0.74
0.78
0.69
0.70
G
L
Q. ...
0 04
0.10
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.98
1.03
0 92
1 05
1 09
1.03
0.49
MANGANESIB SEBIE s
D
J
M
N
R
T
0.04
0.09
0.15
0.21
0 32
0.45
0.43
0.43
0.49
0.47
0 48
0.43
F
K
P
U
0.04
0.11
0.20
0.46
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42
FIG. 1(Continued.').
Continued on p. 44.
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44
FIG. 1(Continued.).
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Composition:
Each steel was made to conform to one
of five different carbon levels. An attempt was made to make several lowcarbon melts with practically no manganese, but it was found that unless 0,15
to 0.20 per cent manganese was present
the ingots broke up during hot working.
The very low carbon melts were made
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FIG. 4.Effect of Carbon Content on Ductility (15 ft-lb) Transition Temperature of CarbonManganese Steels.
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FIG. 6.Effect of Manganese Content on Charpy Impact Properties of Experimental CarbonManganese Steels.
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transition temperatures as these experimental specimens even though the composition of the steels might be identical.
Despite the differences that might be expected between the experimental and
commercial steels, it is believed that the
effects of carbon and of manganese on
transition temperature, as determined in
this investigation, would be relatively
the same for commercial steels, providing
comparison among steels is made on spec-
V-Notch
Steel
A.
B.
C
D
E
F
H
J
K
L
M. . . .
N... .
P
Q
R
S
T
U. .
V
0
Temperature
for 15 ft-lb,
deg Fahr
Shear
Fracture,
per cent
Temperature
for 15 ft-lb
deg Fahr
Shear
Fracture,
per cent
95
-40
-55
-15
-80
-90
-90
-130
-30
-95
-110
.-45
-55
-110
-95
-10
-90
30
15
-35
20
15
16
22
15
20
15
18
15
14
16
26
14
12
10
17
10
20
24
16
70
-90
-90
-55
-135
-110
-140
-165
-45
-160
-165
-90
-125
-145
-160
-80
-155
35
0
-50
58
14
25
40
24
20
15
16
40
16
25
35
28
18
12
15
16
35
40
22
3 to 6
2 to 6
5 to 7
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8
6 to 8 (5)
5 to 8
8 to 9
8 to 9
4 to 8
8 to 10 (5 to 7)
8 to 10
8 to 10 (5 to 7)
8 to 10
9 to 10
8 to 10 (6 to 7)
10 to 12
10 to 12
the conditions were favorable in this investigation. Very small ingots were
poured, rolling and hammering temperatures were closely controlled, and the
specimens were cooled fairly rapidly from
the normalizing temperature because of
their small size. The specimens in this
investigation were normalized in order
to eliminate one of the variables. Specimens taken from as-rolled plate, f-in.
or more in thickness, rolled from large
slabs or ingots of commercially produced
steel cannot be expected to have as low
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Lateral Expansion:
The criteria that have been used in
this investigation for measuring per-
FIG. 9.Relation Between Energy and Lateral Expansion in the Impact Test for 12 Experimental
Carbon-Manganese Steels. (After Hartbower (6).)
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REFERENCES
(l) Katherine Janis, "Bibliography on Low
Temperature Characteristics of Steels, 19041954," The International Nickel Co., Inc.,
New York, N. Y., May, 1955.
( 2) J. A. Rinebolt and W. J. Harris, "Effect of
Alloying Elements on Notch Toughness of
Pearlitic Steels," Transactions, Am. Soc. for
Metals, Vol. 43, p. 1175 (1951).
(3) H. M. Banta, R. H. Frazier, and C. H.
Lorig, "Metallurgical Aspects of Ship Steel
Quality," Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 30, No. 2, p. 793 (1951).
(4) R. D. Stout and L. J. McGeady, "The Mean ing and Measurement of Transition Temperature," Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 27, No. 6, p. 299-s (1948).
(5) A. B. Kinzel, "Ductility of Steel for Welded
Structures," Transactions, Am. Soc. for
Metals, Vol. 40, p. 27 (1948).
(6^ Carl E. Hartbower, "Poisson Effect in the
Charpy Test," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 54, p. 929 (1954).
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Charpy V Specimens
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
SERIES A
a
I
8.
5
9
10
3
11
7
6
12
1
212
176
158
140
131
131
122
122
113
104
104
73
79 .
79
68
64
40
46
46
52
26
8
37
6
100
100
95
90
60
65
65
75
40
20
30
10
2
5
7
3
11
1
10
12
9
8
6
4
212
176
140
122
95
73
73
59
50
32
4
-40
31
31
32
26
24
25
24
12
9
6
2
1
100
100
100
85
75
75
75
45
40
25
5
0
75
40
58
67
67
-76
76
76
85
94
83
70
66
62
68
4
63
17
12
8
7
2
100
100
100
100
100
5
100
30
15
10
5
0
75
4
22
40
40
-76
54
-67
76
112
130
-148
82
67
98
15
91
24
92
18
88
35
3
2
100
100
100
30
100
40
100
35
100
50
5
5
75
4
-13
22
40
40
58
-67
112
74
74
73
73
63
54
73
5
3
100
100
100
100
85
80
100
15
5
75
40
58
58
-76
-94
68
70
56
70
62
68
69
60
3
1
1
100
100
75
100
80
100
100
70
5
0
0
SERIES B
1
4
5 ..
11
6
7
10
82
9
3
75
4
22
22
31
31
31
40
40
58
76
212
218
238
225
12
183
15
26
9
6
7
100
100
100
too
15
100
15
20
10
10
10
1
2
5
6
11
4
7
10
9
8
3
12
112
148
SERIES C
4 .
5
6
2
7
9
10
8
12
3
11
75
4
22
31
40
40
49
49
58
58
76
94
223
239
239
239
35
239
239
8
10
6
7
18
1
4
5
2
6
3
7
8
9
10
12
11
100
100
100
100
25
100
100
5
5
5
5
10
SEBTKB D
1
2
4
6 -'
5
75
75
4
13
22
40
240
240
225
32
11
10
100
100
100
35
1
4
7
2
12
9.
10
15.
10
11
SERIES E
1
2
g
6
5
4
3
75
40
58
67
76
148
238
320
224
224
224
224
8
3
2
1
100
100
100
100
5
0
0
0
1.
2
7
9
6
10
11
8
5
103
-112
148
238
320
4
3.
Continued
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06
EDT 2016 on p.
Downloaded/printed by
Petrofac (Petrofac) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorized.
56-58
Charpy V Specimens
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
220
235
220
230
15
6
4
100
100
100
100
20
10
5
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
-40
-76
-94
-103
-112
-148
79
75
79
110
78
4
2
100
100
100
100
100
10
5
75
-40
-76
-112
-120
-130
-130
-139
-139
-148
-166
-184
80
78
80
77
78
56
58
80
79
5
3
3
100
100
100
100
100
70
70
100
100
5
0
0
75
-40
-112
-130
-139
-148
-157
-166
-184
-220
97
100
98
107
87
76
36
16
11
3
100
100
c 100
100
90
80
35
15
5
0
75
32
-4
-13
-22
-31
-40
-40
-49
-58
-76
61
64
60
49
42
40
34
39
8
4
3
100
100
100
85
70
65
60
55
30
20
10
68
-40
-4
-58
-58
-67
-76
-112
-148
-166
-184
83
80
75
54
78
56
50
37
34
2
2
100
100
100
70
100
70
60
50
35
0
0
68
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
-166
-184
-184
-238
86
78
76
53
45
35
10
4
4
1
100
100
100
65
50
35
10
0
0
0
SERIES F
--- 2
3
7
6
5
4
1
2
3
6
7
5
4
SERIES G
1
2.
3
7
6
5
4 ..
75
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
223
240
240
240
12
6
5
100
100
100
100
15
10
5
1 ..
-2
3
8 ...
9
6
5
4
75
-40
-112
-112
-121
-130
-148
-184
237
238
238
238
238
13
5
4
100
100
100
100
100
5
0
0
1..
3
6
7
4
2
5
75
32
14
5
-4
-40
-76
195
190
184
76
52
7
4
100
100
100
50
40
10
5
1
2
3
5
7
6
10
8
9
4
12
11
SERIES H
1
2
3
6
7
5
9
8
4
10
SERIES J
1
3
4
7
6
10
2
9
11
8
5
SERIES K
1
-1
3
7
6
5
4 ...
68
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-148
238
238
224
110
20
7
4
100
100
100
55
15
5
0
1
3
5
4
7
8
2
6
11
12
10
SERIES L
1
^_2
3
6
7 ....
g
5
4
68
-40
-76
-94
-103
-108
-112 -148
238
238
238
238
200
226
10.5
6
100
100
100
100
100
100
5
0
1
2
8
5
4
3
10
7
9
6
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
Downloaded/printed by
56
Petrofac (Petrofac) pursuant to License Agreement. No further reproductions authorized.
Specimen
57
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
32
22
14
-4
-4
-22
-22
-40
-76
153
154
120
119
75
113
90
97
17
6
100
100
85
80
60
75
55
60
30
10
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
75
32
14
-4
-22
-40
-58
-76
-94
-94
-112
57
53
50
48
44
38
36
30
32
10
3
100
100
100
90
85
70
55
45
40
20
5
75
32
14
-4
-22
-40
-76
112
148
50
50
42
41
39
33
31
22
3
100
100
85
80
75
60
55
40
0
75
32
14
5
-4
-40
-76
-112
-130
-148
-148
-200
54
53
56
54
44
38
31
28
24
6
24
2
100
100
100
100
80
65
45
40
25
5
25
0
75
-22
-22
-40
-58
-76
-112
-150
-150
-240
-320
55
44
53
48
41
37
28
27
23
2
1
100
80
100
85
65
50
30
25
20
0
0
175
86
72
32
-4
-4
-40
-76
-85
-94
-112
-112
40
39
35
31
24
28
21
19
3
3
3
2
100
100
90
70
65
65
40
35
10
10
5
5
SERIES M
10
6
3
9
7
8
2
5
4
6 ..
3
8
2
11
5
9
10
7
SERIES N
g
12
I
9
4
11
-2
10
5
7
122
122
75
75
50
32
14
-4
-40
-58
-76
-112
122
122
123
121
100
96
92
70
45
19
9
3
100
100
100
100
90
85
80
60
45
15
5
0
75
50
32
14
5
-4
-13
-22
-22
-40
-76
128
133
113
128
134
106
84
105
91
53
30
100
100
85
100
100
70
60
70
55
35
15
75
-40
-50
-58
-67
-76
-112
-150
-240
-320
128
124
102
31
32
48
10
5
1
1
100
100
65
20
15
25
5
g
2.
5
9 . ...
SERIES P
1
6
3
g
4
10
9
11
2
5
1 ..
3
8 ..
4
2
5
9
11 .
6
10
12
SERIES Q
1...
10
9
6
8
5'
4
3
1
9
10
2.
7
6
o0
0
8 ..
5
11
4
3
SERIES R
4
5
7
3..
6
175
104
86
72
32
-4
-40
87
87
78
56
41
30
7
100
100
85
70
45
30
5
4
8
1
3
6
7
2.
5
12
11 . ...
9
10
Continued on p. 58.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
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58
Charpy V Specimens
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
Specimen
Temperature, deg
Fahr
Energy,
ft-lb
Shear Area,
per cent
122
75
50
32
-4
-40
-76
-112
-148
-184
44
44
41
38
35
30
23
22
18
5
100
100
95
90
85
65
45
35
20
5
250
212
194
175
140
104
75
75
32
14
-4
-40
27
28
25
26
27
24
16
20
16
9
6
2
100
100
90
95
95
85
50
70
40
35
20
5
212
149
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
-112
28
27
26
22
19
18
15
13
8
2
100
100
90
80
60
50
40
30
15
5
212
148
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
-112
30
31
30
29
27
21
22
14
13
12
100
100
90
85
75
55
45
SERIES S
r\
6
4
g
3
=2
5
7
75
50
32
14
-4
-40
-76
-112
87
81
77
56
54
36
23
12
100
100
95
75
70
40
15
5
10
1
6
4
3
2
5
7
8
9
SERIES T
4
11
40
9
g
6
1
3
7
2
212
175
158
140
122
104
86
75
32
-4
-40
57
57
58
49
37
34
27
24
16
7
5
100
100
100
95
75
65
50
40
20
10
5
11
5
6
4
8
9
1
10
3
12
7
2
SERIES U
4
5
7
11
6
12
10
1
8
9
T
3
212
176
158
149
140
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
50
50
50
49
44
41
37
28
18
11
10
6
100
100
100
95
90
75
65
50
30
15
10
5
3
8
9
7
1
6
5
4
2
10
SERIES V
4
S
7
11
6
12
10
1
8
29
3
212
176
158
149
140
122
104
68
32
-4
-40
-76
60
58
57
55
57
45
48
33
27
21
14
8
100
100
100
100
95
75
80
55
40
25
15
5
3
8
9
7
1
6
5
4
2
10
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
Downloaded/printed by
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30
15
10
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
E 9310
SAE 1020
0.12
0.20
0.63
0.83
0.020
0.020
Sulfur
Silicon
Nickel
Chromium
Molybdenum
0.028
0.040
0 31
0 05
3 19
1 20
0 10
Heat Treatment:
The E 9310 |-in. plate was austenitized at 1500 F (816 C) for 1 hr and oil
quenched, followed by a 1000 F (538 C)
temper for 1 hr and air cooled. This
treatment produced a microstructure of
95 per cent tempered martensite and 5
per cent acicular ferrite with an ASTM
grain size of 8-9. 'The SAE 1020 |-in.
plate was austenitized at 1700 F (927 C)
for 1 hr and air-cooled. This treatment
produced a microstructure of elongated
grains of ferrite and pearlite with an
ASTM grain size of 5-6.
TESTS
MATERIAL
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
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59
www.astm.org
60
Standard
One half
One quarter
L, in.
5, in.
D, in.
A, in.
R,'m.
S X D , Capacity Hammer
Volume, sq in., of Impact Striking
cu in. Fracture Machine, Velocity,
ft per sec
Area
ft-lb
2.165
2 165
2 165
0 394
0 197
0 098
0 315
0 315
0 315
0 394
0 010
0 010
0 010
0 335
0 168
0 084
0 394
0 394
0 124
0 062
0 031
11.3
11.3
11.3
120
120
16
Fracture Appearance,
per cent Fibrous
Energy, ft-lb
deg Cent
deg Fahr
ONE-QUARTER WIDTH
-195... .
-110....
-75....
-25....
+ 25... 4
+ 50....
-319.. 2.4
-166.. 3.0
-103.. 5.4
-13.. 9.8
+ 77.. 11.0
+ 122.. 10.0
2.7
2.8
7.1
9.0
9.5
9.0
3.0
3.2
6.5
9.9
8.0
8.0
Avg
2.7
3.0
6.3
9.6
9.5
9.0
0
10
40
60
100
100
0
10
40
60
100
100
Avg
0
10
38
62
100 100
100 100
0
10
35
65
Avg
6.1
9.2
13.3
20.4
19.4
16.3
6.1
8.2
15.3
15.3
14.3
21.4
6.1 6.1
8.2 8.5
14.3
14.3
17.3
17.7
16.8
16.8
18.9
18.9
2.0
3.6
4.1
7.1
8.2
8.2
2.0
3.6
4.1
7.1
9.2
9.2
2.0
4.1
4.1
6.6
8.7
8.7
3.8
4.1
6.9
8.7
8.7
8.0
2.5
2.5
3.3
5.1
4.8
2.0
2.3
3.1
3.8
5.3
5.6
1.4
2.8
2.8
3.8
5.2
5.2
1.4
2.5
2.8
3.6
5.2
5.2
ONE-HALF WIDTH
-195....
-110... .
-75....
-25....
+ 25....
+50... .
-319..
-166..
-103. .
-13..
+77..
+ 122..
0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5
10 10 10 10
40 50 45 45
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100
2.04
STANDARD WIDTH
6.1
17.0
30.0
-13.. . 22.0 24.0
+77... 31.0 32.0
+ 50... . + 122... 31.0 32.0
-195... .
-110... .
-75....
-25....
+ 25....
-319... 4.7
-166... 18.0
-103... 25.0
7.5 6.1
16.0
17.0
23.0
14.0
24.0
23.3
32.3
34.0
32.3
34.0
0 0 0
0
0 5 5 3
5 5 5 5
15 20 20 18.3
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100
width. The volume of the bars was calculated as the product of the three linear
dimensions; the volume of the notch was
disregarded. For a study of true size
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
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61
Fracture Appearance,
per cent Fibrous
Energy, ft-lb
deg Cent
deg Fahr
ONE-QUARTER WIDTH
-100.... -148...
-50....
-58...
0.... + 32...
+ 50.... + 122...
+ 100.... + 212...
0.3
1.9
6.5
8.1
7.2
0.4
1.1
8.5
9.5
8.6
0.4
1.8
7.9
7.7
7.5
Avg
0.4
1.6
7.6
8.4
7.8
0
0
0
2
3
3
95 97 99
100 100 100
100 100 100
Avg
0
3
97
100
100
Avg
2.1 2.1 1.0
1.7
5.2 7.1 7.2
6.5
28.6 24.5 25.326.1
28.9 25.8 27.627.4
29.6 30.6 31.6 30.6
0
0
50
100
100
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
11.2 12.2 12.12.0
7
14.1 14.6 15.2
14.6
17.1 17.7 17.2
17.3
0
0
17
99
100
ONE-HALF WIDTH
-100.
-50.
0.
+ 50
+ 100.
-148.
-58.
+ 32
+ 122.
+ 212
0.5
0.7
0.7 0.6
1.7' 0.8
1.1 1.2
8.6 11.112.0 10.6
17.0 16.0 17.016.7
12.0 14.0 18.0
14.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
30
60
100 100 100
100 100 100
0.5
STANDARD WIDTH
1.4
1.4 1.4
-100.... -148... 1.3
-58... 3.8
2.2 3.4 3.1
-50....
0.... +32... 16.0 16.0 16.016.0
34.7
+ 50.... + 122... 35.0 35.0 34.0
+ 100.... +2l2... 36.0 35.0 34.0
35.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
10 20
99 99
99
100 100 100
TABLE III.SUMMARY OF ENERGY, FRACTURE APPEARANCE, AND CONTRACTION-UNDER NOTCH TRANSITION TEMPERATURES FOR OIL-QUENCHED-ANDTEMPERED E 9310 AND NORMALIZED SAE 1020 STEELS.
Material
Bar Width
Energy
Transition
Temperature
Fracture
Appearance
Transition
Temperature
Contraction-.
Under-Notch
Transition
Temperature
deg
Cent
deg
Fahr
deg
Cent
deg
Fahr
deg
Cent
deg
Fahr
E 9310
E 9310
E 9310
One quarter
One half
Standard
-70
-35
0
-94
-31
+ 32
-48
-28
0
-54
-18
+ 32
-80
-38
-20
-112
-36
-4
SAE 1020
SAE 1020
SAE 1020
One quarter
One half
Standard
-25
-5
+5
-13
+ 23
+41
-25
0
+ 20
-13
+ 32
+ 68
-23
-20
0
-9
-4
+32
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
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Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
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64
TEST RESULTS
Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties:
The room-temperature tension test results (average of three results) were as
follows:
E9310
SAE 1020
157 500
137 500
127 000
12 5
63 500
39 000
33 Rockwell C
30 5
64 0
69 Rockwell B
Impact Properties:
The V-notch Charpy data and transition temperatures are summarized in
Tables I to III and Figs. 2 to 7.
The energy transition temperatures
given in Table III were determined by
estimating the temperature of greatest
slope of the curves of impact energy
versus temperature. The fracture appearance transition temperatures were determined as the 50 per cent ductile fracture
from the plots of per cent fibrous fracture
versus temperature. Contraction-undernotch transition temperatures (deformation) were determined by estimating the
temperature of greatest slope of the
curves of per cent contraction versus
temperature.
The energy per unit fracture area and
energy per unit volume calculations are
summarized in Table IV and Figs. 8
through 11.
DISCUSSION
Transition Temperature:
FIG. 6.Contraction Under Notch Transition Curves, Oil-Quenched-and-Tempered E
9310.
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FIG. 8.Energy per Unit Fracture Area as a Function of Bur Width and Temperature for Oil
Quenched-and-Tempered E 9310 Steel.
FIG. 9.Energy per Unit Fracture Area as a Function of Bar Width and Temperature for Normalized 1020 Steel.
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FIG. 10.Energy per Unit Volume as a Function of Bar Width and Temperature for Oil-Quenchedand-Tempered E 9310 Steel.
FIG. 11.Energy per Unit Volume as a Function of Bar Width and Temperature for Normalized
1020 Steel.
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One
Quarter
One Half
Full
One Half
Full
One Half
Full
87.2
96.8
203.2
309.8
306.1
290.0
61.3
93.6
137.1
203.2
298.8
306.5
49.2
137.1
185.4
187.8
260.4
260.4
12.9
51.6
245.0
271.0
251.0
19.4
171.0
269.3
237.0
9.7
11.3
25.0
129.0
279.4
282.0
-75
25
+ 22
+50
2.7
3.0
6.3
9.6
9.5
9.0
3.8
5.8
8.5
12.6
18.5
19.0
6.1
17.0
23.0
23.3
32.3
32.3
32.2
35.7
75.0
114.2
113.1
107.1
22.6
34.5
50.6
75.0
110.1
113.1
18.2
50.8
68.7
70.2
96.4
96.4
+50
+ 100
0.4
1.6
7.6
8.4
7.8
0.6
1.2
10.6
16.7
14.7
1.4
3.1
16.0
34.7
35
4.8
19.1
90.6
100.0
92.9
3.6
7.2
63.2
99.4
87.6
4.2
9.3
47.8
103.5
104.5
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CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn:
1. A size effect was exhibited in transition temperature for both the E 9310
and SAE 1020 steels. The energy, fracture appearance, and deformation transi-
A cknowledgment:
REFERENCES
(1) D. C. Buffum, "Investigation of Square SubSized V-Notch Charpy Specimens," ASTM
BULLETIN, No. 160, Sept., 1949, p. 45 (TP
143).
(2) T. N. Armstrong, N. A. Kahn, and H.
Thielsch, "Transition from Ductile to
Brittle Behavior in Pressure Vessel Steels,"
The Welding Journal, Research Supplement, Aug., 1952, pp. 2-11.
(3) R. S. Zeno and J. L. Dolby, "The Effect of
Specimen Geometry on Impact Transition
Temperature," ibid., Research Supplement,
Apr. 1953, pp. 190S-197S.
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71
Manganese
Silicon
Sulfur
Phosphorus
Nickel
Chromium
Molybdenum
0.37 to 0.75 to 0.77 0.27 to 0.28 0.013 to 0.013 to 1.73 to 1.77 0.83 to 0.86 0.25 to
0.385
0.015
0.016
0.27
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72
Tvoe 1
Type 2
Medium
High
12.7
12.6
48.6
49.1
78.4
77.9
FIG. 2.Deviation and Energy Values Obtained on Machines from Four Different Manufacturers. (Watertown Arsenal machines used as standard.)
random and chips were taken for analysis. The chemical compositions in Table
I show the small spread encountered in
composition.
This material was divided into three
lots of approximately 6000 specimens
each and heat treated to three energy
levels. Two hundred specimens at each
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FIG. 3.Deviation and Energy Values Obtained in Second and Third Tests on Same Machines.
(Watertown Arsenal machines used as standard.)
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DISCUSSION
MR. S. L. HoYT.1Was any coolant
used during the machining of the
notches? Or how was a possible heating
effect taken care of?
MR. D. E. DRISCOLL (author).Mr.
Hoyt has asked whether, during the machining of the notches, we use anything
for a coolant. The answer is, no. With the
single tooth carbide cutter, we have
found that the heat generated is so low
that we have no changes in the notch.
We have tried it both with and without
cooling and we get exactly the same results, regardless of the energy value of
the material.
MR. A. H. ScoTT.2I would like to ask
Mr. Driscoll if the Watertown Arsenal is
offering to calibrate impact testing machines for those interested.
MR. DRISCOLL (author'sclosure).The
Watertown Arsenal Laboratories, work-
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STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
of the fractured surface could be obtained, but the energy to fracture could
not be recorded.
In the meantime, a contract was initiated for the design and manufacture of
an automatic machine for impact testing
to 10 K (-263 C). The final product, the
low-temperature impact machine, was
installed at the Watertown Arsenal
Laboratory in June 1954. It had been
hoped that temperatures as low as
263 C could be obtained; but, as yet,
only temperatures as low as 236 C are
being obtained.
1
Mechanical Engineer, Watertown Arsenal
Laboratory,
Watertown, Mass.
2
M. G. Fontana, S. M. Bishop, and J. W.
Spretnak, "Investigation of Mechanical Properties and Physical Metallurgy of Aircraft Alloy
at Very Low Temperatures," Air Force Technical
Report No. 5662, Part 5, The Ohio State University Research Foundation, December, 1953.
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Cooling Mechanism:
The specimens are cooled by conduction, as convection and radiation would
be ineffective. In a high vacuum such
as that employed, 0.1 /*, there is no air
present to convey heat. Since radiation
varies as the fourth power of the absolute temperatures, and we are concerned with temperatures as low as 37 K,
radiation is small and is not a significant
factor. To be effective the surfaces
through which the heat must flow must
be in intimate contact. A cooling mechanism was designed to clamp each specimen between jaws, each jaw being cooled
with liquid helium. When a vacuum of
0.1 /* is obtained, the specimens are
ready to be cooled. The refrigerator
jaws are precooled by forcing liquid
nitrogen through a separate coil and
venting it to the air.
FIG. 3.Comparative Charpy Transition Curves of AISI 4040 Steel Specimens (45 Rockwell C
Hardness) Tested in Both the Sonntag and Low-Temperature Impact Machines.
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FIG. 4.Fractured Surfaces of Charpy Specimens of AISI4340 Steel (27 Rockwell C Hardness).
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FIG. 5.Charpy Transition Curve of AISI 4340 Steel (45 Rockwell C Hardness).
effect of the cryostat is limited in capacity and the cooling effect is at the rate
of only a few watts, the following steps
were taken to conserve as much helium
as possible:
1. The storage area of the cryostat
was enlarged from 5-liters to 18-liters
capacity.
2. The cryostat draw-off tube was
enlarged from T&-in. inside diameter to
TS in.
3. The cold helium gas leaving the
cooler was made to pass through the
\cooler supports, thereby minimizing the
heat flow through these supports.
4. The inside walls of the vacuum
chamber were coated with aluminum foil
to reduce radiation to the cooler, and the
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FIG. 6.Fractured Surfaces of Charpy Specimens of AISI4340 Steel (45 Rockwell C Hardness).
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CONCLUSIONS
1. The low-temperature machine is a
device which is capable of producing
accurate test results from room temperature to 236 C.
2. The 6 Al 4 V titanium alloy exhibits
remarkable toughness at 236 C.
Future Work:
Attempts to obtain testing temperatures below 236 C will be continued
in the future. It is anticipated that a redesign of the cold box and the cooling
coils will result in lower temperatures.
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The nature of the impact test as exemplified by the Charpy test is such that
meticulous care must be exercised in its
execution if reproducible results are to be
achieved. Contrary to the apparent experience of several testing facilities,
Driscoll2 has definitely established that
reproducibility is indeed possible and,
in fact, to be expected, provided certain
minimum safeguards that he describes are
maintained.
There have been instances, however,
where, in spite of all the suggested precautionary measures, tests have failed
to provide reproducible results from
machine to machine; the present investigation has been aimed at uncovering
the source of this apparent discrepancy.
In tests at Watertown Arsenal Laboratory, it was noted, for example, that
certain classes of specimens of controlled
strength and toughness levels would fail
with remarkable and unfailing repro1
Chief, Applied Mechanics Branch, Watertown Arsenal Laboratory, Watertown Arsenal,
Watertown,
Mass.
2
D. E. Driscoll, "The Charpy Impact Machine and Procedure for Inspection and Testing
Charpy 'V Notch Impact Specimens," ASTM
BTTLLETIW, No. 191, July, 1953, p. 60 (TP104).
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85
86
B
CA
CB
Type
Design
Capacity,
ft-lbs
Impact Velocity
at Design Capacity, ft per sec
Mass of
Pendulum,
slugs
Distance from
Center Rotation
to center of
gravity, in.
Pendulum
Pendulum
Drop weight
Drop weight
217
16
16
16
16.8
11.0
4.0
11.0
1.56
0.277
1.56
0.277
27.3
11.9
6
6
0 This test machine was a conventional drop weight tester for which two weights were designed
to correspond to the weights of machines A and B, respectively. These weights were then released
in machine C from heights corresponding to 16.0 ft-lb to simulate the capacity of machine B. The
associated velocities are tabulated.
6
Not applicable.
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60
45
40
35
30.67
(100)
(3)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Impact Velocity,
ft per sec
16.8
8.59
6.57
5.88
5.19
4.54
12.7
13.0
13.1
12.8
13.6
13.9
87
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/Eo
3.84
3.17
2.36
1.49
1.16
1.07
1.04
1.01
1.00
0.98
1.01
1.04
0.99
1.00
0.99
1.00
155 (4)
125
100
75
65
62
61
60
^
(3)
(3)
(3)
(4)
(3)
(5)
(2)
\ /
217.05
179.17
133.63
84.39
65.74
60.41
58.66
56.93
56.43
55.55
57.00
58.07
55.82
56.49
56.12
56.58
0
All specimens tested at 24 C in machine A
at various initial (adjusted) angles of the pendulum 80 , as indicated.
6
The number in parentheses indicates the
number of specimens per datum point.
e
Eo is the rigid machine energy, that is, the
energy absorbed in a rigid machine at design
capacity; in the present case, Eo = 56.43 ft-lb.
break specimens when the elevation corresponded to 12 ft-lb. This is in agreement with the values obtained in earlier
tests (see Table II).
Furthermore, though machine CB responded in a similar fashion, its pendulum type counterpart having identical
masses and impact velocities was incapable of fracturing the specimens' in
spite of its 16 ft-lb capacity. Figure 7
shows the complete transition curve for
the lower impact energy material.
Although no attempt is made here to
imply that these tests are conclusive,
they appear to encourage and substantiate explanations other than those
based on materials response. Toward
this end the author proposes that flexi-
bilities and softness of the impact machine play a primary role in this anomalous effect, but it will be shown that the
characteristics of the stress-strain curve
of the specimens being tested are also
significant. Figure 8, which represents a
strain record actually made on an impact machine, definitely justifies the
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89
Fraction of
Specimens Tested
Which Failed
MACHINE CA
15
14
13
12
(1)
(1).
(2)
(1)
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
MACHINE CB
18 (2) ...
17 (2)
16 (2)
15 (2)
14 (1)
13 (2) .
12 (3)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
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where:
y = displacement, and
g = gravitational constant
Allowing for an initial condition of
free fall (swing) of the pendulum before
impact giving rise to an impact velocity
V0, and assuming that the displacement
of the pendulum is zero at time zero,
the solution of this is given by:
or, equivalently:
91
where:
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DISCUSSION
MR. H. M. QuACKENBOS1 (presented
in written form).Mr. Bluhm has presented some convincing facts concerning
the effect of the "stiffness" of the impact
machine on the energy needed to fracture a sample. With the lighter of the
two machines, less of the applied energy
is transmitted to the specimen and more
is taken in deforming the pendulum.
The converse of this situation lies in a
fixed machine and specimens of varying
stiffness; we encountered this in examining impact machines for plastics.2 3 We
were using electric strain gages on the
specimen to measure the energy absorbed
during impact. In the standard Izod
machine, only 10 to 20 per cent of the
energy applied by the pendulum was
transmitted to the specimen; the rest
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STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
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95
the construction of the various components are discussed. Finally, results are
presented of an exploratory investigation
on the dynamic pressure-strain relations
hi the yield region for several alloys.
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98
By the proper selection of the pressures pi, p2, p$, and the length of the
dynamic chamber, the duration of the
pressure pulse can be varied from microseconds to milliseconds. Also, if pi ^ pz
before the sealing diaphragm is ruptured,
then the specimen is statically loaded by
the pressure differential (Pi p-^.
As an experimental device for applying loads of an impulsive nature, the im-
pact tube appears to have several distinct advantages over test techniques
commonly employed:
(a) It permits testing materials to
obtain dynamic stress-strain and fracture
characteristics without the limitations
of the Charpy or Izod type of test or the
wave propagation effects associated with
the tension impact test. As such, the
impact tube constitutes an advancement
in dynamic testing techniques. In addition, the impulse loading is applied
directly to the specimen and is not transmitted through auxiliary devices such
as a specimen holder.
(6) The impact tube permits testing of
materials under various biaxial tensile
strain conditions. This type of test is
important in establishing the behavior
of structures composed of plate elements
under blast loading conditions. It is
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102
Aluminum99.00%
Iron Silicon1 00%
Sulfur
Manganese
Zinc
Others each
Others total0.15%
99.00% Minlron
1.00% Max Chromium .17.50%
0 05% Max Nickel
0 10*% Max Manganese
0.05% Max Carbon
0.05% Max Phosphorus.0.028%
0.15% Max Sulfur 0.007%
Max Silicon
71.12%
17.50%
9 82%
1 27%>
0.09%
0.028%
0.007%
0. 160%
Iron
Carbon
Manganese
Phosphorus0 009%
Sulfur
99.491%
0.080%
0 380%
0.009%
0.040%
fects. The chemical analysis and processing data for each of the materials are
given in Table I.
Test Instrumentation:
Pressure in the dynamic chamber at
the specimen position and strain at the
center of the specimen were determined
as functions of tune in the dynamic
tests. A wire resistance strain gage,
Baldwin type A-5, was cemented to the
center of each circular specimen with
the- gage axis coinciding with the rolling axis of the specimen. The strain
gage was connected into a bridge circuit which also contained a temperature
compensating strain gage mounted on a
strain-free member on the specimen
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FIG. 8.Pressure and Strain Data for Dynamic and Static TestsAluminum
Alloy 2S-0.
FIG. 9.Pressure and Strain Data for Dynamic and Static TestsStainless
Steel Type 302.
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105
Specimen
No. 2 SO-1
No. 2 SO-2
No. 2 SO-3
No.
No.
No.
No.
SS-1
SS-2
SS-3
SS-4
2240
2055
2000
1.92
1.16
1.21
1.78
1725
2810
2690
2660
DISCUSSION OF TEST
RESULTS
The results of the exploratory tests
made on aluminum alloy and stainless
steel specimens indicate no significant
differences in pressure-strain data between the strain rate dynamic test and
the static test. This is shown in Figs. 8
and 9 where pressure strain data for
dynamic and static tests are compared.
The strain and loading rates in the
dynamic tests were of the order of 2
in. per in. per sec and 2000 psi per sec,
respectively, as shown in Table II.
Qualitative results of tests on SAE
1010 steel are shown in the photographs
in Fig. 10. The presence of Liieder's
lines on both dynamically and statically
tested specimens indicate nonuniform
straining. It should be noted that the
pattern of the lines in the dynamic test
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Acknowledgement:
The inf ormation reported herein results
from contracts sponsored by the Office
of Ordnance Research, Dept. of the
Army. Engaged on this project was
Harry Slater who contributed significantly to the design and construction of
the impact tube. In addition to Mr.
Slater, Ralph Papirno participated in
the test program. Then* contributions
are gratefully acknowledged.
APPENDIX
AERODYNAMICS OF THE IMPACT TUBE
The impact tube, as commonly employed
for testing, uses a balanced pressure in
the static and dynamic chambers which is
greater than atmospheric pressure. Thus,
upon rupture of the sealing diaphragm at the
end of the dynamic chamber, an expansion
wave is created which travels down the
dynamic chamber toward the test specimen.
Since the application of the impulse loading
to the specimen depends directly upon the
character of the expansion wave, the aerodynamics of this phenomenon have been
studied in some detail. For the purposes of
this paper, a brief description of the analysis
and test results are presented.
Aerodynamic Theory:
The problem of determining the pressure
drop-off in the dynamic chamber is treated
as the interaction of a pair of centered rarefactions. The governing partial differential
equation and a general solution are given
by Courant and Friedrichs (13). An explicit solution was obtained by Filler (14)
for the particular case where the ratio of
specific heats, 7, is 7 to 5.
The governing partial differential equation, which can be solved in terms of the
characteristics xt = u c, is
(1)
where:
c local velocity of sound,
u = velocity,
t = time coordinate,
x = position coordinate, and
<p = function <p(x, /).
Figure 11 represents the characteristics
in the x t plane, with the sealing diaphragm located at the coordinate x = L.
Under the assumption that the sealing diaphragm ruptures instantaneously at t = 0,
a centered rarefaction is created at this
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107
where:
(3)
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(4)
where:
for 7
REFERENCES
(1) H. C.- Mann, "The Relation Between the
Tension Static and Dynamic Tests," Proceedings, Am, Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 35,
\ Part II, p. 323 (1935).
(2) H. C. Mann, "High Velocity Tension Impact Tests," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 36, Part II, p. 85 (1936).
(3) ,D. S. Clark and G. Datwyler, "StressStrain Relations under Tension Impact
Loading," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 38, Part II, p. 98 (1938).
(4) A. Nadai and M. J. Manjoine, "High Speed
Tension Tests at Elevated Temperatures
Part I," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
. Mats., Vol. 40, p. 822 (1940).
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DISCUSSION
MR. W. RAMBERG.1Some 15 yr ago,
my former associate, Mr. A. E. McPherson, and I made lateral pressure tests on
circular plates2. At the time we experienced a great deal of difficulty, due to
variation in the initial membrane tension
of the circular plate, so that a large portion of our data was rendered worthless.
I would like to inquire whether that was
a difficulty in the present tests.
MR. A. G. H. DiETZ3 (written)Mr.
Gerard has performed a valuable service
in first reviewing the characteristics of
the various types of high-velocity or impact tests customarily employed, and
then proceeding to the discussion of the
impact tube. His analysis of tests B, C,
and D of his Fig. 1 is especially pertinent
because B and C in particular are being
used increasingly in place of the Izod
and Charpy tests. Anyone who has
worked with tension (or compression)
impact or high-velocity testing has been
confronted with the problem of wave
propagation and its effects.
The impact tube described seems to
be especially useful in the evaluation of
plates, sheets, and diaphragms under
high-velocity loading. Although the results on metal specimens seemed to show
little difference between the dynamic
110
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
SYNOPSIS
The history of the longitudinal impact test from Thomas Young (1807) to
the present is reviewed briefly to show its importance for a study of the dynamic strength of materials and to bring out some of the difficulties in the
interpretation of the results of impact tests. These difficulties call for further
tests under controlled conditions. A slingshot machine for making impact tests
at the National Bureau of Standards is described, arid results obtained from
these tests on bars of steel and of copper are given. These show that the
strain pulses were attenuated in the steel with much less change in shape
than that represented by the simple von Karman theory of plastic strain waves.
The high-strength steel exhibited a time delay between the sudden application
of a high stress and the initiation of yielding, which decreased with increasing
stress in accord with the dislocation locking theory of Cottrell as developed
by Yokobori. The need for further work in this field is emphasized.
While the longitudinal impact test is
not so popular as the transverse impact
or Charpy test, it is gaming in importance because it has certain basic advantages as a "standard", which are
similar to the advantages enjoyed by
the static tension test of a long specimen
for determining the static properties of
a material. In both cases the stresses
and the strains can be determined from
the external loads and relative displacements with less uncertainty than for
other types of tests. In both cases the
stresses are, or at least should be, uniaxial and constant on a given crosssection and the strains are correspondingly uniform with one important
difference: time is a controlling variable
in the impact test.
1
Chief, Division of Mechanics and Mechanical
Engineer, respectively, Engineering Mechanics
Section, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D. Int'l
C. (all rights reserved); Tue Apr 12 02:07:06 EDT 2016
Copyright
by ASTM
The analysis of the longitudinal impact test goes back nearly 150 years,
when Thomas Young (i)2 called attention
to the importance of strain waves for
impact as contrasted with static load.
Young derived the equation
.(1)
connecting the velocity of impact v\
with the intensity e of the strain wave
travelling down the bar with the velocity
of sound c0 in the material (Fig. 1).
From these he concluded that the impact would cease to be elastic for velocities -DI sufficient to produce strains e
beyond the elastic range.
In 1883 St. Venant (2) published his
classical theory for the propagation of
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper,
see p. 123.
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112
FIG. 1.Young's Formula e = Vi/c0 Connecting the Velocity of Impact v\ with Strain e
of the Wave Traveling Down the Bar with the
Velocity of Sound c0 in the Material.
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(3)
113
where:
K = constant,
<r = dynamic stress, and
<rg< = static stress corresponding
strain e = du/dx.
to
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(6)
114
115
where:
TO, <r0, 0", n = constants characteristic of
the material, and
k = Boltzmann constant.
Yokobori was able to fit this formula
closely to the test results which Clark
and Wood (19) had obtained at three
different temperatures, 60, 23, and
66 C.
It is apparent from this brief and
sketchy account that several mechanisms
must be invoked to describe the response
of materials to impact and that much
further work under controlled laboratory
conditions needs be done to determine
which one of these mechanisms predominates in a given material under
given conditions. It is believed that at
the same time this would clear up the
apparent contradictions between the
predictions of the various theories so
far proposed. The tests to be described
in this paper were conducted at the
National Bureau of Standards with the
support of the Office of Naval Research
to throw further light on the situation.
FIG. 3.Tension and Compression Impact
Specimens for the Slingshot Machine.
TESTING TECHNIQUES
The specimen in the form of a long
bar of constant cross-section was cradled
loosely in a horizontal position on rubber
bands. A weight was propelled at the bar
with a slingshot machine to strike the
bar axially, at the near end for compression impact and at the far end for
tension impact. The impact pulse
travelling up the bar was picked up by
pairs of wire strain gages and was
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116
Material
High-strength
1-in. plate
steel,
High-strength steel,
*^f g-in. plate
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FIG. 5.Ekstic Strain Waves at Stations 1, 30, and 40 in. From Point of Impact in 61ST-6 Aluminum Alloy.
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118
time pulses were introduced. The timestrain signals were compared with stepwise strain calibrations and photographed. The records were enlarged for
subsequent analysis.
Strain Measurement:
The strains propagated in the bars
were measured with resistance wire
strain gages (SR-4' types A-3 and A 5-1)
cemented to the bars. The strain signals
were amplified and fed into cathode ray
oscilloscopes. Simultaneously, calibrated
TEST RESULTS
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FIG. 8.Dynamical Yield Stress versus Delay Time For Specimens From 1-in. Plate of High
Strength Steel.
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FIG. 9.Logarithmic Plot of (<r/tri 1) versus Delay Time According to Yokobori's Formula
for Specimens from 1-in. and TVin. Material, Where r/<r,- is the Ratio of the Dynamical Yield
Stress to the Average Static Lower Yield Strength.
where:
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122
FIG. 10.Permanent Axial Strain After Compressive Impact in Mild Steel and | Hard-Temper
Copper Bars 0.5 in. in Diameter.
mained constant
measured.
over the
distance
DISCUSSION
The above results must be regarded
as preliminary only. However, they do
point the way to further research in
certain directions.
Measurements of attenuation of pulses
should provide a useful check on theories
of plastic wave propagation. For this
purpose the technique should be refined
by measuring the attenuation of the
pulse at more than two stations along
the bar. This would require either
simultaneous recording at more than
two stations or precise reproduction of
pulses in successive tests on practically
identical bars. It is interesting to note
in this connection that Kolsky (15) was
able to reproduce impact pressure pulses
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123
REFERENCES
(1) Thomas Young, "A Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical
Arts," (London) Vol. 1, p. 144 (1807).
(2) Barre de St. Venant, Translation of "Theo-
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124
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
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DISCUSSION
MR. D. E. DRiscoLL.1Mr. Ramberg
stated that he hoped more of us would
become interested in the longitudinal
impact test. The test method and results
obtained are very interesting. However,
I hope that Mr. Ramberg is aware of the
fact that before many of us become interested in experimenting with this type
test, he is going to have to make it a
little easier to interpret the results.
The size of the specimen will also
limit the field in which this test can be
used. Naturally, I am interested in Ord1
Chief, Mechanical Metallurgy Branch,
Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass.
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125
STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
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127
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper,
see p. 139.
3
The concept of critical velocity was suggested by von Karman (31, 32) and has been
discussed by others (11, 24, 34, 35).
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from 1 per cent per min using a commercial tester (Instron) to 500,000 per cent
per min in longitudinal impact tests
(33, 34). Transverse impact tests at intermediate rates of straining were made on
yarns with equipment described briefly
in this paper.
129
FIG. 7.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of High Tenacity Nylon
Yarn, Dry.
Curve AStatic, rate of straining 1 per cent
per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of straining 10 per cent
per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of straining 100 per
cent per min.
Curve DLongitudinal impact, initial rate
of straining, 315,000 per cent per min to 0 per
cent per min at maximum load,
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FIG. 8.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of Fortisan Yarn, Dry.
Curve AStatic, rate of straining 1 per cent
per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of straining 10 per cent
per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of straining 100 per
cent per min.
Curve DLongitudinal impact, initial rate
of straining, 198,000 per cent per min to 0 per
cent per min at maximum load.
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130
FIG. 9.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of X-36 Yarn, Dry.
Curve AStatic, rate of straining 1 per cent
per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of straining 10 per cent
per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of straining 100 per
cent per min.
FIG. 10.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of High Tenacity Nylon
Yarn, Wet.
Curve AStatic, rate of elongation 1 per cent
per min.
Curve BStatic, rate of elongation 10 per
cent per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of elongation 100 per
cent per min.
Curve DLongitudinal impact, initial rate
of straining 310,000 per cent per min to 0 per
cent per min at maximum load.
FIG. 11.Load-Elongation Curves for Loading and Unloading of Fortisan Yarn, Wet.
Curve AStatic, rate of straining 1 per cent
permin
Curve BStatic, rate of straining 10 per cent
per min.
Curve CStatic, rate of straining 100 per
cent per min.
Curve DLongitudinal impact, initial rate
of straining, 180,000 per cent per min to 0 per
cent per min at maximum load.
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131
10
100
10
100
6.0
5.1
10
100
6.4
4.9
6.2
5.5
6.6
5.4
6.9
5.2
11.4 11.2
13.9
14.5
11.9
7.1
17.4
7.5
16.2
5.2
4.8
57.9
53.8
10.2
5.7
17.8
6.2
17.4
5.1
5.9
5.2
6.0
5.4
5.9
5.1
6.3
5.0
6.2
5.1
6.0
41.3
41.1
9.6
10.4
9.3
9.1
10.0
8.3
4.8
12.0
5.2
11.8
3.9
3.4
4.1
3.4
4.5
3.4
4.7
4.0
5.2
4.0
5.5
4.0
22.6
24.7
5.4
5.9
6.6
7.7
8.6
9.2
12.6
56
13.5
55
2.2
41
2.5
42
2.8
42
3.3
44
3.8
44
4.2
45
3.2
12.0
3.5
12.0
2.5
3.5
2.6
3.5
2.8
3.5
2.7
4.0
2.9
4,1
3.0
4.0
14.3
15.6
2.9
3.0
3.5
3.3
3.6
4.0
8.6
60
9.5
61
1.6
55
2.0
66
1.7
50
2.0
60
2.2
61
2.1
52
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132
FIG. 13.Yarn Specimen Fastened to Head and Tail for an Impact Test.
FIG. 14.Assembly of Longitudinal Impact Testing Equipment. Variable speed motor at the
left with catch box above it; high-speed camera in the foreground; photoflood bulbs, scales, tube
containing head, specimen, and tail mass in the background; mirror system in the center. Broken
lines indicate paths of light beams from the head and tail.
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133
The head is struck at velocities between 20 and 200 ft per sec. The corresponding rates of straining at impact
are 50,000 to 500,000 per cent per min.
Pictures are taken at rates between 2500
and 7500 frames per sec. The impact
event is usually completed in a few milliseconds.
Longitudinal Impact
Nylon
Dry
Fortisan
Wet
Dry
Wet
Nylon
Fortisan
Dry
Dry
LOADED TO RUPTURE
Rate of straining at impact,
per cent per rnin
328 000 320 000 300 000 195 000 90 000 66 000 100 000
Rate of straining at rupture,
per cent per min
18 000 135 000 215 000 55 000 400 000 234 000 300 000
5.8
13.0
5.0
7.0
7.5
9.0
6.4
Rupture load, grams per denier.
6.1
3.8
3.3
4.7
15.8
15.0
Rupture elongation, per cent. . . 13.0
Energy to rupture, gram-centi15.2
32.1
16.5
51.2
14.1
19.0
meters per meter-denier . . . . 36.5
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FIG. 16.Assembly of Transverse Impact Testing Equipment. Housing below table for springs,
hammer, and release mechanism; high-speed camera on table; timer unit in foreground; framework
for photoflood bulbs and mirror at right for throwing image of specimen and grid lines into objective
of camera.
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135
E, and struck at its midpoint by a projectile, P. The projectile is given a freeflight velocity, V, by the impact hammer,
H. The hammer is actuated by stretched
springs, R, attached to its shaft.
The assembly of the transverse impact
equipment is shown in Fig. 16. The
springs, means fgr stretching the springs,
hammer shaft, and hammer release
FIG. 17.Camera Field of View Showing Deformed Specimen, Projectile, and Grid Lines Spaced
1 cm Apart.
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camera, shown in Fig. 17, shows the deformed specimen, grid lines, and projectile. The shapes that the specimen assumes after impact, as recorded by the
camera, are shown in Fig. 18 for a nylon
yarn.
When a yarn is struck transversely by
a projectile traveling at velocity V, a
longitudinal strain wave is propagated
along the yarn with velocity C outwards
in each direction from the point of impact (see curve a, Fig. 19). In the region between these wave fronts, the ma-
137
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139
REFERENCES
(1) J. B. Dickson, "Functional Properties in
Textile Design," Journal, Textile Inst., Vol.
44, pp. P514-P536 (1953).
(2) J. B. Dickson and L. A. Davieau, "Impact
Tester for Textiles," ASTM BULLETIN, No.
198, May, 1954, p. 85 (TP131).
(3) G. Glaser, "Zur Dynamischen Festigkeit
von Bergseilen," Melliand Textilberichte,
Vol. 24, pp. 337-341, 377-379 (1943).
(4) E. R. Kaswell, "Low Temperature Properties of Textile Materials," American Dyestuff Reporter, Vol. 38, pp. P127-P134
(1949).
(5) H. Leaderman, "Impact Testing of Textiles," Textile Research Journal, Vol. 13
No. 8, pp. 21-29 (1943).
(6) W. J. Lyons and I. B. Prettyman, "Use of
the Ballistic Pendulum for Impact Testing
of Tirecord," Textile Research Journal, Vol.
23, pp. 917-925(1953).
(7) R. Meredith, "The Effect of Rate of Extension on the Tensile Behavior of Viscose
and Acetate Rayons, Silk, and Nylon,"
Journal, Textile Inst., Vol. 45, pp. T30T43 (1953).
(8) S. B. Newman and Helen G. Wheeler,
"Impact Strength of Nylon and Sisal
Ropes," Journal of Research, Nat. Bureau
Standards, Vol. 35, pp. 417-431 (1945).
(9) H. F. Schiefer, W. D. Appel, J. F. Krasny,
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
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140
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
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STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
FIELD DATA
A railroad switching test was conducted to obtain field data that could
be used to develop a test method that
would simulate the longitudinal accelerations encountered during railroad
switching. Tests were conducted for
various conditions of railroad switching.
1
Project Engineer and Supervisor, respect- Results indicated that the most severe
ively, Dynamic Structural Test Section, Test switching condition was one in which
Laboratory Department, Sandia Corp., Albuthe instrumented car was coupled to
querque,
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142
DATA ANALYSIS
Shock spectra were computed for the
shock signatures obtained during the
most severe railroad switching con-
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143
144
TEST FIXTURE
The test fixture for simulating longitudinal shocks encountered during railroad switching was developed on the
basis of a comparison between the
magnitude of the equivalent static acceleration of the simulated shock pulse
and the magnitude of the equivalent
static, acceleration of the shock pulse
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146
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147
CONCLUSION
For ease in comparing the spectra
obtained from the applied wave forms to
the spectra obtained from field data, the
square wave is probably the most convenient applied acceleration to use due
to the known magnitude and duration of
the applied square wave pulse and also
the known equivalent static acceleration.
The aluminum shearing device will produce a satisfactory square wave acceleration if a rigid structure is used for a fixed
bumper.
In general, the shipping container
shock-mitigating systems have natural
frequencies below 20 cps. The ramp test
fixture when used with rubber pads will
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STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
There is a growing need in the aircraft and ordnance fields for adequately
testing prototype structures and components under the shock loadings encountered during operation. Since operational tests are often expensive and
adequate data on loads in the structure
or on the operation of the component
are difficult to obtain, the trend is toward simulation of the operational
shock loadings under controlled conditions. To simulate two operational
shock loadings that are frequently encounteredsustained acceleration or deceleration and impactSandia Corp.
has developed a rocket-powered pendulum. This apparatus permits direct
cabling of the instrumentation and the
development of load-failure criteria for
various parts of the test specimen.
A number of impact testing machines
employing pendulum systems have been
developed in the past to test prototype
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150
top of the tower (see Fig. 1). The distance from the center of gravity of the
specimen and supporting framework to
the pivot axis is 21 ft. The maximum
specimen weight that can be tested is
2000 lb. The system is accelerated by
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153
work by two 1^-in. diameter steel trunnion bolts. Suspended in this manner,
the specimen can be oriented to the
acceleration, thereby simulating various
angles of impact. The specimen is secured in the desired orientation by
twelve ^-in. diameter bolts.
Before the test the rams are pulled
back the desired free-run distance. When
the rockets are fired, the rams are accelerated forward and impart their momentum as well -as the rocket thrust to
the framework through the impact
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STP176-EB/Jan. 1956
SYNOPSIS
The effect of the rate of application of load was investigated in compression
tests of a concrete having a nominal static strength of 2500 psi. The test
specimens were 3 by 6-in. cylinders, and the loads were applied at stress
rates ranging from about 10 to 2 X 107 psi per sec. The lower rates of loading
were obtained using a conventional hydraulic testing machine, and the higher
rates were achieved by loading the specimens in a drop-hammer machine.
The duration of impact in the drop-hammer machine was controlled by
placing rubber buffers of appropriate thickness and hardness on top of the
concrete specimens.
The compressive strength of the concrete increased with the rate of loading. The maximum ratio of dynamic to static compressive strength was
about 1.8 for the maximum rate of loading obtained with the drop-hammer
machine. There was a significant increase in the secant modulus of elasticity
as the rate of loading increased. The resistance of concrete to impact, as
measured by its ability to absorb strain energy, also increased with the rate
of application of load.
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2 and 3
WaterCement
Ratio, by
Gravel weight
Proportions, by weight
Cement
1
1
Sand
3.6
4.1
2.9
3.4
0.90
0.90
157
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was applied at a straining rate of ap- 60,000-lb hydraulic machine that loaded
proximately 1 microinch per in. per the specimens with the ram running at
sec, and the two gages were read simul- full speed. The speed of the ram was aptaneously with two strain indicators proximately 5 in. per min, the duration of
without stopping the application of test was about 0.9 sec, and the average
load. In applying the load, the rate^of rate of stressing was about 5000 psi
travel of the ram was adjusted with the per sec.
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served to distribute the load and, together with the cylindrical steel guard,
served to bring the drop-hammer to a
stop after failure of the concrete specimen. During the test, the cylindrical
steel guard shown on the anvil was placed
around the concrete cylinder. With the
steel guard in place there was about
j-in. clearance between the bottom of the
order to prevent the pawls from "freezing" hi their cocked position following
their first or outward swing, it was neces-'
sary to use suitable cushioning pads to
prevent the return of the pawls to their
initial position and to assure stoppage
of the hammer at its highest point of
rebound.
The displacement of the anvil during
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Test Series 2
Test Series 3
2810
2.2
2370
2.2
2400
3.3
2940
1.2
2390
1.1
2610
1.7
3210
1.8
3730
2.0
4830
1.8
//d, psi
\c, per cent
//-//.
\c, per cent
Modulus of elasticity (3 by 6-in. cylinders):
Initial tangent:
Static:
E,, psi
,
Dynamic:
Ed, psi
Ej/Es
Secant at strain of 0.001 in. per in.
Static:
(E's, psi
\c, per cent
Dynamic:
[E'd, psi
\c, per cent
(E'd/E's
\c, per cent
Sonic:
EI, psi
Ed/Ei
Strain at maximum stress:
Static:
es, in. per in
Dynamic:
ed, in. per in
<?/
Strain energy absorbed by specimens:
Static:
(W,, in.-lb per cu in
\c, per cent
Dynamic:
(Wd, in.-lb per cu in
\c, per cent
(Wd/W,
\c, per cent
Duration of impact:
(T, sec
\c, per cent
Average rate of stressing during impact :6
fflavg psi per sec
\c, per cent
1.19
1.2
1.57
2.0
1.84
1.8
3.00 X 106
3.00 X 106
3.10 X 106
3.07 X 106
1.02
3.20 X 106
1.07
3.49 X 106
1.10
2.21 X 106
1.1
2.12 X 106
1.0
2.29 X 106
1.3
2.47 X 106
1.5
1.12
1.3
2.80 X 106
2.4
1.32
2.0
3.42 X 106
2.8
1.47
2.6
3.81 X 106
0.81
4.40 X 106
0.73
4.38 X 106
0.78
2300 X 10-
2050 X 10~6
1990 X 10^6
2100 X lO-6
0.91
2280 X 1C-6
1.14
2630 X 1(T6
1.32
4.97
3.5
4.47
7.6
0.90
10.0
0.90
2.9
3570
1.8
4.6
3.70
3.88
3.5
5.68
9.0
1.55
9.2
8.41
5.6
2.23
8.1
0.0043
1.3
0.00025
3.6
0.864 X 106
1.5
19.1 X 106
2.8
0
c = coefficient of variation of the mean for the specimens in a set; the number of observations
ranged from six to eighteen.
5
<favg is defined as the maximum stress divided by the duration of the test.
NOTE.The time required to load the specimens to failure in static tests was about 30 min,
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with the
rate
of rights
straining
at 10~
in. per in. per sec.
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FIG. 8.Typical Stress-Strain Graphs, Series 1. (<r&vg = 3570 psi per sec.)
FIG. 9.'Typical Stress-Strain Graphs, Series 2. (o-avg = 0.864 X 10s psi per sec.)
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FIG. 10.Typical Stress-Strain Graphs, Series 3. (a*ve = 19.1 X 10 psi per sec.)
FIG. 11.'Variation of Dynamic Secant Modulus with the Dynamic Compressive Strength.
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mate from the areas under the stressstrain curves, such as those shown in
Figs. 8 to 10, the capacity of the concrete
to absorb strain energy under impact of
various durations.
The values of the ratio of the dynamic
to the static strain energy are given in
Table II and are shown plotted in
Fig. 12 against the corresponding
dynamic to static strength ratio. The
strain energy ratio Wd/Ws ranged from
about 0.9 to 2.2 as the strength ratio
fd/f, varied from 1.1 to 1.8. While the
individual values of Wd/Wt showed
FIG. 12.'Variation of the Ratio of Dynamic considerable dispersion, as can be seen
to Static Strain Energy with that of Dynamic from the values of coefficients of variato Static Strength.
tion given for Wd and Wg in Table II,
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DISCUSSION
>MR. DEAN C. BROUGHTON.'I would
like to know if the objective was to devise a standard test procedure or was
the author doing absolute evaluations?
Further, would mass effects have much
.influence on the results?
MR. WATSTEIN (author).We were
not attempting to develop any standard
1
Research Supervisor, A. O. Smith Corp.,
Milwaukee, Wis.
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