Mays Pope Rigor Investig Cuali

Qualitative Research: Rigour and qualitative research -- Mays and Pope 311 (6997): 109 -- BMJ
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
BMJ 1995;311:109-112 (8 July)
Education and debate
Qualitative Research: Rigour and qualitative research

Nicholas Mays, director of health services research, a Catherine Pope, lecturer in social and behavioural medicine b
a King's Fund Institute, London W2 4HT , b Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Leicester,
Leicester LE1 6TP

Correspondence to: Mr Mays.
Various strategies are available within qualitative research to protect against bias and enhance the reliability of findings. This
paper gives examples of the principal approaches and summarises them into a methodological checklist to help readers of
reports of qualitative projects to assess the quality of the research.
Criticisms of qualitative research
In the health field--with its strong tradition of biomedical research using conventional, quantitative, and often experimental
methods--qualitative research is often criticised for lacking scientific rigour. To label an approach "unscientific" is peculiarly
damning in an era when scientific knowledge is generally regarded as the highest form of knowing. The most commonly heard
criticisms are, firstly, that qualitative research is merely an assembly of anecdote and personal impressions, strongly subject
to researcher bias; secondly, it is argued that qualiative research lacks reproducibility--the research is so personal to the
researcher that there is no guarantee that a different researcher would not come to radically different conclusions; and, finally,
qualitative research is criticised for lacking generalisability. It is said that qualitative methods tend to generate large amounts
of detailed information about a small number of settings.
Is qualitative research different?
The pervasive assumption underlying all these criticisms is that quantitative and qualitative approaches are fundamentally
different in their ability to ensure the validity and reliability of their findings. This distinction, however, is more one of degree than
of type. The problem of the relation of a piece of research to some presumed underlying "truth" applies to the conduct of any
form of social research. "One of the greatest methodological fallacies of the last half century in social research is the belief that
science is a particular set of techniques; it is, rather, a state of mind, or attitude, and the organisational conditions which allow
that attitude to be expressed."1 In quantitative data analysis it is possible to generate statistical representations of phenomena
which may or may not be fully justified since, just as in qualitative work, they will depend on the judgment and skill of the
researcher and the appropriateness to the question answered of the data collected. All research is selective--there is no way
that the researcher can in any sense capture the literal truth of events. All research depends on collecting particular sorts of
evidence through the prism of particular methods, each of which has its strengths and weaknesses. For example, in a sample
survey it is difficult for the researcher to ensure that the questions, categories, and language used in the questionnaire are
shared uniformly by respondents and that the replies returned have the same meanings for all respondents. Similarly, research
that relies exclusively on observation by a single researcher is limited by definition to the perceptions and introspection of the
investigator and by the possibility that the presence of the observer may, in some way that is hard to characterise, have
influenced the behaviour and speech that was witnessed. Britten and Fisher summarise the position neatly by pointing out that
"there is some truth in the quip that quantitative methods are reliable but not valid and that qualitative methods are valid but not
reliable." 2
Strategies to ensure rigour in qualitative research
As in quantitative research, the basic strategy to ensure rigour in qualitative research is systematic and self conscious
research design, data collection, interpretation, and communication. Beyond this, there are two goals that qualitative
researchers should seek to achieve: to create an account of method and data which can stand independently so that another
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/311/6997/109?maxtoshow=&HIsearchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT
Page 1 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
researchers should seek to achieve: to create an account of method and data which can stand independently so that another
trained researcher could analyse the same data in the same way and come to essentially the same conclusions; and to
produce a plausible and coherent explanation of the phenomenon under scrutiny. Unfortunately, many qualitative researchers
have neglected to give adequate descriptions in their research reports of their assumptions and methods, particularly with
regard to data analysis. This has contributed to some of the criticisms of bias from quantitative researchers.
Yet the integrity of qualitative projects can be protected throughout the research process. The remainder of this paper
discusses how qualitative researchers attend to issues of validity, reliability, and generalisability.
SAMPLING
Much social science is concerned with classifying different "types" of behaviour and distinguishing the "typical" from the
"atypical." In quantitative research this concern with similarity and difference leads to the use of statistical sampling so as to
maximise external validity or generalisability. Although statistical sampling methods such as random sampling are relatively
uncommon in qualitative investigations, there is no reason in principle why they cannot be used to provide the raw material for
a comparative analysis, particularly when the researcher has no compelling a priori reason for a purposive approach. For
example, a random sample of practices could be studied in an investigation of how and why teamwork in primary health care is
more and less successful in different practices. However, since qualitative data collection is generally more time consuming
and expensive than, for example, a quantitative survey, it is not usually practicable to use a probability sample. Furthermore,
statistical representativeness is not a prime requirement when the objective is to understand social processes.
An alternative approach, often found in qualitative research and often misunderstood in medical circles, is to use systematic,
non-probabilistic sampling. The purpose is not to establish a random or representative sample drawn from a population but
rather to identify specific groups of people who either possess characteristics or live in circumstances relevant to the social
phenomenon being studied. Informants are identified because they will enable exploration of a particular aspect of behaviour
relevant to the research. This approach to sampling allows the researcher deliberately to include a wide range of types of
informants and also to select key informants with access to important sources of knowledge.
"Theoretical" sampling is a specific type of non-probability sampling in which the objective of developing theory or explanation
guides the process of sampling and data collection. 3 Thus, the analyst makes an initial selection of informants; collects, codes,
and analyses the data; and produces a preliminary theoretical explanation before deciding which further data to collect and from
whom. Once these data are analysed, refinements are made to the theory, which may in turn guide further sampling and data
collection. The relation between sampling and explanation is iterative and theoretically led.
To return to the example of the study of primary care team working, some of the theoretically relevant characteristics of general
practices affecting variations in team working might be the range of professions represented in the team, the frequency of
opportunities for communication among team members, the local organisation of services, and whether the practice is in an
urban, city, or rural area. These factors could be identified from other similar research and within existing social science
theories of effective and ineffective team working and would then be used explicitly as sampling categories. Though not
statistically representative of general practices, such a sample is theoretically informed and relevant to the research questions.
It also minimises the possible bias arising from selecting a sample on the basis of convenience.
ENSURING THE RELIABILITY OF AN ANALYSIS
In many forms of qualitative research the raw data are collected in a relatively unstructured form such as tape recordings or
transcripts of conversations. The main ways in which qualitative researchers ensure the retest reliability of their analyses is in
maintaining meticulous records of interviews and observations and by documenting the process of analysis in detail. While it is
possible to analyse such data singlehandedly and use ways of classifying and categorising the data which emerge from the
analysis and remain implicit, more explicit group approaches, which perhaps have more in common with the quantitative social
sciences, are increasingly used. The interpretative procedures are often decided on before the analysis. Thus, for example,
computer software is available to facilitate the analysis of the content of interview transcripts.4 A coding frame can be
developed to characterise each utterance (for example, in relation to the age, sex, and role of the speaker; the topic; and so
on), and transcripts can then be coded by more than one researcher. 5 One of the advantages of audiotaping or videotaping is
the opportunity the tapes offer for subsequent analysis by independent observers.
Page 2 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
The reliability of the analysis of qualitative data can be enhanced by organising an independent assessment of transcripts by
additional skilled qualitative researchers and comparing agreement between the raters. For example, in a study of clinical
encounters between cardiologists and their patients which looked at the differential value each derived from the information
provided by echocardiography, transcripts of the clinic interviews were analysed for content and structure by the principal
researcher and by an independent panel, and the level of agreement was assessed. 6
SAFEGUARDING VALIDITY
Alongside issues of reliability, qualitative researchers give attention to the validity of their findings. "Triangulation" refers to an
approach to data collection in which evidence is deliberately sought from a wide range of different, independent sources and
often by different means (for instance, comparing oral testimony with written records). This approach was used to good effect in
a qualitative study of the effects of the introduction of general management into the NHS. The accounts of doctors, managers,
and patient advocates were explored in order to identify patterns of convergence between data sources to see whether power
relations had shifted appreciably in favour of professional managers and against the medical profession.7
The differences in GPs' interviews with parents of handicapped and nonhandicapped children have been shown by qualitative methods
View larger version (52K):

[in this window]
[in a new window]
Validation strategies sometimes used in qualitative research are to feed the findings back to the participants to see if they
regard the findings as a reasonable account of their experience8 and to use interviews or focus groups with the same people so
that their reactions to the evolving analysis become part of the emerging research data.9 If used in isolation these techniques
assume that fidelity to the participants' commonsense perceptions is the touchstone of validity. In practice, this sort of validation
has to be set alongside other evidence of the plausibility of the research account since different groups are likely to have
different perspectives on what is happening. 10
A related analytical and presentational issue is concerned with the thoroughness with which the researcher examines
"negative" or "deviant" cases--those in which the researcher's explanatory scheme appears weak or is contradicted by the
evidence. The researcher should give a fair account of these occasions and try to explain why the data vary. 11 In the same
way, if the findings of a single case study diverge from those predicted by a previously stated theory, they can be useful in
revising the existing theory in order to increase its reliability and validity.
VALIDITY AND EXPLANATION
It is apparent in qualitative research, particularly in observational studies (see the next paper in this series for more on
observational methods), that the researcher can be regarded as a research instrument. 12 Allowing for the inescapable fact
that purely objective observation is not possible in social science, how can the reader judge the credibility of the observer's
account? One solution is to ask a set of questions: how well does this analysis explain why people behave in the way they do;
how comprehensible would this explanation be to a thoughtful participant in the setting; and how well does the explanation it
advances cohere with what we already know?
This is a challenging enough test, but the ideal test of a qualitative analysis, particularly one based on observation, is that the
account it generates should allow another person to learn the "rules" and language sufficiently well to be able to function in the
research setting. In other words, the report should carry sufficient conviction to enable someone else to have the same
experience as the original observer and appreciate the truth of the account. 13 Few readers have the time or inclination to go to
Page 3 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
experience as the original observer and appreciate the truth of the account. 13 Few readers have the time or inclination to go to
such lengths, but this provides an ideal against which the quality of a piece of qualitative work can be judged.
The development of "grounded theory" 3 offers another response to this problem of objectivity. Under the strictures of grounded
theory, the findings must be rendered through a systematic account of a setting that would be clearly recognisable to the people
in the setting (by, for example, recording their words, ideas, and actions) while at the same time being more structured and self
consciously explanatory than anything that the participants themselves would produce.
Attending to the context
Some pieces of qualitative research consist of a case study carried out in considerable detail in order to produce a naturalistic
account of everyday life. For example, a researcher wishing to observe care in an acute hospital around the clock may not be
able to study more than one hospital. Again the issue of generalisability, or what can be learnt from a single case, arises. Here,
it is essential to take care to describe the context and particulars of the case study and to flag up for the reader the similarities
and differences between the case study and other settings of the same type. A related way of making the best use of case
studies is to show how the case study contributes to and fits with a body of social theory and other empirical work.12 The final
paper in this series discusses qualitative case studies in more detail.
COLLECTING DATA DIRECTLY
Another defence against the charge that qualitative research is merely impressionistic is that of separating the evidence from
secondhand sources and hearsay from the evidence derived from direct observation of behaviour in situ. It is important to
ensure that the observer has had adequate time to become thoroughly familiar with the milieu under scrutiny and that the
participants have had the time to become accustomed to having the researcher around. It is also worth asking whether the
observer has witnessed a wide enough range of activities in the study site to be able to draw conclusions about typical and
atypical forms of behaviour--for example, were observations undertaken at different times? The extent to which the observer
has succeeded in establishing an intimate understanding of the research setting is often shown in the way in which the
subsequent account shows sensitivity to the specifics of language and its meanings in the setting.
MINIMISING RESEARCHER BIAS IN THE PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Although it is not normally appropriate to write up qualitative research in the conventional format of the scientific paper, with a
rigid distinction between the results and discussion sections of the account, it is important that the presentation of the research
allows the reader as far as possible to distinguish the data, the analytic framework used, and the interpretation. 1 In quantitative
research these distinctions are conventionally and neatly presented in the methods section, numerical tables, and the
accompanying commentary. Qualitative research depends in much larger part on producing a convincing account. 14 In trying
to do this it is all too easy to construct a narrative that relies on the reader's trust in the integrity and fairness of the researcher.
The equivalent in quantitative research is to present tables of data setting out the statistical relations between operational
definitions of variables without giving any idea of how the phenomena they represent present themselves in naturally occurring
settings.1 The need to quantify can lead to imposing arbitrary categories on complex phenomena, just as data extraction in
qualitative research can be used selectively to tell a story that is rhetorically convincing but scientifically incomplete.
The problem with presenting qualitative analyses objectively is the sheer volume of data customarily available and the
relatively greater difficulty faced by the researcher in summarising qualitative data. It has been suggested that a full transcript
of the raw data should be made available to the reader on microfilm or computer disk,11 although this would be cumbersome.
Another partial solution is to present extensive sequences from the original data (say, of conversations), followed by a detailed
commentary.
Another option is to combine a qualitative analysis with some quantitative summary of the results. The quantification is used
merely to condense the results to make them easily intelligible; the approach to the analysis remains qualitative since naturally
occurring events identified on theoretical grounds are being counted. The table shows how Silverman compared the format of
the doctor's initial questions to parents in a paediatric cardiology clinic when the child was not handicapped with a smaller
number of cases when the child had Down's syndrome. A minimum of interpretation was needed to contrast the two sorts of
interview.15 16
Page 4 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
Assessing a piece of qualitative research

This short paper has shown some of the ways in which researchers working in the qualitative tradition have endeavoured to
ensure the rigour of their work. It is hoped that this summary will help the prospective reader of reports of qualitative research
to identify some of the key questions to ask when trying to assess its quality. A range of helpful checklists has been published
to assist readers of quantitative research assess the design 17 and statistical 18 and economic 19 aspects of individual published
papers and review articles. 20 Likewise, the contents of this paper have been condensed into a checklist for readers of
qualitative studies, covering design, data collection, analysis, and reporting (box). We hope that the checklist will give readers
of studies in health and health care research that use qualitative methods the confidence to subject them to critical scrutiny.
Questions to ask of a qualitative study

* Overall, did the researcher make explicit
in the account the theoretical framework and
methods used at every stage of the research?
* Was the context clearly described?
* Was the sampling strategy clearly described
and justified?
* Was the sampling strategy theoretically comprehensive to ensure the generalisability of the
conceptual analyses (diverse range of individuals
and settings, for example)?
* How was the fieldwork undertaken? Was it
described in detail?
* Could the evidence (fieldwork notes, interview transcripts, recordings, documentary
analysis, etc) be inspected independently by
others; if relevant, could the process of
transcription be independently inspected?
* Were the procedures for data analysis clearly
described and theoretically justified? Did they
relate to the original research questions? How
were themes and concepts identified from the
data?
* Was the analysis repeated by more than one
researcher to ensure reliability?
* Did the investigator make use of quantitative
evidence to test qualitative conclusions where
appropriate?
* Did the investigator give evidence of seeking
out observations that might have contradicted or
modified the analysis?
Page 5 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
modified the analysis?

* Was sufficient of the original evidence presented systematically in the written account to
satisfy the sceptical reader of the relation
between the interpretation and the evidence
(for example, were quotations numbered and
sources given)?
Form of doctor's questions to parents at a paediatric cardiology

clinic15
---------------------------------------------------------------------------Question
No of times asked
---------------------------------------------------------------------------Random sample of children without handicap (n=22):
Is he/she well?
11
From your point of view, is he/she a well baby?
2
Do you notice anything wrong with her/him?
1
From the heart point of view, she/he's active?
1
How is he/she?
4
Question not asked
3
Children with Down's syndrome (n=12):
Is he/she well?
0
From your point of view, is he/she a well baby?
1
Do you notice anything wrong with her/him?
0
As far as his/her heart is concerned, does he/she get breathless?
1
Does she/he get a few chest infections?
1
How is he/she (this little boy/girl) in himself/herself?
6
Question not asked
3
Further reading
Hammersley M. Reading ethnographic research. London: Longman, 1990.
1. Dingwall R. 'Don't mind him--he's from Barcelona': qualitative methods in health studies. In: Daly J, MacDonald I, Willis
E, eds. Researching health care: designs, dilemmas, disciplines. London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1992:161-75 .
2. Britten N, Fisher B. Qualitative research and general practice [editorial]. Br J Gen Pract 1993;43:270-1. [Medline]
3. Glaser BG, Strauss AL. The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine, 1967.
4. Seidel J, Clark JA. The ethnograph: a computer program for the analysis of qualitative data. Qualitative Sociology
1984;7:110-25.
5. Krippendorff K. Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. London: Sage: 1980.
6. Daly J, MacDonald I, Willis E. Why don't you ask them? A qualitative research framework for investigating the
diagnosis of cardiac normality. In: Daly J, MacDonald I, Willis E, eds. Researching health care: designs, dilemmas,
disciplines. London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1992:189-206.
7. Pollitt C, Harrison S, Hunter DJ, Marnoch G. No hiding place: on the discomforts of researching the contemporary
policy process. Journal of Social Policys 1990:19:169-90.
8. McKeganey NP, Bloor MJ. On the retrieval of sociological descriptions: respondent validation and the critical case of
ethnomethodology. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 1981;1:58-69.
9. Oakley A. The sociology of housework. Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1974.
10 . Brannen J. Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches: an overview. In: Mixing methods: qualitative and
quantitative research. Aldershot: Avebury, 1992:3-37.
Page 6 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
quantitative research. Aldershot: Avebury, 1992:3-37.

11 . Waitzkin H. On studying the discourse of medical encounters: a critique of quantitative and qualitative methods and a
proposal for reasonable compromise. Med Care 1990;28:473-88. [Medline]
12 . Mechanic D. Medical sociology: some tensions among theory, method and substance. J Health Soc Behav 1989;30:14760. [Medline]
13 . Fielding N. Ethnography. In: Gilbert N, ed. Researching social life. London: Sage, 1993, 154-71.
14 . Silverman D. Telling convincing stories: a plea for cautious positivism in case studies. In: Glassner B, Moreno J, eds.
The qualitative-quantitative distinction in the social sciences. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1989:57-77.
15 . Silverman D. Applying the qualitative method to clinical care. In: Daly J, MacDonald I, Willis E, eds. Researching
health care: designs, dilemmas, disciplines. London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1992:176-88.
16 . Silverman D. The child as a social object: Down's syndrome children in a paediatric cardiology clinic. Sociology of Health
and Illness 1981;3:254-74.
17 . Fowkes FGR, Fulton PM. Critical appraisal of published research: introductory guidelines. BMJ 1991;302:1136-40.
[Medline]
18 . Gardner MJ, Machin D, Campbell MJ. Use of check lists in assessing the statistical content of medical studies. BMJ
1986;292:810-2. [Medline]
19 . Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics. How to read clinical journals. VII. To understand an economic
evaluation (part B). Can Med Assoc J 1984;130:1542-9. [Medline]
20 . Oxman AD, Guyatt GH. Guidelines for reading literature reviews. Can Med Assoc J 1988;138:697-703. [Abstract]
Related Article
Acceptability of low molecular weight heparin thromboprophylaxis for inpatients receiving palliative care: qualitative
study
S I R Noble, A Nelson, C Turner, and I G Finlay
BMJ 2006 332: 577-580. [Abstract] [Full Text]
This article has been cited by other articles:

(Search Google Scholar for Other Citing Articles)
Menon, U., Harper, J., Sharma, A., Fraser, L., Burnell, M., ElMasry, K., Rodeck, C., Jacobs, I. (2007). Views of BRCA
gene mutation carriers on preimplantation genetic diagnosis as a reproductive option for hereditary breast and ovarian
cancer. Hum Reprod 22: 1573-1577 [Abstract] [Full text]
Taylor, B. J., Dempster, M., Donnelly, M. (2007). Grading Gems: Appraising the Quality of Research for Social Work
and Social Care. Br J Soc Work 37: 335-354 [Abstract] [Full text]
Nunez-Smith, M., Curry, L. A., Bigby, J., Berg, D., Krumholz, H. M., Bradley, E. H. (2007). Impact of Race on the
Professional Lives of Physicians of African Descent. ANN INTERN MED 146: 45-51 [Abstract] [Full text]
Atun, R. A, Kyratsis, I., Jelic, G., Rados-Malicbegovic, D., Gurol-Urganci, I. (2007). Diffusion of complex health
innovations--implementation of primary health care reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Health Policy Plan 22: 28-39
[Abstract] [Full text]
Sayers, M. S., Newton, J. T. (2006). Patients' expectations of orthodontic treatment: part 1 - development of a
questionnaire. J. Orthod. 33: 258-269 [Abstract] [Full text]
Brooks, F., Magnusson, J. (2006). Taking part counts: adolescents' experiences of the transition from inactivity to active
participation in school-based physical education. Health Educ Res 21: 872-883 [Abstract] [Full text]
Taylor, B. J. (2006). Risk Management Paradigms in Health and Social Services for Professional Decision Making on
the Long-Term Care of Older People. Br J Soc Work 36: 1411-1429 [Abstract] [Full text]
Graff, M. J.L., Vernooij-Dassen, M. J.M., Zajec, J., Olde-Rikkert, M. G.M., Hoefnagels, W. H.L., Dekker, J. (2006). How
can occupational therapy improve the daily performance and communication of an older patient with dementia and his
primary caregiver?: A case study. Dementia 5: 503-532 [Abstract]
Hek, G., Shaw, A. (2006). The contribution of research knowledge and skills to practice: an exploration of the views
and experiences of newly qualified nurses. Journal of Research in Nursing 11: 473-482 [Abstract]
Meyrick, J. (2006). What is Good Qualitative Research?: A First Step towards a Comprehensive Approach to Judging
Rigour/Quality.. J Health Psychol 11: 799-808 [Abstract]
Page 7 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
Rigour/Quality.. J Health Psychol 11: 799-808 [Abstract]

Lewis, M. A., Gladstone, E., Schmal, S., Darbes, L. A. (2006). Health-related social control and relationship
interdependence among gay couples. Health Educ Res 21: 488-500 [Abstract] [Full text]
Ridd, M., Shaw, A., Salisbury, C. (2006). 'Two sides of the coin'--the value of personal continuity to GPs: a qualitative
interview study. Fam Pract 23: 461-468 [Abstract] [Full text]
Whitley, R., Prince, M., McKenzie, K., Stewart, R. (2006). Exploring the ethnic density effect: a qualitative study of a
London electoral ward.. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 52: 376-391 [Abstract]
Taylor, B. J., Donnelly, M. (2006). Professional Perspectives on Decision Making about the Long-term Care of Older
People. Br J Soc Work 36: 807-826 [Abstract] [Full text]
Okello, E. S., Ekblad, S. (2006). Lay Concepts of Depression among the Baganda of Uganda: A Pilot Study..
Transcultural Psychiatry 43: 287-313 [Abstract]
Liang, B., Lu, H. (2006). Conducting Fieldwork in China: Observations on Collecting Primary Data Regarding Crime,
Law, and the Criminal Justice System. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 22: 157-172 [Abstract]
Benin, A. L., Wisler-Scher, D. J., Colson, E., Shapiro, E. D., Holmboe, E. S. (2006). Qualitative Analysis of Mothers'
Decision-Making About Vaccines for Infants: The Importance of Trust. Pediatrics 117: 1532-1541 [Abstract] [Full text]
El Ansari, W., Weiss, E. S (2006). Quality of research on community partnerships: developing the evidence base.
Health Educ Res 21: 175-180 [Abstract] [Full text]
Stokes, E, Ashcroft, A, Platt, M. (2006). Determining Liverpool adolescents' beliefs and attitudes in relation to oral
health. Health Educ Res 21: 192-205 [Abstract] [Full text]
Shepherd, J, Harden, A, Rees, R, Brunton, G, Garcia, J, Oliver, S, Oakley, A (2006). Young people and healthy eating:
a systematic review of research on barriers and facilitators. Health Educ Res 21: 239-257 [Abstract] [Full text]
Noble, S I R, Nelson, A, Turner, C, Finlay, I G (2006). Acceptability of low molecular weight heparin thromboprophylaxis
for inpatients receiving palliative care: qualitative study. BMJ 332: 577-580 [Abstract] [Full text]
Bhui, K., Shanahan, L., Harding, G. (2006). Homelessness and mental illness: a literature review and a qualitative
study of perceptions of the adequacy of care.. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 52: 152-165 [Abstract]
Kapmeyer, A., Meyer, C., Kochen, M. M, Himmel, W. (2006). Doctors' strategies in prescribing drugs: the case of moodmodifying medicines. Fam Pract 23: 73-79 [Abstract] [Full text]
Steiner, J. F. (2005). The Use of Stories in Clinical Research and Health Policy. JAMA 294: 2901-2904 [Full text]
Williams, B., Shaw, A., Durrant, R., Crinson, I., Pagliari, C., de Lusignan, S. (2005). Patient perspectives on multiple
medications versus combined pills: a qualitative study. QJM 98: 885-893 [Abstract] [Full text]
Lui, M. H.L., Ross, F. M., Thompson, D. R. (2005). Supporting Family Caregivers in Stroke Care: A Review of the
Evidence for Problem Solving. Stroke 36: 2514-2522 [Abstract] [Full text]
Bradley, E. H., Roumanis, S. A., Radford, M. J., Webster, T. R., McNamara, R. L., Mattera, J. A., Barton, B. A., Berg, D.
N., Portnay, E. L., Moscovitz, H., Parkosewich, J., Holmboe, E. S., Blaney, M., Krumholz, H. M. (2005). Achieving Doorto-Balloon Times That Meet Quality Guidelines: How Do Successful Hospitals Do It?. J Am Coll Cardiol 46: 1236-1241
Smith, B J, Dalziel, K, McElroy, H J, Ruffin, R E, Frith, P A, McCaul, K A, Cheok, F (2005). Barriers to success for an
evidence-based guideline for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chronic Respiratory Disease 2: 121-131
[Abstract]
Rapport, F, Wainwright, P, Elwyn, G (2005). "Of the edgelands": broadening the scope of qualitative methodology.
Med. Humanities 31: 37-42 [Abstract] [Full text]
Winkelman, W. J., Leonard, K. J., Rossos, P. G. (2005). Patient-Perceived Usefulness of Online Electronic Medical
Records: Employing Grounded Theory in the Development of Information and Communication Technologies for Use by
Patients Living with Chronic Illness. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 12: 306-314 [Abstract] [Full text]
Whittaker, S., Hardy, G., Lewis, K., Buchan, L. (2005). An Exploration of Psychological Well-being with Young Somali
Refugee and Asylum-seeker Women. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 10: 177-196 [Abstract]
Hall, M. A., Peeples, R. A., Lord, R. W. Jr (2005). Liability Implications of Physician-Directed Care Coordination. Ann
Fam Med 3: 115-121 [Abstract] [Full text]
Tucker, J, Hundley, V, Kiger, A, Bryers, H, Caldow, J, Farmer, J, Harris, F, Ireland, J, van Teijlingen, E (2005).
Sustainable maternity services in remote and rural Scotland? A qualitative survey of staff views on required skills,
competencies and training. Qual Saf Health Care 14: 34-40 [Abstract] [Full text]
Page 8 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
Glynn, L., Byrne, M, Newell, J, Murphy, A. (2004). The effect of health status on patients' satisfaction with out-of-hours
care provided by a family doctor co-operative. Fam Pract 21: 677-683 [Abstract] [Full text]
Hussain-Gambles, M. (2004). South Asian patients' views and experiences of clinical trial participation. Fam Pract 21:
636-642 [Abstract] [Full text]
Zengerle-Levy, K. (2004). Practices That Facilitate Critically Burned Children's Holistic Healing. Qual Health Res 14:
1255-1275 [Abstract]
Harden, A., Garcia, J., Oliver, S., Rees, R., Shepherd, J., Brunton, G., Oakley, A. (2004). Applying systematic review
methods to studies of people's views: an example from public health research. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 58:
Hruschka, D. J., Schwartz, D., St.John, D. C., Picone-Decaro, E., Jenkins, R. A., Carey, J. W. (2004). Reliability in
Coding Open-Ended Data: Lessons Learned from HIV Behavioral Research. Field Methods 16: 307-331 [Abstract]
Parvin, A., Jones, C. E, Hull, S. A (2004). Experiences and understandings of social and emotional distress in the
postnatal period among Bangladeshi women living in Tower Hamlets. Fam Pract 21: 254-260 [Abstract] [Full text]
McNair, H A, Francis, G, Balyckyi, J (2004). Clinical implementation of dynamic intensity-modulated radiotherapy:
radiographers' perspectives. Br. J. Radiol. 77: 493-498 [Abstract] [Full text]
Riordan, D. C (2004). Interaction strategies of lesbian, gay, and bisexual healthcare practitioners in the clinical
examination of patients: qualitative study. BMJ 328: 1227-1229 [Abstract] [Full text]
Barrett, B., Marchand, L., Scheder, J., Appelbaum, D., Plane, M. B., Blustein, J., Maberry, R., Capperino, C. (2004).
What Complementary and Alternative Medicine Practitioners Say About Health and Health Care. Ann Fam Med 2: 253259 [Abstract] [Full text]
Thomas, J., Harden, A., Oakley, A., Oliver, S., Sutcliffe, K., Rees, R., Brunton, G., Kavanagh, J. (2004). Integrating
qualitative research with trials in systematic reviews. BMJ 328: 1010-1012 [Full text]
Crouch, W., Wright, J. (2004). Deliberate Self-Harm at an Adolescent Unit: A Qualitative Investigation. Clinical Child
Psychology and Psychiatry 9: 185-204 [Abstract]
Sanders, C., Donovan, J. L., Dieppe, P. A. (2004). Unmet need for joint replacement: a qualitative investigation of
barriers to treatment among individuals with severe pain and disability of the hip and knee. Rheumatology (Oxford) 43:
Bradley, E H, Holmboe, E S, Mattera, J A, Roumanis, S A, Radford, M J, Krumholz, H M (2004). Data feedback efforts
in quality improvement: lessons learned from US hospitals. Qual Saf Health Care 13: 26-31 [Abstract] [Full text]
Sibbett, C. H, Thompson, W. T, Crawford, M., McKnight, A. (2003). Evaluation of extended training for general practice
in Northern Ireland: qualitative study. BMJ 327: 971-973 [Abstract] [Full text]
Martin, D K, Singer, P A, Bernstein, M (2003). Access to intensive care unit beds for neurosurgery patients: a
qualitative case study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 74: 1299-1303 [Abstract] [Full text]
Silenzio, V. M. B. (2003). Anthropological Assessment for Culturally Appropriate Interventions Targeting Men Who Have
Sex With Men. Am. J. Public Health 93: 867-871 [Abstract] [Full text]
Aira, M., Kauhanen, J., Larivaara, P., Rautio, P. (2003). Factors influencing inquiry about patients' alcohol consumption
by primary health care physicians: qualitative semi-structured interview study. Fam Pract 20: 270-275
O'Dea, J. A. (2003). Consumption of nutritional supplements among adolescents: usage and perceived benefits. Health
Educ Res 18: 98-107 [Abstract] [Full text]
Sefton, T. A. J. (2003). Economic Evaluation in the Social Welfare Field: Making Ends Meet. Evaluation 9: 73-91
[Abstract]
Whitehead, D., Taket, A., Smith, P. (2003). Action research in health promotion. Health Education Journal 62: 5-22
[Abstract]
Ekblad, S., Bffrnhielm, S. (2002). Focus Group Interview Research in Transcultural Psychiatry: Reflections on
Research Experiences. Transcultural Psychiatry 39: 484-500 [Abstract]
Wackerbarth, S. B., Streams, M. E., Smith, M. K. (2002). Capturing the Insights of Family Caregivers: Survey Item
Generation with a Coupled Interview/Focus Group Process. Qual Health Res 12: 1141-1154 [Abstract]
Jaye, C. (2002). Doing qualitative research in general practice: methodological utility and engagement. Fam Pract 19:
Strange, V., Forrest, S., Oakley, A., The RIPPLE Study Team, (2002). What influences peer-led sex education in the
classroom? A view from the peer educators. Health Educ Res 17: 339-349 [Abstract] [Full text]
Page 9 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM
classroom? A view from the peer educators. Health Educ Res 17: 339-349 [Abstract] [Full text]
Partington, K. J. (2002). Maternal Responses to the Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities in Children: A Qualitative Study
using a Focus Group Approach. J Intellect Disabil 6: 163-173 [Abstract]
Roelofsen, E. E, Anne-Mei, B, Beckerman, H., Lankhorst, G. J, Bouter, L. M (2002). Development and implementation
of the Rehabilitation Activities Pro" le for children: impact on the rehabilitation team. Clin Rehabil 16: 441-453 [Abstract]
Power, R (2002). The application of qualitative research methods to the study of sexually transmitted infections. Sex.
Transm. Infect. 78: 87-89 [Abstract] [Full text]
Richards, H. M., Schwartz, L. J. (2002). Ethics of qualitative research: are there special issues for health services
research?. Fam Pract 19: 135-139 [Abstract] [Full text]
Rychetnik, L, Frommer, M, Hawe, P, Shiell, A (2002). Criteria for evaluating evidence on public health interventions. J.
Epidemiol. Community Health 56: 119-127 [Abstract] [Full text]
Agard, A, Hermeren, G, Herlitz, J (2001). Patients' experiences of intervention trials on the treatment of myocardial
infarction: is it time to adjust the informed consent procedure to the patient's capacity?. Heart 86: 632-637
Anderson, A. S., Guthrie, C.-A., Alder, E. M., Forsyth, S., Howie, P. W., Williams, F. L. R. (2001). Rattling the plate-reasons and rationales for early weaning. Health Educ Res 16: 471-479 [Abstract] [Full text]
Cranney, M., Warren, E., Barton, S., Gardner, K., Walley, T. (2001). Why do GPs not implement evidence-based
guidelines? A descriptive study. Fam Pract 18: 359-363 [Abstract] [Full text]
Oliver, S. M (2001). Living with failing lungs: the doctor-patient relationship. Fam Pract 18: 430-439 [Abstract] [Full text]
Morin, P., St-Cyr-Tribble, D., de Wals, P., Payette, H. (2001). Concept Analysis of Pregnancy Planning Drawn from
Women of Childbearing Age. Health Promot Pract 2: 212-221 [Abstract]
Osgood, M., Ong, B. N. (2001). Social capital formation and development in marginal communities, with reference to
post-Soviet societies. Progress in Development Studies 1: 205-219 [Abstract]
Yardley, S J, Davis, C L, Sheldon, F (2001). Receiving a diagnosis of lung cancer: patients' interpretations, perceptions
and perspectives. Palliat Med 15: 379-386 [Abstract]
Mancuso, C. A., Sculco, T. P., Wickiewicz, T. L., Jones, E. C., Robbins, L., Warren, R. F., Williams-Russo, P. (2001).
Patients' Expectations of Knee Surgery. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 83: 1005-1012 [Abstract] [Full text]
Barbour, R. S (2001). Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?. BMJ
322: 1115-1117 [Full text]
MORRISON, D S, PETTICREW, M, THOMSON, H (2001). Health Impact Assessment{---}and beyond. J. Epidemiol.
Community Health 55: 219-220 [Full text]
Harden, A., Oakley, A., Oliver, S. (2001). Peer-delivered health promotion for young people: A systematic review of
different study designs. Health Education Journal 60: 339-353 [Abstract]
Savage, J. (2000). Ethnography and health care. BMJ 321: 1400-1402 [Full text]
Boendermaker, P. M, Schuling, J., Jong, B. M.-d., Zwierstra, R. P, Metz, J. C. (2000). What are the characteristics of the
competent general practitioner trainer?. Fam Pract 17: 547-553 [Abstract] [Full text]
Franklin, D., Pinfold, V., Bindman, J., Thornicroft, G. (2000). Consultant psychiatrists' experiences of using supervised
discharge: Results of a national survey. Psychiatr. Bull. 24: 412-415 [Abstract] [Full text]
Wilkinson, E. K, McColl, A., Exworthy, M., Roderick, P., Smith, H., Moore, M., Gabbay, J. (2000). Reactions to the use
of evidence-based performance indicators in primary care: a qualitative study. Qual Saf Health Care 9: 166-174
von Koch, L., Holmqvist, L. W., Wottrich, A. W., Tham, K., de Pedro-Cuesta, J. (2000). Rehabilitation at home after
stroke: a descriptive study of an individualized intervention. Clin Rehabil 14: 574-583 [Abstract]
Richards, H., Emslie, C. (2000). The 'doctor' or the 'girl from the University'? Considering the influence of professional
roles on qualitative interviewing. Fam Pract 17: 71-75 [Abstract] [Full text]
Barbour, R. S, Featherstone, V. A, WoReN, M. o. (2000). Acquiring qualitative skills for primary care research. Review
and reflections on a three-stage workshop. Part 1: using interviews to generate data. Fam Pract 17: 76-82
Reisig, V., Hobbiss, A. (2000). Food deserts and how to tackle them: a study of one city's approach. Health Education
Journal 59: 137-149 [Abstract]
Donnelly, C. (2000). Sexual health services: a study of young people's perceptions in Northern Ireland. Health Education
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/311/6997/109?maxtoshow=&Hsearchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT
Page 10 of 11
06/03/2007 07:59 PM

Kumar, S., Gantley, M. (1999). Tensions between policy makers and general practitioners in implementing new
genetics: grounded theory interview study. BMJ 319: 1410-1413 [Abstract] [Full text]
Read, S. M. (1999). Nurse-led care: The importance of management support. Journal of Research in Nursing 4: 408421 [Abstract]
Miller, J. S, Pinnington, M. A, Stanley, I. M (1999). The early stages of low back pain: a pilot study of patient diaries as a
source of data. Fam Pract 16: 395-401 [Abstract] [Full text]
Hale, J., Cohen, D., Robling, M., Houston, H, Kinnersley, P, Hourihan, M. (1999). Multi-disciplinary research can be
more than parallel-disciplinary research: the case of GPs use of magnetic resonance imaging. Fam Pract 16: 301-304
Johnson, M., Noble, C., Matthews, C., Aguilar, N. (1999). Bilingual Communicators within the Health Care Setting. Qual
Health Res 9: 329-343 [Abstract]
Wiener, A., Withers, K., Patrick, M., Bradley, E. (1999). What Changes are of Value in Severely Disturbed Children?.
Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 4: 201-213 [Abstract]
Salmon, P., Peters, S., Stanley, I. (1999). Patients' perceptions of medical explanations for somatisation disorders:
qualitative analysis. BMJ 318: 372-376 [Abstract] [Full text]
Marshall, M. N (1999). How well do GPs and hospital consultants work together? A survey of the professional
relationship. Fam Pract 16: 33-38 [Abstract] [Full text]
Damoiseaux, R. A., de Melker, R. A, Ausems, M. J., van Balen, F. A. (1999). Reasons for non-guideline-based antibiotic
prescriptions for acute otitis media in The Netherlands. Fam Pract 16: 50-53 [Abstract] [Full text]
Donnelly, S. (1999). Folklore associated with dying in the west of Ireland. Palliat Med 13: 57-62 [Abstract]
Ruston, A., Clayton, J., Calnan, M., Green, J. (1998). Patients' action during their cardiac event: qualitative study
exploring differences and modifiable factors Commentary: Grounded theory and the constant comparative method.
BMJ 316: 1060-1065 [Abstract] [Full text]
Ovretveit, J. (1997). Assessing Evaluations of Hospital Quality Programmes: An Example of Methods and Issues In
Evaluating Management Technologies. Evaluation 3: 451-468 [Abstract]
Armstrong, D., Gosling, A., Weinman, J., Marteau, T. (1997). The Place of Inter-Rater Reliability in Qualitative
Research: An Empirical Study. Sociology 31: 597-606 [Abstract]
Poses, R. M (1997). Conclusions about why doctors change their practice were not supported by the data. BMJ 314:
1908-1908 [Full text]
Kavanagh, A. M, Broom, D. H (1997). Women's understanding of abnormal cervical smear test results: a qualitative
interview study. BMJ 314: 1388-1388 [Abstract] [Full text]
Contact us - Privacy policy - Web site terms & conditions - Site map
HighWire Press - Feedback - Help - 1995 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/311/6997/109?maxtoshow=&Hsearchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT
Page 11 of 11

Mays Pope Rigor Investig Cuali

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Mays Pope Rigor Investig Cuali

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Qualitative Research: Rigour and qualitative research -- Mays and Pope 311 (6997): 109 -- BMJ

BMJ 1995;311:109-112 (8 July)

Education and debate

Qualitative Research: Rigour and qualitative research

Leicester LE1 6TP

View larger version (52K):

Assessing a piece of qualitative research

Questions to ask of a qualitative study

modified the analysis?

Form of doctor's questions to parents at a paediatric cardiology

quantitative research. Aldershot: Avebury, 1992:3-37.

This article has been cited by other articles:

Rigour/Quality.. J Health Psychol 11: 799-808 [Abstract]

Journal 59: 288-296 [Abstract]

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi