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Eduardo Rossi
University of Pavia
Empirical regularities
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Eduardo Rossi
Empirical regularities
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Eduardo Rossi
Empirical regularities
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Eduardo Rossi
Empirical regularities
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X
i=0
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bi Li
X
b2i <
b0 = 1
i=0
E [t ] = 0
2 < , if t =
E [t ] =
0, otherwise
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X
2
E yt = 2 b2i
i=0
X
E [yt |t1 ] =
bi ti
i=1
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bk+i ti
i=0
k1
X
bi t+ki
i=0
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k1
h
i
X
X
2
E (yt+k E [yt+k |t ]) |t = 2
b2i 2
b2i , as k
i=0
i=0
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10
t = 1, 2, . . .
(1)
(0 ) V art1 [t (0 )] =
Et1 2t
(0 )
t = 1, 2, . . .
(2)
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11
t = 1, 2, . . .
(3)
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(4)
12
t = 1, 2, . . .
(5)
with
Et1 [zt (0 )] = 0
V art1 [zt (0 )] = 1
will have conditional mean zero (Et1 [zt (0 )] = 0) and a time
invariant conditional variance of unity.
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13
1/2
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14
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15
4
If zt N ID (0, 1), then E zt = 3, the unconditional distribution for
t is therefore leptokurtic
4
2 2
E t
3E t
4
2 2
3
E t /E t
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16
In fact, if t |t1 N
4
2 2
Et1 t
= 3Et1 t
h
4
i
2
2 2
2
2 2
3 E Et1 t
= 3 E t
E t
= 3E Et1 t
4
2 2
E t 3 E t
4
E t
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Eduardo Rossi
2 2 o
2
2
3E Et1 t
3 E Et1 t
n
o
2
2
2
2
2
2
3 E t
+ 3E Et1 t
3 E Et1 t
n
2 2 o
2
4
2
E Et1 t
E Et1 t
E t
2 =3+3
2
2
[E (t )]
[E (2t )]
2
2
V ar Et1 t
V ar t
3+3
=3+3
2
2 .
2
2
[E (t )]
[E (t )]
17
18
q
X
i 2ti
(6)
i=1
19
(1 (L))2t = + vt
The process is weakly stationary if and only if
q
P
i=1
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(7)
20
4t
/E
2 2
t
=3 1
12
/ 1
312
(8)
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21
4t
=
=
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2t1
3 + 21 E
(1 312 )
2
2
3 + 21
(1 312 )
22
substituting 2 = / (1 1 ):
2
2
2
3
(1
)
+
2
3
(1 + 1 )
1
1
4
E t =
=
(1 312 ) (1 1 )
(1 312 ) (1 1 )
finally
4t
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/E
2 2
t
3 (1 + 1 ) (1 1 )
=
2
2
(1 31 ) (1 1 )
3 1 12
1 312
(9)
23
t |t1 N
2
Et1 t t2 = + (L) 2t
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24
(10)
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(11)
25
t2
!
1
q
p
X
X
+
i Li
j 2tj
1
i=1
= +
j=1
k 2tk1
(12)
k=0
t2 0 if 0 and all k 0.
The non-negativity of and k is also a necessary condition for the
non negativity of t2 .
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26
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27
c
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(13)
28
0 1 < 1
1 1 + 2
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(14)
29
1 + 2
< 1
12 + 42
(15)
i = 1, . . . , p
j = 1, . . . , q
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(16)
30
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31
2t
=+
X
j=1
(j + j ) 2tj +
p
X
i=1
i ti
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32
Example: GARCH(1,1)
2
t2 = + 1 2t1 + 1 t1
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33
!
p
m
X
X
2 (k) = cov +
(j + j ) 2tj + t
i ti , 2tk
j=1
2 (k) =
m
X
j=1
i=1
"
#
p
X
2
2
(j + j ) cov tj , tk +cov t
i ti , 2tk
i=1
(17)
When k is big enough, the last term on the right of expression (17) is
null.
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34
m
X
2 (k) =
(j + j ) 2 (k j)
j=1
This system can be used to identify the lag order m and p, that is the
p and q order if q p, the order p if q < p.
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35
1, 2t1 ,
2
, 2tq , t1
,
2
, tp ,
Let wt =
= (, 1 , , q , 1 , , p ) and , where = (b , ) and is
a compact subspace of a Euclidean space such that t possesses finite
second moments. We may write the GARCH regression model as:
t = yt xt b
t |t1 N
t2 = wt
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0, t2
36
Stationarity
and show that is asymptotically constant in time (it does not depend
upon time).
A process {t } which satisfies a GARCH(p,q) model with positive
coefficient 0, i 0 i = 1, . . . , q, i 0 i = 1, . . . , p is covariance
stationary if and only if:
(1) + (1) < 1
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37
Stationarity
k
XY
2
2
t = 1 +
1 + 1 zti
k=1i=1
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38
Stationarity
In fact,
t2
=+
2
t1
2
t2
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2
t1
2
1 zt1
+ 1
=+
2
t2
2
1 zt2
=+
2
t3
2
1 zt3
+ 1
+ 1
39
Stationarity
t2
= + +
2
1 zt2
"
= 1+
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Y
k
X
k=1 i=1
2
1 zti
+ 1
2
1 zt1
+ 1
2
2
2
2
= + 1 zt1 + 1 + t2 1 zt2 + 1 1 zt1 + 1
2
2
2
= + 1 zt1 + 1 + 1 zt1 + 1 1 zt2 + 1
2
2
2
2
+t3 1 zt3 + 1 1 zt2 + 1 1 zt1 + 1
finally,
t2
2
t2
+ 1
40
Stationarity
t2
2
Nelson shows that when > 0,
< a.s. and t , t is strictly
2
stationary if and only if E ln 1 + 1 zt < 0
2
2
E ln 1 + 1 zt ln E 1 + 1 zt = ln (1 + 1 )
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41
Stationarity
Example
ARCH(1), with 1 = 1, 1 = 0, zt N (0, 1)
2
2
E ln zt ln E zt = ln (1)
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42
Forecasting volatility
q
X
i 2t+ki +
i=1
p
X
2
i t+ki
i=1
we can write the process in two parts, before and after time t:
2
t+k
= +
n
X
i=1
i 2t+ki
2
i t+ki
m
X
i 2t+ki
2
i t+ki
i=k
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43
Forecasting volatility
Thus
2
Et t+k
= +
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n
X
i=1
m
X
2
2
2
(i + i ) Et t+ki +
i t+ki + i t+ki .
i=k
44
Forecasting volatility
k2
X
2
(1 + 1 )i + (1 + 1 )k1 t+1
i=0
1 (1 + 1 )
k1
2
+ (1 + 1 )k1 t+1
[1 (1 + 1 )]
h
i
k1
k1 2
= 2 1 (1 + 1 )
+ (1 + 1 )
t+1
k1 2
2
2
= + (1 + 1 )
t+1
2
When the process is covariance stationary, it follows that Et t+k
converges to 2 as k .
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45
i=1
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46
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47
2
= + 1 2t1 + (1 1 ) t1
= +
2
t1
1 2t1
2
t1
0 < 1 1
48
Persistence
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49
Persistence
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50
Persistence
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51
Persistence
t2
1. Suppose
is strictly stationary and ergodic. Let F
be the
unconditional cdf for t2 , and Fs t2 the conditional cdf for t2 ,
2
2
given information at time s < t. For any s F t Fs t 0
at all continuity points as t . There is no persistence when
2
t is stationary and ergodic.
2. Persistence is defined in terms of forecast moments. For some
2
>0, the
shocks
to
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52
Persistence
2
Whether or not shocks to t persist depends very much on
which definition is adopted. The conditional moment may diverge to
infinity for some , but converge to a well-behaved limit independent
2
of initial conditions for other , even when the t is stationary and
ergodic.
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53
Persistence
GARCH(1,1):
2
t+1
t2
t2
=+
"
1 2t
= 1+
=+
2
t1
t2
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Y
k
X
=+
2
1 zti
2
1 zt1
2
t2
+ 1
2
1 zt2
2
t2
t2
+ 1
k=1 i=1
2
t1
=+
1 t2
+ 1
2
1 zt2
1 zt2
+ 1
2
1 zt1
+ 1
2
2
2
2
= + 1 zt1 + 1 + t2 1 zt2 + 1 1 zt1 + 1
2
2
2
= + 1 zt1 + 1 + 1 zt1 + 1 1 zt2 + 1
2
2
2
2
+t3 1 zt3 + 1 1 zt2 + 1 1 zt1 + 1
= + +
+ 1
54
Persistence
Et3 t2
Es
t(t3)1
k=0
(1 + 1 )k
2
+t3
(1 + 1 ) (1 + 1 ) (1 + 1 )
"ts1
#
X
k
ts
2
2
t =
(1 + 1 ) + ts
(1 + 1 )
k=0
2
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55
GARCH models assume that only the magnitude and not the
positivity or negativity of unanticipated excess returns
determines feature t2 .
There exists a negative correlation between stock returns and
changes in returns volatility, i.e. volatility tends to rise in
response to bad news, (excess returns lower than expected)
and to fall in response to good news (excess returns higher
than expected).
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56
q
X
j=1
2
2
j ztj
tj
+
p
X
2
i ti
i=1
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57
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58
ln t
= +
p
X
i ln
2
ti
i=1
q
X
i=1
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59
The components of g (zt ) are zt and [|zt | E |zt |], each with
mean zero.
If the distribution of zt is symmetric, the components are
orthogonal, but not independent.
Over the range 0 < zt < , g (zt ) is linear in zt with slope + ,
and over the range < zt 0, g (zt ) is linear with slope .
The term [|zt | E |zt |] represents a magnitude effect.
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60
2
t+1
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61
2
t+1
1 |zt |
1 zt
1 |zt |
20
20
2
g(zt , t ) = t
+t
Et
1 + 2 |zt |
1 + 2 |zt |
1 + 2 |zt |
The parameters 0 and 0 parameters allow both the conditional
2
variance of ln t+1 and its conditional correlation with zt to vary
with the level of t2 .
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62
2
t+1
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63
zs distribution
=2
<2
=1
>2
21/ (2/)
With this density, E |zt | =
.
(1/)
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64
1
f t t ; , =
+1/
2t b 1/ B (1/, ) [1 + |t | / (b t )]
where B (1/, ) (1/) () (1/ + ) denotes the beta function,
b [ () (1/) / (3/) ( 2/)]
1/2
t t1
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65
1
2
The GED is obtained for = . The GED has only one shape
parameter , which is apparently insufficient to fit both the central
part and the tails of the conditional distribution.
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66
Stationarity of EGARCH(p,q)
"
ln
p
X
i Li ln t
i=1
t2
2
ln t
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"
= 1
2
p
X
i=1
q
X
=+
i Li [zt + (|zt | E |zt |)]
#1
i=1
"
+ 1
X
= +
i g (zti )
p
X
i Li
i=1
#1 " q
X
i=1
i Li g (zt )
i=1
67
Stationarity of EGARCH(p,q)
Given 6= 0 or 6= 0, then
ln t2 <
a.s. when
2i <
i=1
follows from the independence and finite variance of the g (zt ) and
from Billingsley (1986, Theorem 22.6). From this we have that
2
t
ln
< a.s.
exp( )
t2
exp( ) < a.s.
2
exp ( ) t < , {exp ( /2) t } < , a.s., where t = zt t , zt
is i.i.d.. We can also show that they are ergodic and strictly
stationarity.
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68
Stationarity of EGARCH(p,q)
t2
E ln t = 0 for all t
2
V ar ln t
= V ar (g (zt ))
2i
i=1
t2
P
P
2
2
2
i < . If
i = , then ln t = almost surely.
i=1
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i=1
69
Stationarity of EGARCH(p,q)
2
p
P
2
exp ( ) t and {exp ( /2) t } are equivalent to all the roots
p
P
of 1
i xi lying outside the unit circle.
i=1
2
The strict stationarity of exp ( ) t , {exp ( /2) t } need
2
not imply covariance stationarity, since exp ( ) t ,
{exp ( /2) t } may fail to have finite unconditional means and
variances.
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70
Stationarity of EGARCH(p,q)
For some distribution of {zt } (e.g., the Student t with finite degrees
2
of freedom), exp ( ) t and {exp ( /2) t } typically have no
finite unconditional moments.
If the distribution of zt is GED and is thinner-tailed than the double
P
2
2
exponential ( > 1), and if
i < , then exp ( ) t and
i=1
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71
t = +
i |ti | +
i ti
i=1
i=1
q
p
X
X
t = +
i |ti k| +
i ti
i=1
i=1
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72
=+
p
X
2
i ti
i=1
q
X
i 2t1
2
ti
i Sti
i=1
where
St
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1
=
0
if
t < 0
if
t 0
73
q
X
i (ti + ) +
i=1
p
X
2
i ti
i=1
p
X
2
i ti
i=1
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74
q
X
i 2t1 +
i=1
t | t1 N (0, t2 )
p
X
2
i t1
i=1
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75
This model characterizes the evolution of the mean and the variance
of a time series simultaneously.
The GARCH-M model therefore allows to analize the possibility of
time-varying risk premium.
It turns out that:
t2
yt | t1 N (0 + 1 xt + 2 g
, t2 )
p 2
2
2
2
2
In applications, g t = t , g t = ln t and g t = t2 have
been used.
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76
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77
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78
For the GARCH model the News Impact Curve (NIC) is centered on
t1 = 0.
GARCH(1,1):
2
t2 = + 2t1 + t1
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79
= + ln
2
t1
+
A
exp
t1
f or t1 > 0
t2 =
t1
f or t1 < 0
A exp
< 0
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i
p
exp 2/
+>0
80
The EGARCH allows good news and bad news to have different
impact on volatility, while the standard GARCH does not.
The EGARCH model allows big news to have a greater impact
on volatility than GARCH model. EGARCH would have higher
variances in both directions because the exponential curve
eventually dominates the quadrature.
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81
the NIC is
t2 = A + (t1 + )
A + 2
> 0, 0 < 1, > 0, 0 < 1.
is asymmetric and centered at t1 = .
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82
2
t2 = + 2t + t1
+ St1
2t1
1 if
t1 < 0
St1 =
0 otherwise
The NIC is
A + 2t1 if t1 > 0
2
t =
A + ( + ) 2
t1 < 0
t1 if
A + 2
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83
q
X
i 2t1 +
i=1
t | t1 N (0, t2 )
p
X
2
i t1
i=1
c
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84
This model characterizes the evolution of the mean and the variance
of a time series simultaneously.
The GARCH-M model therefore allows to analyze the possibility of
time-varying risk premium.
It turns out that:
t2
yt | t1 N (0 + 1 xt + 2 g
, t2 )
p 2
2
2
2
2
In applications, g t = t , g t = ln t and g t = t2 have
been used.
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85
c
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86
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87
For the GARCH model the News Impact Curve (NIC) is centered on
t1 = 0.
GARCH(1,1):
2
t2 = + 2t1 + t1
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88
= + ln
2
t1
+
A
exp
t1
f or t1 > 0
t2 =
t1
f or t1 < 0
A exp
< 0
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i
p
exp 2/
+>0
89
The EGARCH allows good news and bad news to have different
impact on volatility, while the standard GARCH does not.
The EGARCH model allows big news to have a greater impact
on volatility than GARCH model. EGARCH would have higher
variances in both directions because the exponential curve
eventually dominates the quadrature.
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90
the NIC is
t2 = A + (t1 + )
A + 2
> 0, 0 < 1, > 0, 0 < 1.
is asymmetric and centered at t1 = .
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91
2
t2 = + 2t + t1
+ St1
2t1
1 if
t1 < 0
St1 =
0 otherwise
The NIC is
A + 2t1 if t1 > 0
2
t =
A + ( + ) 2
t1 < 0
t1 if
A + 2
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92