OVERHEAD T&D

CHANNEL

ELECTRICAL

CONNECTORS
FOR OVERHEAD LINES

Evaluating assessment and test methodologies to improve quality

BY ALEX BABAKOV, CHRIS MORTON, HONG LI, Powertech Labs
& ROBYN PASCAL, CEATI International

tility distribution systems utilize a variety of connectors to

join and attach overhead conductors. These components
are simple and relatively inexpensive; however, due to their
critical function and the large number of components utilized in
the electrical system, they deserve some consideration from the
maintenance perspective.
Factors such as corrosion, improper installation, and
manufacturing defects can cause in-service failure of connectors
leading to safety risks to lineman crews and the public, and
compromising the reliability of the power supply.
Many utilities have experienced this problem and some have made
efforts to mitigate the risk. Due to the nature of the connector design,
the defects are typically hidden and cannot be detected easily. As a
result, blanket replacement sometimes is the only option, which can be
inefficient due to the large number of connectors replaced prematurely.
Thus, a need exists for an effective inspection tool that electric
utilities can use to provide information on the condition of the
connectors currently in service. This tool would allow utilities
to plan for the timely replacement of deteriorating connectors,
thereby reducing risks and costs in system operation.
In order to identify the most effective inspection tools, a study
titled, Assessment/Test Methodology of In-service Electrical Connectors
for Overhead Lines was conducted by Powertech Labs Inc., under
contract from the CEATI Distribution Assets Life Cycle Management
(DALCM) Interest Group, to review the electrical connector
assessment practices currently employed by utilities, as well as other
potentially applicable methods described in the technical literature.
Researchers tested the identified methods using connector samples
collected in the field and samples created in the lab to simulate
corrosion. Subsequently, researchers compared the collected
measurements to the actual condition of the connector samples.

22 | FALL 2015

STUDY APPROACH
The utility overhead distribution system uses numerous
connectors. These connectors vary in design and coupling
methods (that is, compression splices, automatic splices, and
clamps). Carl Tamm, a consultant with Classic Connectors,
considers connectors the weakest point of the overhead line.
The main objective of this study was to review and evaluate
the best practices for in-situ condition assessment and testing of
overhead electrical connectors. The study provides evaluation,
ranking, and recommendation of inspection techniques that
utilities can use to assess the condition of in-service electrical
connectors, giving quantitative information on their present
condition. These assessment methods would allow maintenance
personnel to plan prompt replacement times for deteriorating
connectors, thereby reducing the risks and cost of in-service
failures and premature replacements.
The scope of the project, established with the support of the
Distribution Assets program representing 37 North American
electric utilities, included a number of tasks (refer to Tasks for
Connector Project sidebar).
TASKS FOR CONNECTOR PROJECT
Identify most common connector types and features
Identify connector failure modes and causes
Review state-of-the-art connector condition assessment
methods through a technical literature review
Survey participating utilities practices and testing
methodologies currently used for connector inspection
Evaluate the most promising inspection methods through
laboratory tests
Summarize findings and provide recommendations, including
the most effective assessment approach, equipment,
and procedures as supported by verification results, and
suggestions for further research
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Even though some connectors fail due to mechanical stress,

electrical failures appear to be more commonly reported.
CONNECTOR TYPES
Before considering the various connector assessment and test methodologies,
connector types, their features and failure mechanisms should be understood.
Researchers identified the four most common connector types: wedge, compression,
bolted, and automatic. These connector types differ in materials, design, and service
applications; however, the failure mechanisms appear to be common for all types.
Another major distinction in connector types is whether they are current carrying or not
(for example, dead-end connectors).
The connector type will indicate what possible stress and conditions the connector
will be exposed to and thus it can be used to assign a risk factor to the connector for the
purpose of asset management.
FAILURE MECHANISMS
Even though some connectors fail due to mechanical stress, electrical failures appear
to be more commonly reported. In these situations, the connector resistance increases
over time to a high enough value that a rapid deterioration of the connector occurs,
resulting in destruction due to electric overheating.
The cause of an increase in electrical resistance is usually a combination of several factors:
High initial resistance due to improper assembly/installation or defective materials
Degradation of electrical interfaces in the connector through thermal cycling
Oxidation of electrical interfaces due to contaminants and environmental effects
For current-carrying connectors, electrical resistance appears to be the main factor in
determining the service life of a connector, provided it is appropriately designed and
installed to withstand electrical and mechanical stress loads normally seen in service.
Over time, the contact resistance of the connector will increase from its initial
nominal value at the time of assembly. Steffen Grossmann, Helmet Lobl, and Helmut

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FALL 2015 | 23

Resistance

Principle of connector resistance vs. time

inflection point

Figure 1

Rlimit

R(t=0)

After
Installation

Relative
Stability

Accelerated
Aging

Source: Steffen Grossmann, Helmet Lobl, and Helmut Bohmes study,

Contact lifetime of connections in electrical power systems
Bohme identify in their study, Contact Lifetime of Connections in
Electrical Power Systems three factors that influence the rate of
change of contact resistance (refer to Contact Resistance Changers
sidebar). Figure 1 shows the increase of connector resistance
with time and the three phases of the connector service life as
proposed by this theory.
Once the electrical resistance of the connector reaches a
critical value, progression to failure is quite rapid. Either a thermal
runaway process or arcing will occur. The material at the connector
to conductor interface will eventually soften or melt, destroying
the connection. Softening of the conductor will also affect its
mechanical strength. For connectors under tensile load, the end
failure mode might cause a mechanical separation of the connector
and the conductor.
The relationship between connector temperature and resistance
is interdependent. The connector temperature is a result of a balance
between the heat generated by the passage of current through the
connector, and the heat dissipated from the connector. Since the
resistivity of the connector material is temperature dependent, as the
temperature of the connector increases, more heat will generate at a
given current level.
However, since dead-end connectors do not carry current, the
resistance of the connector joint is not applicable as an indicator
of its condition. For these types of connectors, mechanical fatigue
is the primary failure mechanism associated with long-term aging.
Failures due to mechanical fatigue occur in connectors, including
dead-end varieties, subjected to mechanical loads. The cause of
this failure mechanism is typically attributed to problems with
design, installation, manufacturing, or in-service damage.
Additionally, mechanical failures can be caused by overloading.
Overloading occurs due to improper installation (for example, over
tensioning the line), using incorrectly rated connectors or due to
accidents or natural events such as windstorms and icing events. In

24 | FALL 2015

Time

general, there appears to be fewer reports of connector failures due to

mechanical fatigue and overloading compared to electrical failures.
CONTACT RESISTANCE CHANGERS
Factors that influence rate of change in contact
resistance
Rate of connector joint expansion/contraction due to
thermal and mechanical stress
Rate of conductor and connector oxidation/corrosion
Temperature of the connector
Source: Grossmann, Lobl, and Bohme study, Contact Lifetime
of Connections in Electrical Power Systems
Although connectors vary in the way they are connected to the
conductor, the failure mechanisms appear to be common for all
types. The most common failure mechanism appears to be the
long-term increase in electrical resistance; however, due to the
long-time scales of this process, most connectors are replaced
before they fail.
CONNECTOR INSPECTION METHODS
In reviewing the current technologies and the technical
literature, four established and widely used inspection methods
are prevalent: visual inspection, infrared (IR) temperature
measurements, resistance measurements, and radiographic
inspection. Each method has its own benefits and shortcomings.
A utility survey has found that some utilities have used the
aforementioned inspection methods with various degrees of
success. Based on responses, participating utilities considered the
in-situ resistance measurement technique as the most accurate
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inspection method. However, only a few utilities have used this

technique due to its higher cost of implementation. In addition,
most utilities that experienced success in identifying degraded
connectors used several different inspection methods. The most
commonly used included resistance measurement, infrared
thermography, and visual or radiographic inspection.

In addition, the placement of the measurement tool should be

such that the length of conductor and connector included in the
measurement are consistent. Maintenance engineers should choose
test procedures and pass/fail criteria carefully, in conjunction with
a thorough calibration and validation process using aged field
samples or fabricated lab samples of known condition.

LAB TESTS
DIRECT TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
Based on the results of the technical literature review and
Direct temperature measurements appear to provide a satisfactory
utility survey, researchers chose several condition assessment
correlation with connector condition. However, this test method
methods, including alternating current resistance measurements,
did not appear to detect deterioration or resistance measurements.
infrared thermography, direct temperature measurements, and
From a practical perspective, this method has the same limitations
radiographic inspection, for further evaluation in the lab. The
as resistance measurement as it also requires direct access to
purpose was to, first, confirm the findings
described in the previous sections and, second,
obtain more data on the practical application
of the aforementioned assessment methods.
Researchers selected connector test samples
from a number of aged field samples based on
visual and radiographic inspection. In order to
supplement the quantity of connectors in poor
condition, additional samples were prepared
in the lab to simulate connector corrosion
and improper installation. Figure 2 shows a
connector sample having several anodized
conductor strands in order to simulate
deterioration due to oxidation/corrosion.
Researchers evaluated the samples using
the aforementioned condition assessment
methods and then subjected the samples
to fault current tests. Subsequently, the
researchers dissected the samples to
determine their exact condition and to
decide if any correlation existed between the
condition assessment results. Researchers
made some notable observations during the
lab tests.
For example, a considerable challenge in
evaluating connector assessment methods
lies in obtaining connector test samples that
have a range of conditions, from excellent to
poor. This process is necessary to properly
judge the resolution and effectiveness of a
particular test method.
It is also important to have a sufficiently
large population size of samples so that
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the test results will have some statistical
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significance. A large number of samples will
also naturally provide variation in connector
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worse than average and poor condition (refer
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assessment methods identified in the study.
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RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
AC resistance measurements compared well
with sample conditions; however, when
making measurements on connectors that
join conductors of different size, the results
had to be interpreted with that fact in mind.
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FALL 2015 | 25

Figure 2

Anodized conductor

the conductor, making it expensive and time consuming. In

addition, environmental conditions, line loading conditions, and
connector geometry will influence the temperature difference of
measurements and will increase inconsistency of the test results.
INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY
Infrared thermography (IR) inspection appears to be the least
expensive and most practical method. However, this technique
appears to be only effective for detecting severely deteriorated
connectors under favorable environmental conditions, with
appropriate line loading, adequate equipment, and properly
trained and experienced personnel.
Due to the difficulty in managing the number of variables
influencing infrared inspection, this method is unlikely to be
100-percent effective and, therefore, would not be reliable on its
own. Researchers observed both false positive and false negative
inspection resultseven in lab conditions. In addition, this
method is less reliable for new connectors and/or conductors
because of their low emissivity.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
Radiographic inspection is useful in identifying problems
associated with improper installation, and since this is one of the
more common causes of connector failure, radiographic inspection
may have some potential. Additionally, utility personnel can use
this method to identify heavy corrosion in automatic splices (refer
to Figure 4 on page 28).
However, at this point, utility personnel cannot use radiographic
inspection to identify improper crimping of compression
connectors or bolted joints not fully tightened. As a result, the
techniques application is limited to detecting certain defects
such as misalignment or incomplete connector insertion. In other
words, utility personnel should consider radiographic inspection
only for specific applications.
STUDY CONCLUSIONS
Based on the information gathered in the technical literature,
the results of the utility survey and the observations from the
tests performed in the lab, AC resistance measurement appears

Figure 3

Cross-section of an automatic splice with heavy corrosion

26 | FALL 2015

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to be the most reliable connector inspection method currently

available. However, the major drawback is the significant cost and
time associated with this method. Other assessment techniques
can be effective for specific applications. An approach that
combines several assessment methods such as AC resistance,
direct temperature measurements, and infrared temperature
measurement would be the most successful.
Given the large number of connectors in the distribution system,
it would be cost prohibitive to perform resistance measurements
on all connectors or even a significant portion. An inspection
approach that combines several of the discussed methods to
sample the population and provide statistical input for analysis
based on a reliability criteria and lifecycle cost analysis would likely
be the most successful. An appropriately structured program that
uses documented guidelines and procedures together with a data
management system will provide a clearer picture of connector
condition in the power grid. Based on the results of the utility
survey, it appears that several utilities are achieving success with
this approach.

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A more
commprehensive
investigation evaluating
the effects of resistance
measurements on different
connector types is necessary.

FALL 2015 | 27

Figure 4

X-ray of an automatic splice with heavy internal corrosion

Researchers provided the following additional conclusions and

recommendations based on the results of the laboratory tests,
utility survey, and technology review.

A need exists for a comprehensive field study of the AC

resistance test method, supported by statistically significant field
data to give utilities confidence to utilize this assessment method.

An inspection using infrared thermography is only effective in

detecting severely deteriorated connectors under favourable
environmental conditions, with appropriate line loading, adequate
equipment, and properly trained and experienced personnel.

A more comprehensive investigation evaluating the effects

of resistance measurements on different connector types is
necessary.

28 | FALL 2015

The condition assessment methodologies evaluated in

this study are applicable to connectors used in both the
distribution system as well as the transmission system. Electric utilities
can further develop their condition assessment methods more
effectively by pooling resources from both systems together. ET
Alex Babakov, Chris Morton, and Hong Li, are electrical engineers
working with Powertech Labs. Alex works on projects and research
activities specializing in testing and condition assessment of T&D
utility equipment. Chris specializes in laboratory testing and failure
analysis work on electrical equipment. Hong Li has extensive
experience and knowledge in asset management of T&D structures
and components. Robyn Pascal is the Program Manager for
Distribution programs at CEATI International.

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