QUALITY INDICATORS FOR EFFULENT WASTE WATER

Dissolved oxygen
The dissolved oxygen (DO) is oxygen that is dissolved in water. The oxygen dissolves by
diffusion from the surrounding air; aeration of water that has tumbled over falls and rapids; and
as a waste product of photosynthesis.
Fish and aquatic animals cannot split oxygen from water (H 2O) or other oxygen-containing
compounds. Only green plants and some bacteria can do that through photosynthesis and similar
processes. Virtually all the oxygen we breath is manufactured by green plants.
Effects of dissolved oxygen are
temperature effect: If water is too warm, there may not be enough oxygen in it. When
there are too many bacteria or aquatic animal in the area, they may overpopulate, using
DO in great amounts. if the weather becomes cloudy for several days, respiring plants
will use much of the available DO. When these plants die, they become food for bacteria,
which in turn multiply and use large amounts of oxygen.How much DO an aquatic
organism needs depends upon its species, its physical state, water temperature, pollutants
present, and more. Oxygen is more easily dissolved in cold water than in warm water and
so organisms tend to thrive in cold water than warm water due to large quantity of
dissolved oxygen.

Environmental effect: Total dissolved gas concentrations in water should not exceed 110
percent. Concentrations above this level can be harmful to aquatic life. Adequate
dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. As dissolved oxygen levels in water
drop below 5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The lower the concentration, the
greater the stress. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in
large fish kills. Biologically speaking, however, the level of oxygen is a much more
important measure of water quality than feacal coliform. Dissolved oxygen is absolutely
essential for the survival of all aquatic organisms ( not only fish but also invertebrates
such as crabs, clams, zooplankton, etc). Moreover, oxygen affects a vast number of other
water indicators, not only biochemical but esthetic ones like the odor, clarity and taste.
Consequently, oxygen is perhaps the most well-established indicator of water quality. The
main cause of a reduction of dissolved oxygen is the presence of organic matter.
Flow rate: Oxygen concentrations vary with the volume and velocity of water flowing in
a stream. Faster flowing white water areas tend to be more oxygen rich because more
oxygen enters the water from the atmosphere in those areas than in slower, stagnant
areas.
Aquatic Plants: The presence of aquatic plants in a stream affects the dissolved oxygen
concentration. Typical urban human activities may lower oxygen runoff and can result in
decreased oxygen levels. Nutrient input often lead to
excessive algal growth. When
the algae die, the organic matter is decomposed by bacteria. Bacterial decomposition
consumes a great deal of oxygen.

Dams may pose an oxygen supply problem when they release waters from the bottom of
their reservoirs into streams and rivers. Although the water on the bottom is cooler than
the warm water on top, it may be low in oxygen if large amounts of organic matter has
fallen to the bottom and has been decomposed by bacteria.

How Dissolved Oxygen Affects Water Supplies

A high DO level in a community water supply is good because it makes drinking water taste
better. However, high DO levels speed up corrosion in water pipes. For this reason, industries use
water with the least possible amount of dissolved oxygen. Water used in very low pressure
boilers have no more than 2.0 ppm of DO, but most boiler plant operators try to keep oxygen
levels to 0.007 ppm or less.
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by
aerobic biological organisms in a body of water to break down organic material present in a
given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. The term also refers to a
chemical procedure for determining this amount. This is not a precise quantitative test, although
it is widely used as an indication of the organic quality of water. The BOD value is most
commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5 days of
incubation at 20 C and is often used as a robust surrogate of the degree of organic pollution of
water.
The purpose of this indicator is to assess the quality of water available to consumers in localities
or communities for basic and commercial needs and also to gauge the effectiveness of waste
water treatment plant. It is also one of a group of indicators of ecosystem health.
BOD is similar in function to chemical oxygen demand (COD), in that both measure the amount
of organic compounds in water. However, COD is less specific, since it measures everything that
can be chemically oxidized, rather than just levels of biologically active
organic matter.
METHODOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
There are two main methods for measuring BOD:
Method 1: This is the most common method used. It simply involves the incubation of a water
sample over a specified period (usually five days) at a constant temperature of 20C in the dark.
Method 2: This method involves the incubation of a water sample that is diluted with de-ionised
water saturated with oxygen. The incubation of the diluted sample is identical to the first method,
i.e., it is conducted over 5 days at a constant temperature of 20C in the dark.
These tests represent standard laboratory procedures usually referred to as the BOD5 test.
These procedures are used to estimate the relative oxygen consumption of wastewaters, effluents,
and other waters affected by organic pollution. Microorganisms (mainly bacteria although other
microorganisms, algae, plants and animals can also make significant contributions in some
aquatic systems) use the oxygen in the water for oxidation of polluting organic matter and
organic carbon produced by algae, plants and animals.
Measurement Methods:

Method 1: This method consists of filling to overflowing an airtight bottle of specified size with
the water sample to be tested. It is then incubated at a constant temperature for five days in the
dark. Dissolved oxygen is measured initially and after incubation. The BOD5 is then computed
from the difference between the initial and final readings of dissolved oxygen.

Method 2: This method consists of filling a bottle with incremental levels of a water sample that
is then diluted with de-ionised water. The dilution water contains a known amount of dissolved
oxygen. The bottles are completely filled, freed of air bubbles, sealed and allowed to stand for
five days at a controlled temperature of 20 C (68 F) in the dark. During this period, bacteria
oxidize the organic matter using the dissolved oxygen present in the water. At the end of the fiveday period, the remaining dissolved oxygen is measured. The relationship of oxygen that was
consumed during the five days and the volume of the sample increment are then used to calculate
the BOD.

Limitations of the Indicator: The main limitation of the indicator is that it provides empirical
and not absolute results. It gives a good comparison among samples, but does not give an exact
measure of the concentration of any particular contaminant. Further, it was designed to assess the
impact of point-source organic effluents on source waters and is not generally suitable for
environmental monitoring. Further, the BOD can increase due to an increase in nutrient (e.g.,
nitrogen and phosphorus) loads to a water body (eutrophication) without a concomitant increase
in external organic carbon loading. The increase in nutrients stimulates the growth of algae and
aquatic plants (primary production), which causes an indirect increase in biological (usually
mainly bacterial) oxygen consumption. However, bacterial activity can be directly increased in
some waters with low nutrient concentrations. The five-day time frame to obtain results
represents the main operational drawback of the indicator. In addition, the methodologies
outlined are not indicative of in situ oxygen consumption rates because of the artificial
incubation conditions, i.e., bottling water with its associated microbial communities with no air
flow, currents, light etc.
Alternative Definitions/Indicators: Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is an alternative
measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter content of a sample that is susceptible to
oxidation by a strong chemical exigent. COD can be empirically related to BOD5. After this
correlation is determined for a specific source, it is a useful measure obtained from an
instantaneous chemical test. Dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) is a better general
environmental monitoring indicator that is also applicable to assessing organic pollution. DO
also has known concentration limits for a variety of aquatic species.
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of
organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine the amount of organic
pollutants found in surface water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or wastewater, making COD a useful
measure of water quality. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) also referred to as ppm
(parts per million), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution.
It is the amount of oxygen consumed under specific conditions in the oxidation of organic and
oxidation of inorganic compounds.

TOTAL SOLIDS
The term "total solids" refers to matter suspended or dissolved in water or wastewater, and is
related to both specific conductance and turbidity. Total solids (also referred to as total residue)
is the term used for material left in a container after evaporation and drying of a water sample.
Total Solids includes both total suspended solids, the portion of total solids retained by a filter
(usually with a pore size of 0.45 micrometers), and total dissolved solids, the portion that passes
through a filter (American Public Health Association, 1998).

TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (TSS)

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are solids in water that can be trapped by a filter. TSS can include
a wide variety of material, such as silt, decaying plant and animal matter, industrial wastes, and
sewage. High concentrations of suspended solids can cause many problems for stream health and
aquatic life.
High TSS can block light from reaching submerged vegetation. As the amount of light passing
through the water is reduced, photosynthesis slows down. Reduced rates of photosynthesis
causes less dissolved oxygen to be released into the water by plants. If light is completely
blocked from bottom dwelling plants, the plants will stop producing oxygen and will die. As the
plants are decomposed, bacteria will use up even more oxygen from the water. Low dissolved
oxygen can lead to fish kills. High TSS can also cause an increase in surface water temperature,
because the suspended particles absorb heat from sunlight. This can cause dissolved oxygen
levels to fall even further (because warmer waters can hold less DO), and can harm aquatic life
in many other ways, as discussed in the temperature section. The decrease in water clarity
caused by TSS can affect the ability of fish to see and catch food. Suspended sediment can also
clog fish gills, reduce growth rates, decrease resistance to disease, and prevent egg and larval
development. When suspended solids settle to the bottom of a water body, they can smother the
eggs of fish and aquatic insects, as well as suffocate newly hatched insect larvae. Settling
sediments can fill in spaces between rocks which could have been used by aquatic organisms for
homes.
High TSS in a water body can often mean higher concentrations of bacteria, nutrients, pesticides,
and metals in the water. These pollutants may attach to sediment particles on the land and be
carried into water bodies with storm water. In the water, the pollutants may be released from the
sediment or travel farther downstream (Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group,
1998). High TSS can cause problems for industrial use, because the solids may clog or scour
pipes and machinery.
Measurement of Total Suspended Solids
To measure TSS, the water sample is filtered through a pre-weighed filter. The residue retained
on the filter is dried in an oven at 103 to 105 C until the weight of the filter no longer changes.
The increase in weight of the filter represents the total suspended solids. TSS can also be
measured by analyzing for total solids and subtracting total dissolved solids.
Factors Affecting Total Suspended Solids
High Flow Rates
The flow rate of the water body is a primary factor in TSS concentrations. Fast running water can
carry more particles and larger-sized sediment. Heavy rains can pick up sand, silt, clay, and
organic particles (such as leaves, soil, tire particles) from the land and carry it to surface water. A
change in flow rate can also affect TSS; if the speed or direction of the water current increases,
particulate matter from bottom sediments may be resuspended.
Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is caused by disturbance of a land surface. Soil erosion can be caused by Building
and Road Construction, Forest Fires, Logging, and Mining. The eroded soil particles can be
carried by storm water to surface water. This will increase the TSS of the water body.
Urban Runoff
During storm events, soil particles and debris from streets and industrial, commerical, and
residential areas can be washed into streams. Because of the large amount of pavement in urban
areas, infiltration is decreased, velocity increases, and natural settling areas have been removed.
Sediment is carried through storm drains directly to creeks and rivers.
Wastewater and Septic System Effluent
The effluent from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) can add suspended solids to a stream.
The wastewater from our houses contains food residue, human waste, and other solid material
that we put down our drains. Most of the solids are removed from the water at the WWTP before
being discharged to the stream, but treatment cant eliminate everything.
Decaying Plants and Animals
As plants and animals decay, suspended organic particles are released
and can contribute to the TSS concentration.
Bottom-Feeding Fish
Bottom-feeding fish (such as carp) can stir up sediments as they remove vegetation. These
sediments can contribute to TSS

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are solids in water that can pass through a filter. TDS is a measure
of the amount of material dissolved in water. This material can include carbonate, bicarbonate,
chloride, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, sodium, organic ions, and other ions. A
certain level of these ions in water is necessary for aquatic life. Changes in TDS concentrations
can be harmful because the density of the water determines the flow of water into and out of an
organism's cells (Mitchell and Stapp, 1992). However, if TDS concentrations are too high or too
low, the growth of many aquatic life
can be limited, and death may occur. Similar to TSS, high concentrations of TDS may also
reduce water clarity, contribute to a decrease in photosynthesis, combine with toxic compounds
and heavy metals, and lead to an increase in water temperature. TDS is used to estimate the
quality of drinking water, because it represents the amount of ions in the water. Water with high
TDS often has a bad taste and/or high water hardness, and could result in a laxative effect.
Measurement of Total Dissolved Solids
To measure TDS, the water sample is filtered, and then the filtrate (the water that passes through
the filter) is evaporated in a pre-weighed dish and dried in an oven at 180 C, until the weight of
the dish no longer changes. The increase in weight of the dish represents the total dissolved
solids, and is reported in milligrams per liter (mg/l). The TDS concentration of a water sample
can be estimated from specific conductance if a linear correlation between the two parameters is

first established. Depending on the chemistry of the water, TDS (in mg/l) can be estimated by
multiplying specific conductance (in micromhos/cm) by a factor between 0.55 and 0.75. TDS
can also be determined by measuring individual ions and adding them up.

Factors Affecting Total Dissolved Solids

Geology and Soil in the Watershed
Some rock and soil release ions very easily when water flows over them; for example, if acidic
water flows over rocks containing calcite (CaCO3), such as calcareous shales, calcium (Ca2+)
and carbonate (CO32-) ions will dissolve into the water. Therefore, TDS will increase. However,
some rocks, such as quartz-rich granite, are very resistant to dissolution, and dont dissolve easily
when water flows over them. TDS of waters draining areas where the geology only consists of
granite or other resistant rocks will be low (unless other factors are involved).
Urban Runoff
During storm events, pollutants such as salts from streets, fertilizers from lawns, and other
material can be washed into streams and rivers. Because of the large amount of pavement in
urban areas, natural settling areas have been removed, and dissolved
solids are carried through storm drains to creeks and rivers.
Fertilizer Runoff
Fertilizer can dissolve in stormwater and be carried to surface water during storms, and
contribute to TDS.
Wastewater and Septic System Effluent
The effluent from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) adds dissolved solids to a stream. The
wastewater from our houses contains both suspended and dissolved solids that we put down our
drain. Most of the suspended solids are removed from the water at the WWTP before being
discharged to the stream, but WWTPs only remove some of the TDS. Important components of
the TDS load from WWTPs include phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is caused by disturbance of a land surface. Soil erosion can be caused by Building
and Road Construction, Forest Fires, Logging, and Mining. The eroded soil particles may
contain soluble components that can dissolve and be carried by stormwater to surface water. This
will increase the TDS of the water body.
Decaying Plants and Animals
As plants and animals decay, dissolved organic particles are released and can contribute to the
TDS concentration.
Water Quality Standards Regarding Total Dissolved Solids
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) sets a secondary standard of 500 mg/l
TDS in drinking water Secondary standards are unenforceable, but recommended, guidelines for
contaminants that may cause cosmetic or aesthetic effects in drinking water. High TDS
concentrations can produce laxative effects and can give an unpleasant mineral taste to water.
High TDS concentrations in water is also unsuitable for many industrial applications.

ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE

Water SUPPLIES
TDS in water supplies originate from natural sources, sewage, urban and agricultural run-off, and
industrial wastewater. Salts used for road de-icing can also contribute to the TDS loading of
water supplies.
Concentrations of TDS from natural sources have been found to vary from less than 30 mg/litre
to as much as 6000 mg/litre , depending on the solubilities of minerals in different geological
regions.
EFFECTS ON HUMANS
No recent data on health effects associated with the ingestion of TDS in drinking-water appear to
exist; however, associations between various health effects and hardness, rather than TDS
content, have been investigated in many studies. In early studies, inverse relationships were
reported between TDS concentrations in drinking water and the incidence of cancer, coronary
heart disease, arteriosclerotic heart disease, and cardiovascular disease. Total mortality rates were
reported to be inversely correlated with TDS levels in drinking-water. No attempts were made to
relate mortality from cardiovascular disease to other potential confounding factors.
Certain components of TDS, such as chlorides, sulfates, magnesium, calcium, and carbonates,
affect corrosion or encrustation in water-distribution systems. High TDS levels (>500 mg/litre)
result in excessive scaling in water pipes, water heaters, boilers, and household appliances such
as kettles and steam irons. Such scaling can shorten the service life of these appliances.
The results of early epidemiological studies suggest that even low concentrations of TDS in
drinking-water may have beneficial effects, although adverse effects have been reported in two
limited investigations. Water containing TDS concentrations below 1000 mg/litre is usually
acceptable to consumers, although acceptability may vary according to circumstances. However,
the presence of high levels of TDS in water may be objectionable to consumers owing to the
resulting taste and to excessive scaling in water pipes, heaters, boilers, and household appliances.
Water with extremely low concentrations of TDS may also be unacceptable to consumers
because of its flat, insipid taste; it is also often corrosive to water-supply systems.
In areas where the TDS content of the water supply is very high, the individual constituents
should be identified and the local public health authorities consulted. No health-based guideline
value is proposed for TDS.
TURBIDITY
Turbidity is the cloudiness or hazines of a fluid caused by individual particles that are generally
invisible to the naked eye. Fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of
many different sizes, while some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to
settle rapidly of the bottom of the container. The unit for turbidity is Nephelometric turbidity
units (NTU). However, higher levels of turbidity pose several problems for stream systems.
Turbidity blocks out the light needed by submerged aquatic vegetation. It also can raise surface
water temperatures above normal because suspended particles near the surface facilitate the
absorption of heat from sunlight. Suspended soil particles may carry nutrients, pesticides, and
other pollutants throughout a stream system, and they can bury eggs and benthic critters when
they settle. Turbid waters may also be low in

dissolved oxygen. High turbidity may result from sediment bearing runoff, or nutrients inputs
that cause plankton blooms (1991, Streamkeeper's Field Guide: Watershed Inventory and Stream
Monitoring Methods) .