Eisenberg Grenier Nuclear Theory 1

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112494
SISENBERG, J.M. and
GKEINER, W.
Nuclear Models!
Nuclear Theory 1.
-i
539.74 EIS
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000 596 541
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NUCLEAR THEORY
VOLUME
Three books by
J.
Collective
M. EISENBERG and W. GREINER
NUCLEAR MODELS
and Single-Particle Phenomena
published
by North-Holland Publishing Company:
Judah M.
EISENBERG
Professor of Physics
VOLUME 1
NUCLEAR MODELS
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, U.S.A.
Walter
GREINER
VOLUME 2
Professor of Theoretical Physics
EXCITATION MECHANISMS OF THE NUCLEUS
Johann Wolfgang Goethe
Universitat, Frankfurt
am Main,
Germany
VOLUME
MICROSCOPIC THEORY OF THE NUCLEUS
SECOND. REVISED EDITION
SSc
1975
NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

AMERICAN ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY,
AMSTERDAM
INC.
OXFORD
NEW YORK
North- Holland Publishing Company, 1975
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
Contents
Library of Congress Catalog
North-Holland ISBN:
Card Number; 72-102719
7204 0326 x
American Elsevier ISBN: 0444 10790 S
Preface to the
first
XI
edition
XV
Preface to the second edition
Published by
NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY,
Sole distributors for the U.S.A. and
AMSTERDAM
-OXFORD
LTD.
Introduction
1
Canada:
Varieties of collective
1.1.
The quadrupole moments
1.2.
Electromagnetic transitions
1.2.1. Preliminaries
AMERICAN ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY,

52 VANDERBILT AVENUE
NEW YORK,
motion
INC.
1
.2.2,
N.Y. 10017
on
of nuclei
Iff
18
radiative transitions.
Discussion of empirical data
22
1,2.2a. Electric dipole transitions
22
1.2.2b. Electric
23
quadrupole transitions
1.2.2c. Low-energy spectra (vibrations'and rotations)
References
Mm
td,
ACCESSION
NO.
revised edition 1975
...
25
28
29
Collective coordinates
30
2.1.
The
surface variables c&n
2.2.
The
collective variables for density vibrations
2.3.
Canonically conjugate
112494
1970
18
momenta and phonon
gW
37
operators for the col-
40
lective variables
42
References
CL,
3
2 6 APR 1978
N
flic&mftL
Printed in
The Netherlands
The
structure of the collective nuclear Hamiltonian
43
3.1.
The
44
3.2.
Harmonic
nuclear quadrupole surface motion
47
vibrations of the nuclear surface
momentum
etgenfunctions
....
3.2.1.
Construction of angular
3.2.2.
Multipole operators in collective variables
3.2.3.
Construction of a general angular momentum operator in collective variables
50
56
59
CONTENTS
VI
3.3.
CONTENTS
Simple applications of the harmonic oscillator model
62
3.3.1.
The mean square deformation
62
33.2.
The mean square charge
63
3.3.3.
Electromagnetic decay of the quadrupole vibrational states
3.3.4.
Quadrupole moments of excited
radius of excited states

.
69
The
70
4.2.
The intrinsic coordinate system

The geometric symmetries in the
168
the asymmetric rotator
182
Single-particle
models
183
184
8.1. Spherical single-particle orbits
71
8.1.1. Infinite
collective
quadrupole energy sur-
square well single-particle Hamiltonian and wave
functions
face
4.3.
79
A schematic model for the collective quadrupole energy surface

4.3.1. The case Ci>G
The
4.3.2.
case
C2 <
The time
5.4.
The
of the angular
91
coordinate system, the body-fixed
momentum with respect
...
The
The
5.5.2,
5.6.
finite
of the components of the angular
5.8.
The
5.9.
The symmetric top
D m m ($,)
l
momentum operators
angular momentum eigenvectors
as angular
and
infinitesimal rotations
momentum
eigenfunctions
The rotation-vibration model (RVM)

6.1.
6.2.
The Hamiltonian of the rotation-vibration model

The quantization
in curvilinear coordinates
8,7
....,.,
particle in
an external
unified
112
Weak
114
9.2.
213
field; relativistic
220
contribu-
222
The strong-coupling Hamiltonian
model
230
232
coupling
9.3. Structure
and symmetries of strong-coupling wave functions
236
,
model
240
115
9.4.
The deformed
119
9.5.
Spectra of odd-^ deformed nuclei
250
122
9.6.
Non-adiabatic
effects
255
Coriolis force
255
shell
124
9.6.1.
The
126
9.6.2.
Departure from axial symmetry
259
Magnetic moments of odd-even deformed nuclei
263
9.8.
Extensions of the deformed- shell model
268
9.9.
Odd-odd deformed
128
136
245
9.7.
127
model - the
shell
9.1.
nuclei
References
The symrnetrization of the wave functions

The effect of the rotation-vibration interaction
147
10 Nuclear
152
10.1.
167
10.2.
.'
205
229
The deformed
6.4.
202
References
143
model
moments
of magnetic moments
Motion of a spin-J
Solution of the rotation-vibration Hamiltonian
References
single-particle
Predictions of quadrupole
Experimental evidence for strong spin-orbit coupling
6.3.
6.5.
and the extreme
200
tions to the spin-orbit interaction
under
References
8.6.
198
distribution of nucleons
8.5.2. Predictions
107
of the
finite
The
192
realistic single-particle potentials
momentum
rotations
Relation between
8.4.
intrinsic
matrices of the angular
5.7.
188
spin-orbit coupling
8.5.1,
102
energy in terms of Euler angles and
eigenvalues of
The transformation
More
8.5. Pairing
96
along the intrinsic axes

5.5.1.
The
8.3.
92
103
The matrix elements
8.2.
to the labo-
variables
5.5.
82
Hamiltonian and wave
functions
derivatives of the JJ-functions
collective kinetic
185
oscillator single-particte
82
ratory and to the intrinsic body-fixed systems

5.3.
Harmonic
87
coordinate system and the system of instantaneous rotations
The components
8.1.2.
0.
Quantum mechanics of the rotator

5.1. The Euler angles, the space-fixed
5.2.
176
178
References
8
collective potential energy surface
168
Electric quadrupole transition probabilities in the rotational bands
7.3. (9-vib rations of
68
states
The asymetric rotator model (ARM)

7.1. The Hamiltonian of the ARM
7.2.
67
References
4.1.
VU
270
274
hydrodynamics
The experimental
275
situation
Schematic survey of photonuclear reactions
275
278
vm
CONTENTS
contents
10.3.
10.4.
283
The hydrodynamic model
The classical dipole solutions of the hydrodynamic equations for a
spherical nucleus
296
301
10.5.
The
10.6.
Refinements of the model
10.7.
Systematic classification of the eigenmodes of the density
classical absorption cross section
304
and Cartesian representations of tensors
The nature
10.7.2.
modes
Orthogonality of the normal densities
10.7.3.
Normalization of the fluctuation densities
10.7.4.
10.8.
of the normal
The energy
10.9.
Quantum hydrodynamics;
The
10.12. Microscopic foundation of nuclear
...
hydrodynamics
11
1 1.1.
and
11.2.
389
308
308
12.3.
The
total
309
12.4.
The
scattering of
useful preliminaries
Hamiltonian function for spherical nuclei
deformed
nuclei
on deformed
395
nuclei
401
states; experimental facts
312
12.5.
Quasi-molecular
313
12.6.
Binding energies of nuclei - the semi-empirical mass formula
12.7.
Thomas-Fermi-type theory of
finite nuclei
412
12.8
Quasi-molecular nuclear optical potentials
419
12.9.
The
12.10.
Nuclear shock waves
elastic
Ô- *
1
405
.
in relativistic
319
heavy ion collisions
1 1 .4.
11.5.
APPENDICES
439
Energy of the classical surface vibrations of a nucleus
in the
hydrodyna-
mical approximation
439
interaction between surface degrees of freedom
331
density fluctuations
The normal modes of density
fluctuations in
a deformed nucleus -
the coupling constants
332
The Hamiltonian for deformed even-even nuclei

The wave functions and energies for the giant dipole resonances of
342
even-even nuclei
345
The wave
B The rotation
matrices
443
Diagonalization of the triaxially deformed shell model Hamiltonian
350
11.6.
The Hamiltonian for deformed odd -A nuclei
353
11.7.
The wave
11.8.
The
11.9.
Analysis of experimental data for deformed nuclei
functions and energies of the giant dipole resonance of
354
deformed odd-/* nuclei

.
356
......
358
dipole and quadrupole operators in collective variables.
11.9.1.
Erbium
11.9.2.
Holmium
The
splitting
360
.
The dynamic collective model for spherical even-even

11.10.1. The structure of the Hamiltonian
11.10.2.
The density distribution in

(12.35) to (12.37)).
451
nuclei (derivation of the differentia! equations
454
functions and energies for the giant quadrupole reso-
nances of even-even nuclei
11.10.
431
438
in cylindrical coordinates
11.3.
409
427
scattering cross section
References
331
model
The form of the
388
application of nuclear models to heavy ion scattering
390
330
collective
The
324
References
The dynamic
387
Deformation reactions
318
quantum hydrodynamics
381
References
Some
317
y-absorption cross section in
378
...
12.2.
quantization of giant multipole reso-
10.10. Multipole operators in collective coordinates
cross sections
12.1.
314
nances
10.11.
12
of giant multipole resonances in terms of collective va-
riables
The experimental absorption
11.10.4. Analysis of experimental data for spherical nuclei
fluc-
tuations
10.7.1. Spherical
11.10.3.
Dt
nuclei
of the giant resonance in spherical nuclei
363
371
372
.
374
REFERENCES
459
INDEX
473
Preface to
the First Edition
Nuclear structure theory has long been one of the most difficult areas of
physics to learn. This situation has existed largely because the techniques
which have been used

as to
make
in the
study of the nucleus have been of such diversity
impossible to find extensive
it
common
themes
among them. For
example, nuclear experiments have involved phenomena as different as

(d, n) reactions and muon capture. Even those experimental probes which
Coulomb
are connected in their conceptual basis, such as
excitation, photo-
nuclear reactions, and muonic atoms - all of which are basically electro-
magnetic
in character
dynamics or
certain
statics.
degree,
- have focused upon quite
different features of nuclear
As a consequence, experimental information
tended
towards fragmentation
rather
has, to
than integration.
similar picture emerges in nuclear theoretical work. Attempts at descrip-
tion by phenomenological models have
areas which have often been quite far
drawn upon a variety of specialized

removed from each other: classical
hydrodynamics, rotational molecules, shell structure, superconductivity,

dispersion relations,
and so
forth.
In the face of this situation, most efforts to present nuclear structure

physics in a
more or
less
global
way have done
so by surveying key results
a large number of areas and leaving to the reader the hard job'of finding
out how the basic theoretical concepts were welded into detailed quantitative
in
predictions about nuclear properties. This job

difficult as the
is
augmented
is
becoming increasingly
already vast and indigestible literature of nuclear physics
at a frightening rate, while
some of the very fundamental con-
cepts in the area continue to be found only in the rather sketchy original
accounts of the research journals.

ripe to attempt
It
appeared to us that the time was
a consolidation of this material.
PREFACE
PREFACE
XII
Accordingly,
we have
a self-contained description of
tried to set forth
nuclear structure physics which would seek out the
advances and develop them
in
main
lines
a closely-reasoned fashion.
goal to present this material so that very nearly
all
It
in
other nuclear applications. This whole program
is
the nuclear research journals.
much
aided by
advances in recent years which have led to a greater understanding of the
which apparently dissimilar accounts of nuclear properties are in

closely related when one works out the implications of the fundamental
ways
fact
in
concepts in a systematic fashion.

This description of nuclear structure theory has been constructed as a
series
of three volumes, each of which
intended to stand alone, but
is
of which are mutually complementary. The subject matter
is
all
organized by
volume as follows:
1.
Nuclear models (collective and single-particle phenomena), dealing with
the phenomenological approaches to the depiction of collective rotational
and vibrational features of
nuclei, as well as the empirically
based aspects
of the spherical and deformed shell models.

2.
Excitation mechanisms of the nucleus {electromagnetic and -weak in-
which
major techniques used in studying the nucleus

which do not introduce the complications of a strongly interacting probe.
3. Microscopic theory of the nucleus, a volume concerned with how one
teractions),
describes
treats those
nuclear properties beginning with the fundamental nucleon-
nucleon interaction:
it
includes discussions of two-
and three-nucleon
sys-
tems, nuclear matter, Hartree-Fock approaches, the particle-hole formalism, pairing,
out the student's information and preparing him for reading in
has been our
of the results which
very
of interest for his course, leaving to the textbook the task
of
relatively easy to explore the use of these essential techniques
it
is
of theoretical
we include are derived here equation by equation. We have felt that a physicist who has these main lines of theoretical thinking well under control
will find
physics which
and the relationship of these to the more phenomenological
filling
hope that these books may also serve a

them
with background material in areas relating to their primary research interests.
In particular,
will feel
more
at
we would
home
anticipate that
many
with a book which
The present volume is the first in this series. It develops the concept of
collective coordinates and the construction of the collective nuclear Hamiltonian, and then discusses the collective potential energy surface. The quantum
mechanics of the rotator
ment of
is
presented as preparation for the detailed treat-
the rotation-vibration
model and the asymmetric rotator model.
The relationship between these models is also explored at some length. The
spherical and deformed shell models and the unified model are introduced,
so that the interaction of single-particle and collective degrees of freedom
may be treated. Then, returning to phenomenological collective descriptions,

we present the subject of nuclear hydrodynamics and pave the way for a
discussion of the dynamic collective model for deformed
clei.
Lastly, nuclear
models are applied to heavy ion
cription of nuclear properties.
is
as
it
should be: In
structors of nuclear physics have borne the burden of elaborating

theoretical material given in standard texts.
at this level for the instructor to focus
on the
on the
To
us
They
Taken
to-
also set the stage for microscopic theo-
denoted by a circumflex,
in a configuration-space representation are
It is
very humbling to realize
ent enterprise,
its
and we would
We
companion volumes.
M. Danos,
are
much
a
Among
many
us in this pres-
physicists for useful
of the material in
them are Drs. H.

Ritter,
e.g.
without special designa-
opportunity to express to them
indebted to
clarification
Tourneux, H. Marschall, R. C.
* Deceased.
is
how many people have helped
like to take this
B. Fink, B. Fricke, L. P. Fulcher,
it
essential
scattering.
of the nucleus (Volume

which must be explained by a more fundamental theory.
We note that in the present volume those quantities which are operators
ries
which case each volume would occupy approximately one semester. Of

course, this would require that some of the material in each volume be omitted
feel this
spherical nu-
3) in that they exhibit the essential features
discussions which have led to
We
and
gether these topics provide a broad basis for the phenomenological des-
our deep gratitude.
classroom discussion.
out osten-
mystifying.
serve as texts in an intermediate graduate-level course in nuclear theory, in
the past, in-
left
sibly to simplify the account, but their omission usually only succeeds in
tion (e.g. Q).
level
nuclear experimentalists
puts in the intermediate steps
than they will with one which leaves them out - the details are
which makes them usable for

anyone who has had a conventional one-year course in quantum mechanics
and who is slightly acquainted with nuclear phenomena. They may thus
These books have been written at a
somewhat skimpy
makes better sense
We
similar purpose for research workers in nuclear physics, providing
Q, while the corresponding classical quantity
approaches.
in
XII t
W.
book and
K, Albrecht,
this
L. Acker*,
J.
Le-
Scheid, E. Schopper, B.
M.
R. Guy, H. P. Kelly,
PREFACE
XIV
Spicer,
would
J. Weber, and W. D. Whitehead. One of us (W.G.)

thank Dr. N. Cabrera for the hospitality extended to him at the
H. Stock, H.
like to
We would also like to express special thanks to Dr.

and
through him to the Center for Advanced Studies of
W. D. Whitehead,
University of Virginia.
the University of Virginia, for solving
many difficult administrative problems,

The Deutsche Forschungsge-
thereby making our collaboration possible.
Preface to
the Second Edition
meinschaft, the Bundesministerium fur wissenschaftliche Forschung, and the
Hessisches Kultusministerium are also deserving of thanks in this regard.
We
would
like to
acknowledge the kind permission of the editors of The
Physical Review, Physical Review Letters and Reviews of
Modern
Physics
for permission to use illustrations which appeared in their journals.
Our task in preparing
the manuscript for press
was substantially lightened
by the unfailing cheerfulness and patience with which a number of people undertook to type this material. Chief
M.
S.
among
these were
Mmes.
E. L5hlein,
Knolle, N. Leider, A. McDaniel, N. Miller, B. Paup, P. Walker, and
Wigent. Mrs. B. Utschig helped with obtaining library materials, and,
together with Mrs. L.
Urbanek drew
the figures.
We
express here our very
sincere thanks for all of this assistance.
The
makes it exceedingly
field up to date. We
rapid pace of developments in nuclear physics
difficult
to keep any comprehensive account of the
therefore particularly
volume
for a
corrections,
waves
welcomed the opportunity
to revise the present
second edition since, in addition to making a number of minor
we were able
in relativist
ic
to incorporate a
new section on nuclear shock

new and promising area of
heavy-ion collisions - a
nuclear study.
Charlottesville, Virginia
Frankfurt
am Main
January, 1970
J.
M. Eisenberg
W.
Greiner
We
Stock,
wish once again to thank our
who have
many co-workers,
in particular Dr.
H.
aided us over the years in the preparation of this material,
and wlic have found errors
in the first edition
of this work which
we have
tried to correct here.
Charlottesville, Virginia
Frankfurt
June, 1975
am Main
M. Eisenberg
W. Greiner
J.
Introduction
In the last two decades our knowledge concerning the structure of nuclei
has been tremendously improved through the development of nuclear
models.
Simple mathematical assumptions and the underlying simple
physical pictures have been very successful in obtaining a systematic inter-
pretation of an
enormous amount of experimental
data. Very often, due to

was possible not only to reach a
description of the observed phenomena, but also to account for
continuing improvements of the models,

qualitative
it
them quantitatively. The development of physical pictures of atomic nuclei

has frequently been accompanied by a steady exchange of ideas with other
fields in physics, in particular
mentary
particle physics
with atomic, molecular, solid state and
ele-
- even hydrodynamics has played an important
role in nuclear physics. Typical examples of these similarities between
various fields are the shell models of atoms and of nuclei, which led to a
deep understanding of the single-particle structure; the rotations and
vibrations in nuclei, which have been formulated quite in analogy with the
molecular rotational and vibrational spectra; the recently developed ideas

nuclear molecules and the occurrence of quasi-molecular potentials
on
between
ions,
which are very similar to usual pictures of two interacting
atomic molecules.
The
ultimate goal of nuclear structure physics
for the properties of
complex
nucleons. (Naturally,
if
is,
of course, to account
nuclei in terms of the interaction between
two
conclusive evidence were found for the existence of
three-nucleon forces- or muIU-nucleon forces - this would constitute a novel

ingredient in nuclear physics which one would then wish to
and important
pursue further in structure theory.) Such a microscopic description of the

1
INTRODUCTION
nucleus in terms of the properties of
its
INTRODUCTION
constituents defines the direction
quest for a fundamental
energy collective rotations and vibrations of atomic nuclei. The need

for it
came about some time ago with the first attempts to explain the phenomenon
Current microscopic investigations in nuclear structure theory usually

make contact with the shell model of the nucleus. Very early work on this
fission. At that time Feenberg (Fee-39) and Bohr and

Wheeler
(Bo-39) studied the shape and stability of a deformed and charged liquid
drop. They studied the total energy as a function of deformation from the
in
which nuclear structure physics moves in
its
theory of nuclei.
of nuclear
Go-37) foreshadowed later developments. In

particular the work of Schmidt (Sch-37) on the prediction of magnetic
moments of nuclei in their ground states was a milestone for the shell model.
model
(Be-28,
Be-30,
spherical equilibrium shape. Feenberg
detail the theory of this process.
Following ideas originally introduced by

energy was considered as the sum of
the volume term, the surface energy produced by a uniform surface
tension,
A great breakthrough came with the work of Mayer who assembled experi-
Weizsacker (Wei-35) the
mental evidence indicating the existence of a shell structure (May-48,

Fee-49a,b, No-49). It led directly to the dynamical model with strong
and the Coulomb energy. During
spin-orbit force developed by Mayer, Jensen, Haxel, Suess, Feenberg
and
and parities of
ground states (Fee-49a, Ha-49, May-49, 50, 55)*. Nowadays nuclear shell
structure is the foundation upon which most current theoretical work in
nuclear physics is based. Nevertheless it should be clearly borne in mind that
Nordheim, which was very
successful in correlating spins
this description is still basically
phenomenological, and that deeper micro-
was concerned with the stability of

Bohr and Wheeler investigated in
nuclei against spontaneous fission while
latter decreases.
total nuclear
distortion the former increases while the
One could conclude from
this that the equilibrium and

low-energy shape of even-even nuclei should be spherical.
A very important step -now mostly forgotten -in the development of
the low-energy collective model was later taken by Flugge (Fl-41).
He
discussed surface vibrations and rotations of nuclei for the first time. Thus
he recognized the role of the surface tension in determining dynamic
as
scopic justifications for
it
are
still
being sought.
In spite of the great successes of the shell model in the prediction of ground
state spins and parities, magic numbers, alpha and beta decay systematics
many
For example,
experimentally observed nuclear quadrupole moments are in most cases
much larger than the shell model predictions, especially in the regions
and so
forth, this
between closed
model
shells
still
has exhibited
limitations.
(Gr>49, To-49); the transition probabilities of low-
lying states exceed the single-particle estimates, very often
two orders of magnitude; and

structures occur which are not
Finally,
typical rotational
and
by
as
much
vibrational
as
band
easily accounted for in the shell model.

a further impetus for the use of models other than the shell model in
accounting for nuclear properties came with the discovery (Ba-47, 48) in
1947 of the photonuclear giant resonance. This appeared as a strong broad
peak
in the photofission cross sections,
feature
common to all nuclei.
It
and was soon recognized as a
was early understood
to
embody a collective
vibration of protons against neutrons in response to the oscillatory electric

field
of the incident photon, and so to
call for
a collective description.
These observations led to the development of various collective models,
and
in fact
two
basically different
models emerged. The
first
of these deals
with collective surface (deformation) degrees of freedom and thus with low*
well as static properties of nuclei through surface vibrations.
that nuclear rotations
been given by Jensen in
his
Nobel ftize address
(Je-64).
also realized
rotational spectra.
yet recognize that surface vibrations
However, he did not

and rotations could be related to each
other.
The
large
quadrupole moments mentioned above led Rainwater (Rai-50)
in 1950 to the assertion that a single

core.
He
if its
potential
odd particle could polarize the nuclear

showed that the single particle could have a lower energy
well was deformed. This suggestion thus indicated for the
in fact
time that a nuclear system of a single particle (or perhaps a group of

particles) coupled to a core may achieve a relative minimum
energy con-
first
figuration if the core
deformed from the spherical shape.*

of Bohr and later Bohr and Mottelson (Bo-52,
Bo-53) was to recognize that the static shape and orientation of a deformed
nucleus and the collective deformation variables of a spherical nucleus
were
The
is
essential contribution
related to each other.
As
noticed by Flugge, these variables could play the

It was then an important step from the
classical
role of dynamical variables.
picture of Flugge to the quantized picture of Bohr.
dual particle
variables.
is
The motion of the
indivi-
then strongly influenced by these quantized collective
The dynamics of nuclei in many ways prove to be quite analogous

The independent particles play the role of the
to those of molecules.
A fascinating report on the development of the physical concepts underlying nuclear
shell theory has
may produce
He
The notion of a deformed core was also suggested
ten years earlier by Schmidt (Sch-40).
INTRODUCTION
4
electrons,
and the deformed shape and
INTRODUCTION
the orientation of the nucleus as a
whole play the role of the molecular (intrinsic) frame. Of course, unlike the
molecular case, the intrinsic frame for nuclei is itself produced by the
nucleons.
should be stressed that the introduction of collective degrees of freedom

by no means to be considered as standing in opposition to the independent
J.
H. D. Jensen and
P. Jensen
Em
particle
model
(Bo-53). In fact, the very existence of the effective field for
the independent particle
model
is
collective in nature (see In-62). This is
works of Nilsson (Ni-55), Gottfried (Go-56),

and Moszkowski (Mo-55), who extended the spherical shell model to
deformed nuclei.
The work of Bohr and Mottelson dealt with both collective and singlemost
clearly revealed in the
particle
phenomena, and
established the important conceptual bases for
The theoretical implications of their conceptual framework

were worked out and considerably expanded both by them and by others.
Davydov and his school (Da-58) started with Bohr's collective Hamiltonian,
work
in this area.
and subsequently
investigated triaxial statically
deformed nuclei with great
Da-51). They solved the
(St- 50,
and
related the resonance energy
to the phase velocity of second-sound in nuclear matter, u, by
Em =
It
is
and by Danos
two-fluid problem for a spherical nucleus
2.08
uhR~
l
.
They thus also predicted that the giant resonance energies were proportional
to A~*. This model has been extended by Danos (Da-58) and Okamoto
(Ok-58) to statically deformed axially symmetric nuclei. They predicted a
of the giant resonance proportional to the deformation of the
splitting
nucleus, due to the different periodicities of the sound waves along the major
and minor nuclear
axes. This has
been observed experimentally by Fuller
and Weiss (Fu-58) and by Spicer, Thiess, Baglin and Allum (Sp-59).
The high-energy
collective
coexisted up to 1964,
models and the low-energy
when they were
models
collective
unified for investigating the sub-
structure of giant resonances (Da-64, Se-65, Li-66.). In deformed and spherical
sound waves are tuned by the surface vibrations.

Thus, a number of sattelitcs occur on top of the giant resonance which carry
nuclei the giant resonance
and deviations from the energy

spectra of simple rotators were explained in this way. Soon afterwards
systematic solutions of the dynamical model with /J- and y-vibrations were
appreciable dipole strength so that considerable substructure (collective
symmetric core (Fae-62, 64, 65; see also Bi-59).

obtained for an
The great importance of the rotation-vibration interaction in atomic
nuclei was stressed and the equivalence with the asymmetric rotator
splitting
model, especially for the ground state and gamma bands, was established.
The role of collective models in understanding the photonuclear giant
This work constitutes an alternative microscopic approach to the collective
success.
Many E2
transition probabilities
axially
resonance began
shortly after its discovery,
and involved a second and
different class of collective models. Several theoretical
quite
approaches were
suggested by Goldhaber and Teller (Go-48) to explain this phenomenon.

They involved collective dipole effects to account for some of the properties
of the photonuclear cross section as a function of energy. In one of these

models rigid proton and neutron spheres were introduced, each of which
executes harmonic oscillations about
its
equilibrium position.
frequencies in this case proved to be proportional to

is
the nuclear radius and
the nucleon number.
is
R~*
oc
The resonance
A~* where R
t
Another model they
suggested was the two-fluid model in which compressible proton and neutron
fluids oscillate against each other. The restoring forces were assumed to be
proportional to the density gradients and the resonance frequencies turned

1
A~*. This model has been extensively

investigated and given a complete mathematical description by Steinwedel,
out to be proportional to
R'
oc
intermediate structure) occurs. This substructure has subsequently been
observed
The
in
many
nuclei.
Of some
of the giant resonances
surprise in this connection
structure of the giant resonances in light nuclei
and
in
has been studied extensively in the framework of an extended
model of giant resonances outlined above. In

giant resonances
is
was
the
(LeT-65, We-65, We-66).
in spherical nuclei
magic nuclei
shell
fact, the description
model.
of the
particularly easily accomplished in both the collective
and the microscopic approaches. This makes that phenomenon especially

suitable as a testing ground for understanding the origins of collective motion
from a microscopic viewpoint obviously a very fundamental question for
nuclear structure theory.
The various nuclear models
described so far have
a wide range of applicability in accounting for features of low-energy nuclear
muonic atoms, electron scattering, photon

and Coulomb excitation. An exciting recent development and
application for these model approaches is in the area of heavy ion physics.
Heavy ion processes allow for the possibility of creating short-lived nuclear
reactions, polarization effects in
scattering
molecules*.
In
fact,
quasi-molecular nucleus-nucleus potentials can be
derived and understood
Such
effects
(Br-60, Si-67).
on very
seem to be indicated
plausible grounds,
in the experiments
and seem
to give access
of Bromley and his collaborators
INTRODUCTION
to such important quantities as the nuclear compressibility (Sch-68).
Even
would be the discovery - which may lie ahead of us in the

more
future of superheavy elements (Z as 114 or 164).
We shall set forth in this volume a systematic theory of the empirical
exciting
nuclear models.
We
shall try to
CHAPTER
emphasize the physical picture behind the
various developments and simultaneously to give a complete mathematical

description so that one can really carry out extensive calculations of nuclear
properties, a requirement
for quantitative checks.
many experimental
facts
Varieties of Collective
which any theory should meet in order to allow
Motion
We
hope ultimately to demonstrate that a great

can be correlated within these models so that a
vivid picture of the nucleus
emerges from them.
Many
features of nuclei indicate that nuclear
motion does not consist only
in simple single-particle excitations as might be suggested
by
the shell model.
Instead there are several typical effects which imply a collective motion,
that
is
a motion where
many
nucleons
move
coherently with well-defined
phases. In order to understand this kind of coherent motion of nucleons

let
us start by giving illustrations of
some
typical examples.
There are four
important types of collective motion:

I). The surface vibrations of the nuclear shape are a motion of nucleons
from one region of the nuclear sphere into another one. The arrows in
fig.
1(a)
in fig.
show
(b)
RQ
and decreases
(a).
collective
ordered motion. They are also indicated
where the nuclear radius periodically
librium value
Fig.
this
oscillates
about an equi-
In this case the density in the nuclear sphere also increases
periodically (compression modes).
Schematic figure of surface vibrations. The arrows indicate a possible flux
(stream lines) of nucleons.
hand
The
figure
left-hand figure
shows the spherical nucleus. The
shows the distortion of the sphere.

7
right-
VARIETIES OF COLLECTIVE MOTION
[CH.
CH.
1]
2).
The
rotations of
deformed nuclei are another example of coherent,
in-phase motion of nuclear matter (see
fig. 2),
sort of
wave of
tidal
nucleons moves around a nuclear core.

3).
The process of
as a collective
nuclear fission
is
immediately understood from
fig. 3
motion of the nucleons. The nucleons move apart from each
other in order to separate into two pieces.
from one sphere to two spherical
The
various stages of this process
nuclei are indicated in the figure.
The
arrows represent the flow of nuclear matter.

Fig.
(b).
Compression mode.
In contrast to the
motion shown
in fig.
(a), the radial
The
oscillations of the surface lead to density vibrations.
three processes discussed so far take place
more
or less in the surface
region of the nucleus. Even in the case of rotations the interior spherical
core (the shadowed area in
fig.
2)
may be
during the rotations, and only the
bumps of
may be
is
will
considered to move. This
viewed as being mainly at
because the potential
field
of the core
not change during the rotation and therefore the nucleons of the core
do not experience any
resistance or contribute to the energy of the motion,
in contrast to the situation for the tidal
connected with
4).
wave (compare
also the remarks
16).
fig.
collective behavior involving the nuclear interior is established in
the photonuclear giant resonance motion where the electric field

MptrttuU
Fig. 2.
around
Schematic figure of the rotation of a deformed nucleus. The

the nuclear core.
The
latter
may
photon
lajtr
tidal
wave
is
rest
nuclear matter outside the core
acts
of
the
on protons only and, because the center of mass has to be
at
moving
also rotate but with a smaller angulat velocity.
This can be achieved through the existence of a superfluid layer between.
x^sy
Fig. 4. Schematic figure
of giant dtpole motion in nuclei. The
pushes the protons upwards. The neutrons then

center of
rest,
the neutrons have to
The nuclear surface
neutrons
move
may
fission.
The
of the nucleus Into two
various possible stages of the separation
pieces are indicated.
in
indications for them.
nuclei.
Of course,
keep the
an opposite direction to that of the
fixed during this process while protons
suffice to give
collective behavior in
of nuclear
is
of they-ray, ,
in order to
fixed.
coherently but in opposite directions
These examples
Fig. 3. Schematic figure
move
protons.
mass
electric field
move downwards
if
(fig. 4).
an impression of
We now
and
the various types of
have to study the experimental
a certain set of experimental data can be
explained on the basis of a collective theory constructed from physical
CH.
10
[CH.
1,
pictures such as those given above, this already provides a confirmation of
the collective nature of the observed excitations.
However
there are
QUADRUPOLE MOMENTS OF NUCLEI
1]
11
some
general effects typical of collective spectra which enable us to see very
If
an odd-proton nucleus
represented by a single proton which
is
by
the nuclear field produced
all particles,
moves in
wave function has
the nuclear
the form
M*>
quickly the degree of the collective nature of the excitations in question.
" n (0
i J \M o )
**,
X*
(4)
In fact, a nucleus never has only collective levels (modes) or only single-
collective
We
(modes) but always both.
particle levels
and pure
modes
single-particle
are
types of motion are mixed and therefore
it
will see later
an
on
that pure
idealization. In reality both
may sometimes
be very
difficult
to identify the true nature of a nuclear state.
The effects which give us some

immediate indication of nuclear collective motion are:
1). The large quadrupole moments observed in nuclei far away from the
Here w(r) is the radial wave function of the proton and (l$j\ticrm) is a
Clebsch-Gordan coefficient which couples the angular momentum function
and the spin function Xt*

extreme single-particle model
tlt
main
it
momentum
is
\jm}. In this
assumed that pairs of
zero and are incorporated in the
features of the nucleus as long as the excitation energies are not
the
2).
too high. These points
3).
Certain distinguishing features in low-energy excitations (rotational
and
and vibrational
(2) the single-particle value
or in high-energy excitations (giant res-
Chapter 8)
momentum
nucleons couple to angular
Large transition probabilities between "collective"
spectra),
(see
core of the nucleus. The last odd (unpaired) particle alone determines
magic numbers.
levels.
t0 the total angular
9.
will
be discussed
With the expression
in
much more
detail in
Chapters 8
(4) one obtains for the quadrupole
moment
onances).
We now
1.1.
(r,r '" Wda'-- 2

W)/"'
discuss these various points in detail.
The
The quadrupole moments of nuclei
last factor
is
the
mean square
radius of the nucleon. Eq. (4) has been
an odd proton. For an odd-neutron nucleus,

a quadrupole moment due to the recoil motion of
derived for
The
electric
multipole operators Qj_ are defined as
exist
z
Gii
Zt r*
Yifl(Qk),
(1)
to a charge
provided by the
from the center of mass

where the sum goes over
factor
\jj},
the rest of the
(see
rest
fig. 5).
of the nucleus at a distance rJ(A
The
effective
l)
quadrupole moment is then
protons in the nucleus. The electric quadrupole
all
of a nucleus in the state
ty
)U
is
then defined, up to a conventional
(V*)*, as the expectation value of
\jM} =
there can also
nucleus: a neutron located at r with respect to the center of mass leads
i---i
moment
(5)
Q i0
in
the nuclear state
i.e.
Q=
(W* <*u Qn
i
*/,>
The quadrupole moment measures

spherical symmetry.
More
= (*)*
JK Qto ^,dx.
(2)
from
one expands ^jjifj^r) into spherical
the deviation of the nuclear density
precisely, if
harmonics
JfiM*) =
Mr)+Mr) Y
">
+ Mr)
Y20
+ A 3 (r) Y3Q +
(3)
then the quadrupole
moment measures the fraction of the nuclear density

which is proportional to Yzo The dipole and the octupole moments measure
the fraction of nuclear density proportional to Y
lQ and Y30 respectively.
.
Fig. 5.
Odd-neutron nucleus. The positions of the odd neutron, r,, and of the core,
rJ(A 1), with respect to the center of mass (C.Q.M) aic indicated.
12
Q* a =
<r >
|J?
where
R is
g ip
I,
ch.
l]
l,
one,
(A- if"*
the nuclear radius,
R=
distribution
we have
A*. Consequently one
(for odd proton nuclei) which increase like A*

obtains values for
-26
cm 2 to 5xl0" 25 cm 2 For single-neutron
and are of the order 10
nuclei the quantity given in eq. (5) would behave roughly like A~* and
2
26 cm2
28
would have values between 10" cm and 1(T
.
may contribute
to the quadrupole
give only a small correction to the large
moment of
one might
more
the objection that a
raise
model may perhaps come closer

observation.
The
momentum of a
13
number of protons, and not only a single

moments. The odd neutron will then
discrepancies indicate that a large

(6)
we consider a homogeneous nuclear charge
If
[CH.
in
the protons. However,
sophisticated single-particle
predictions to the experimental
its
model the angular
that in the individual particle
fact
nucleus
among
shared
is
all particles
outside closed shells
once points to an explanation of the fact that odd-neutron nuclei have

electric quadrupole moments. Let us therefore consider the more general
at
case of n equivalent protons, each in the single-particle state with total

i
pfeffftf
against
momentum j. For
angular
the calculation of
Q we
symmetrized wave function corresponding to a

with (n
nucleons coupled to zero angular
1 )
scheme). In section 8.5
we obtain
use the correctly anti-
angular
total
momentum
momentum j
(seniority coupling
the following result for
-*('-?)
with
For
a
1^
all
shell
2/.
In particular for a hole (n
values of n other than
more than
half
filled.
or
This
is
2/,
2/)
is less
(7)
we
than
see that
g sp
It is
Q = -Q
Sft
negative for
only in fair agreement with observation
6} since there is an apparent preponderance of positive quadrupole

moments. Again, the order of magnitude of the large moments in fig. 6
(fig.
can not be explained. All these
model
is
much
effects
show
that the simple single-particle
too naive and that quite a large number of particles
may
be
modes of motion of an aspherical character.

One can estimate the number of particles contributing to the large
quadrupole moments by considering the model of a uniformly charged
involved in cooperative
ZorN
Experimental values of electric quadiupolc moments are plotted as a function of
numbei Zero quadrupole moment indicates a spherical shape for
The
the corresponding nucleus. Large quadrupole moments indicate nuclear asymmetry.
positions cf the magic numbers are shown. The data are from Nu-66.
Fig.
6.
the proton or neutron
We
have to compare these
quadrupole moments shown
in
results
fig.
6.
with the experimentally obtained

Several discrepancies are
diately apparent. First, the signs of the single-particle quadrupole
imme-
negative quadrupole moments. Second, the predicted values are much

too small. Third, when Q is fairly large there is no difference in the order of
nuclei.
These
its
surface in spherical coordinates through
R = R a (t +
where
is
f}
Yin ),
(8)
the "equivalent" radius of a sphere with the
lowest order in
j?
Go
same volume
to
We obtain
moments
of eqs. (5) and (6) are all negative while the experimental ones are predominantly positive and only a few nuclei just above magic numbers have
magnitude of the moments of odd-proton and odd-neutron
spheroid. Let us approximate the shape of the spheroid by specifying
= (*)*
3Z
4itR
MJ
"
"**
dQ
(9)
4jiR
w3(5Tt)-*J?
J
2
Z&
14
From
the experimental values of
order
j8
therefore appear that in
many
6)
(fig.
0.2 to 0.3. These values of
fig.
one obtains values

are quite large, and
j3
The volume
7) of the quadrupole ellipsoid
and consequently the
fi
it
1,
of the
CH.
I,
S 1J
therefore given by
is
would
(10)
is
in excess of the
6V =
(5tc)* /?
#o
and the rules for quantization of angular momenta apply. The possible values
of
Fare then
number of nucleons in this volume is dA =

is the volume and A the number of
We realize that dA/A as O
(AfV)dV = ^(SfnÂô where V

nucleons of the nucleus.
15
a large number of nucleons cooperate
nuclei
to produce spheroidal density distributions:
inner sphere (see
[CH.
F=
(/+/),
(7+J-l ),-,(/-/)
if
//,
F=
(I+J),
(I+J- 1)." .(/-/)
if
//.
(11)
first case we have (2/+1) values, in the second case

(2/+1) values.
Because of the coupling of the nucleus and the electrons due to the magnetic
In the
dipole-dipoie interaction the energies of the states (11) are not the same.
Since the nuclear magnetic moment is so very much smaller than the
electronic one the coupling is weak, and this in turn leads only to
small
differences between the energy levels of these states.
angular
levels
Fig. 7.
The shadowed portion
characterizes the excess
volume due
to collective motion.
striking feature of the
graph of
Z values of the
zeros for certain N,
in fig.
is
the occurrence of
nucleon numbers. The quantity
faUs
from high positive values through zero to small negative values. The latter
are not inconsistent with the single-particle moments. From the negative
values,
rises
again rather abruptly to large positive values.
The
splits into either
depending on whether /
structure of the level. It is to
which
electron level of
g /or / g
J.
This
is
known
as the hyperfine
be distinguished from the
is
proportional to the scalar product (rotational invariant) of the angular
momenta / and
J,
#-Ai-l.
zeros
N or Z = 8, 14, 20, 28, 40, 50, 82, 126. The nuclei with
for Z or N are therefore spherical and if one or two nucleons
The
(2/+1) or (2/+1) closely spaced
fine structure of a
due to the coupling of the orbital and spin angular momenta
of an electron. Each fine-structure level can have hyperfine structure.
As mentioned, the energy of interaction due to the magnetic coupling is
level,
Another
momentum J
(12)
occur for values of

these values
are added, the spherical core
is
apparently not greatly distorted. The
model
seem to hold for the

few nuclei in the neighborhood of these "magic" nuclei. For example, the
opposite signs of the quadrupole moments of holes and particles are clearly
predictions of the individual particle
in eq. (7)
reproduced by the experiments. But as the number of extra nucleons

increased
it
The expectation value of this energy in an atomic

J) indicates that / and / are coupled to F, is
few words are in order concerning the various methods for determining
<F(/,
J)\At-3\ F(/, /)>
moments experimentally (Ko-56, EI- 59a, El-61). This

by observing deviations from the interval rule in
outer electrons. The interval rule is based on the fact that
I
is
J where
1 is the nuclear spin
and J
is
is
proportional to
the electron spin. This interaction
due to magnetic coupling. The total angular
Substituting the various values (11) for
/)> where
(13)
momentum F of an atom
F into
eq. (13),
we
A{I-J).
These energy differences are thus proportional to the values
known
see that the
of a multiplet are
A(l+J), A(l+J-1), A(I+J-2),
for instance
the interaction energy between electrons and nuclei
F(/,
m iA<FQ, J ) 2 -/ 2 -,H F(/, /)>

= HF(F+l)-/(/+l)-/(/+l)).
differences between successive states
nuclear quadrupole
energy levels of the
is
seems that the nucleus takes on a spheroidal shape.
may be done
state
F(/,
(1 1)
(14)
of F. This
Note that if / < / it is immediately possible

to determine the nuclear spin / by merely
counting the levels into which a
given /-level is split. If / > /, then / can be found
by counting the hyperfine
is
as the interval rule.
16
[CH.
1,
can be found from the relative separations of the

levels, by the use of the interval rule. Hence / can again be determined. If,
however, in addition to the magnetic coupling there is also an electric
coupling due to the nuclear quadrupole moment (the quadrupole interaction
structure levels
energy
is
and
proportional to Qfr
) this will
lead to deviations
from the
due, for example, to the quadrupole part of the

excitation in question
the 2
fig-
interval
from which the quadrupole moment can be determined. If a

takes place between two levels each of which has hyperfine structure, then
the corresponding splitting of the spectral lines will be much more com-
two levels. In this case it is necessary

one of which has much more widely spaced
to select two
hyperfine structure than the other. In that case the splitting of the spectral
line will
be due essentially only to the
of that
splitting
very accurate measurement of the quadrupole
level.
may
Coulomb
ground
state to
this reaction
are (see
take place, say, from the
excited state. Possible
mechanisms for
The
interaction.
8):
E2
b).
E2
quadrupole) transitions,
(electric
transitions to a higher state, then dcexcitation to the first 2
reorientation of the nucleus in the 2
c).
moment
plicated than the splitting of either of the
electron levels,
first
a), direct
transition
rule
17
ch. 1,1]
The
in the excited slate,
is
state,
state (relating to the quadrupole
MacD-64,
Ei-64,
see Br- 56,
reorientation of the nuclear axis
caused by the electric
field
Ei-68).
of the
bombarding particle which has excited the nucleus. The change in nuclear
spin direction affects the angular distribution of the emitted X-rays or the
scattered particle.
moment became
avail-
particles with small
For low-energy bombarding
mass and charge only
the
direct transitions are appreciable. But for heavy charged particles the second-
captured by a nucleus into an atomic orbit through the ejection of

an electron, the muon will have an energy spectrum similar to that of a oneelectron atom. Because of its larger mass (/n = 270
t ) its Bohr orbits
order effects begin to contribute. Using second-order perturbation theory the
able through the exploitation of
muon
muonic atoms (Ack-65a,
b, Se-67).
If
is
form
transition probability has the
muon
are partly inside the nucleus and therefore the
measuring nuclear properties.
which
is
it
in
a high-lying orbit
cascades
additional to the fine structure, one can obtain even the signs of the
so-called intrinsic quadrupole
captured
is
a good probe for
down to the Is state. The emitted X-rays can be very

measured. From the splitting of the 2p i -* 2p f u-meson-level
from which
precisely
The muon
is
moments of even
nuclei
moments
as well as the quadrupole
states is available in
Gr-68a).
Coulomb excitation
A low-energy heavy ion
moments
fl
(15)
where the second term with the factor a describes the reorientation effect,
which the nucleus is first excited into the state |2Af > and then "reorien-
in
ted" into the state |2M>. If the transition operator
of the quadrupole operator
*.
very modern method for the determination of the "transition" quad-
rupole
2
P * <2A/ie|0> + <2Mie|2A/'><2Af'|G|0>|
in eq. (1),
the
is
Q 2a
component
then this becomes
P x \aM\Q 2O \0y\2 +2ai2M\Q 2o \0'><2M\Q 10 \2My<2M\Q 2O }0y+ -
in excited nuclear
= [<2M|G 20 |0>| 2 (!+2a<2M|Gio!2.*0)+
(Br-57a, deB-64, 65, Ei-64, Dou-67,
approaching a nucleus excites the nucleus
from second-order
i.e.
quadrupole moment
effects
may
'
'
both the sign and the magnitude of the
be determined.
The experiment is carried out by comparing the probabilities of Coulomb excitation by bombardment with 4 He and 16 0, for example. The ener4
He has a
gies are chosen so that both ions follow the same path. Since
small charge,
it
causes only direct transitions, while
der effects as well.
The
direct tiansition
is
Coulomb
excitation of the
indicated by a double arrow.
first
2* excited
The reorientation
indicated.
For more
details see
Chapter 9 of Volume 2
in this series.
state of a nucleus.
effect (Ip*') is also
were the
causes second-or-
first
to determine in
+
4
'
Cd.
state of
*.
al.
Povh
et
Recently
barn
This quantity was found (Be-71 ) to be 0.28 0.09
the
first
(Ba-68, Sch-69b) determined accurately the quadrupole moment of
this
Fig. 8. Processes occuring in
Dc Boer
et al. (deB-65)
16
way
the static quadrupole
+
state in
*
barn
24
Mg
as
10" "cm*
moment
-0.26 bam.
of the
first
excited 2
'
,6
[CH.
1,
1.2. Electromagnetic transitions

1.2.1.
CH.
1,
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSITIONS
2]
of the final state
initial state
Preliminaries on radiative transitions
and averages over the magnetic quantum number of the
The
so-called reduced transition probability
is
then defined
as
The
model
single particle
fails to
explain the magnitude of
many
nuclear
electromagnetic transitions for reasons similar to those which account for

its inability
to predict static quadrupole
moments.
plausible that for any transition in which
B(a, A;
A-
/,-/,) =
many nucleons
|<J r
|0g /.M^f
2/i-r-l Mi.Mt.lt
very suggestive and
It is
contribute in a
coherent way (many nucleons "jumping" simultaneously) the transition

probability will be much larger than for those transitions where only one
P,A/r|M
-=At7
2/, + l M,. Mt.lt
nucleon changes
= ^l<f|I^Hi>f.
Z/, + 1
configuration (single-particle transitions). These ideas
its
have to be formulated quantitatively, and

y-ray matrix elements must be
predictions.
The
results
in particular the
compared with
experimental
the simple single-particle
of such a comparison will be surveyed here. In
to recapitulate radiation theory here. Instead
we
shall give directly the
,*Mt ) 2
|<Jr j|4l l|J i>P
(19)
Here we made use of the Wigner-Eckart theorem by writing
this
way it is again possible to exhibit the collective properties of nuclei.

The mathematical details of the theory of radiative transitions are described extensively in Volume 2 of this series. It is therefore not necessary
</,
where
fl J
I
M,> =
(J A
t
Jr M,
I
f)
<J r
||
fii
(20)
/,>,
||
reduced matrix element, and use has also been made
</f)|Ail|/i) t& tne
of the normalization of Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. The transition proba-
becomes
bility in eq. (16)
formulas for electromagnetic transition probabilities and begin our discus-
The
sion at this point.
energy
(o
hca,
angular
= m) character,
state
transition probability for emission of
momentum
A,
and of
electric
with a nucleus going from an
(a
e)
a photon of
or magnetic
initial state |i> to
final
|f > is
The reduced matrix element in eq. (20) contains the nuclear physics. All
other factors in eqs. (19) and (21) are just statistical and geometrical ones.
These general formulas can
to express the
Here
8 X stands for
the electric
{Q Xlt ) or magnetic (iv/^) multipole operators
4U0 = &, = I for/ V(Oj) + ifcjK(</0(*+ l)"**j x n

0j, M(m)
A*,,
-i(t
(g
tJ
ij+2(A+ 1)"
'
9lJ lj)
? (r* Yk
*)
YXll *)j],
iy
The nuclear wave functions
Usually one
is
the electric multipole operators in eq. (17)
(18)
proportional to (r l YXlt *), For general
The
electric
Volume 2 of this
/*
is
the nuclear magneton.
not interested in the orientation of either the
final nuclear state.
momentum, and
initial or the
Therefore one sums over the magnetic quantum number
and magnetic multipole opeiators aie denoted by

seises.
Foi the sake of brevity they are called
Xjt
(e)
ifl
We
use eq. (19) here for
angular
and
and jt?^
^(m)
here.
*>
momentum
allows,
Clebsch-Gordan
possibilities
may
we
initial
and from
(4)
take only the dominant term
and
final spins/)
and Jt several
usually contribute to the transition. Conservation of
= A/ =(/,+/,),,
in the
by the expression
shall be given
(17)
orbital angular
has
obtaining typical estimates for electric single-particle transition probabilities.

V(r*
where the sura goes over all nucleons. The Pauli and the spin matrices are
denoted by ct and 3, respectively, gt and g are the gyromagnetic factors for
and
One
coordinates (for example, collective coordinates - see Chapter 2) and one
electric multipoles
spin
applied to any nuclear model.
transition operators in the appropriate
then computes the reduced matrix elements.
which are given by
now be
wave functions and
for example,
(/,/,).
These
the following multipoles
all
selection
rules
are
contained
Some of these
arguments. For EA transi-
coefficient occurring in eq. (20).
not occur because of parity
change is ( 1)\ according to eq.

determined by the orbital angular momentum /,
tions, the parity
(17), and, since the parity
is
it
be even
if
is
even. However, in general there
tributing multipoles.
follows that
may
still
/(
/,
must
be several con-
VARIETOS OF COLLECTIVE MOTION
We consider
here only the significant mullipofes for a given
= AJ =
our discussion to /
Jt =
Ich.
Such a
A/.
example given
as in the
transition
is
A J and
limit
the only one possible
where a transition from a
in fig. 9,
1,
if
state
CH.
1,
The
2]
statistical factor
S and
eq. (22)
which
units for
measuring lifetimes we
J= JU-1T
refer to
set
The
subscript
(Wei-51).
0*
Fig. 9.
The decay of a level with angular momentum
and
paiity
( 1)* to a
state occurs
A and parity
multipole with X
l)
to a /"
J will contribute
state is
shown. In
to the transition.
Such
this case only
situations occur
frequently in nuclear physics especially for ground state transitions in even

nuclei, since these nuclei
have spin zero in the ground
forward to compute expression (21) for these cases
state. It is straight-
explicitly,
and one
obtains for the single-particle transition probabilities
charge zero. However,
if
one takes
recoil effects into
Naively one would
standards for comparison of
model for the nuclear

nuclear radius and
It is
it
account both particles
all
experimental transitions regardless of any
states involved.
universal value
has been taken arbitrarily as
is
as 1.2
often useful to quote the numerical results in the
If the y-ray energy is
(23)
required for the
A* fm.
form of the width
a combination of Clebsch-Gordan
(27)
is
F yW (EA) is defined in analogy to eq. (27)

proportional to A
E yu+l In order to have a
magnitude of f ?w
are electron volts. In
table
is
gives
MeV,
some numerical
the values for
if
made
(2J l
(24)
+ l)(2/ > )!!A!(J < -i)!
Table
Weisskopf estimates
J > and J <

It is
are the larger and smaller values of
J and Jf
t
We therefore replace
Jl
TyW (eV)
6.8
2
3
4.9x10"*
2.3x10-'*
6.8
the integrals in eq. (23)
by rough approximations. Taking the radial functions u(r) constant and

normalized to unity over the nucleus, we get
*-&)
photon emission widths
respectively.
our aim to obtain order-of-magnitude expressions for the single-
particle values given in eq. (22).
for single-particle
(25)
XlO" 1
XlO" 11
1.6X10""
for
com-
the nuclear states ar;
above the particle-threshold, for particle emission.
T yW
comparing with experiments one has to use
the partial y-ray width. Therefore corrections have to be
peting processes such as internal conversion or,
coefficients which, in these cases, reduces to
'
for
then
hT.
values for various multipole transitions. If

in table
Kti
have
single neutrons
and the nature of the single-particle wave function. We do not

from proton transitions, since we wish to use these
feeling for the order of
is
e.
y-decay, denned as
where
(26)
distinguish neutron
by use of eq. (26) and
matrix element, and
sec
introduced these units
first
and that
true for single protons
is
c )
for the charge the unit charge
is the radial
hc\
who
{a>R\
e*_
U + 3/
f =
;.[(2A+1)!!]
acquire an effective charge which depends on both the multipolarity of the

transition
J =
stands for Weisskopf
We have used
expect that this
only through LU radiation.
with
the only parts in
and obtain
a[(2a+1)!!]
E{
now
are
order to define convenient
specific nucleus. In
2(A+1)
TW (EA) =
the nuclear radius
[ch.
1.52
Discussion of empirical data
1.2.2.
1,2.2a. Electric
We
shall
discuss
the empirical data
separately for electric dipole and electric quadrupole transitions because
how
both,
It is
collective properties
especially interesting to see, in
comparing
of nuclei show up in E2 transitions.
examination of the various transitions
statistical
is
particularly convenient,
immediately shows the gross properties of electric transitions in

nuclei. In fig. 10 is plotted the frequency of occurrence of various El transisince
it
tion rates,
measured in Weisskopf
light nuclei only
particle
model
is
I,
2]
23
model used for the estimate and, of

more detailed investigations will improve the
agreement. This has been shown to be true by Kurath (K.u-56, 57, 58).
Fig. 11 shows the statistics of El transitions in heavy nuclei. They are
relatively small in view of the crude
dipole transitions.
they behave quite differently.
CH.
units.
The histogram
in this figure
is
for
and we would thus expect in this case that the single

applicable and therefore the Weisskopf single-particle El
course, one expects that
considerably weaker than in light nuclei which might indicate that

negative parity states are of a
We
much more complex
many
structure than the single
particle
model assumes.
Volume
3 of this series. However, there also exist states in nuclei which have
shall discuss these effects in
more
detail in
very enhanced El transition probabilities. These are giant dipole resonances
which occur
in all nuclei in the
energy region between 10-25
we
are typically of a collective nature and
will discuss
10 and 11 in the context of photonuclear physics.
them
The
MeV. They
fully in
basic
Chapters
mechanism
Et Transitions
B)"*
mn
K*
"*
"*
"*
KJ-*
tQ*
JD*
Pig. 11. Statistics of
El -transit ions
in
heavy nuclei (Wi-60).
underlying this kind of nuclear motion has already been described pictorially
Fig. 10.
The frequency of occurrence of various El

kopf units) for
transition rates (measured in Weiss-
light nuclei (Sk-66).
The giant dipole resonances form a dipole

motion where all protons move in one direction and all neutrons in the opposite
in the beginning of this chapter.
of motion produces the largest dipole moments possible

and therefore very large y-transition probabilities occur in the
direction. This kind
transition estimate should give the correct order of magnitude.

all
these transitions are slower than the
ratio is 0.055. If
which are
the
above
we take
|e and
ratio
is
as
on
Weisskopf estimate; the median
in the nucleus
excitation
and decay of the giant resonances.
into account the effective charges for the nucleons,
Je for protons and neutrons respectively
changed by a factor 4 to
matrix elements are
However,
0.2.
(In-53),
This means that the nuclear
the average smaller by a factor of roughly 0.5 than
those used in the Weisskopf estimate, since the matrix elements enter as
squares into the transition probabilities of eq. (16). Such a discrepancy is
1.2.2b. Electric
transitions are
tively.
quadrupole transitions.
shown
in figs, 12
The
statistics
and 13 for
light
for electric quadrupole
and heavy
nuclei respec-
In contrast to the dipole transitions the E2 transitions are in most cases
strongly enhanced by a factor of 10 to 10 3 over the Weisskopf units. This
enhancement indicates that there
exists
a quadrupole- type collective motion.
24
[CH.
1,9 2
CH. 1,2]
We already know about
the existence of large quadrupole
only a small step to the idea that these
we
(Chapter 6) that large
will see later
rise
to nuclear rotations
and to strong
two
25
moments and
it is
facts are connected. Indeed,
intrinsic
quadrupole moments give
transition probabilities between the
rotational levels.
The
results
of this section have shown
character of nuclear states
how we can
from measuring
their
establish the collective
quadrupole moments and
various transition probabilities. In the following section
w-3
70-'
ro-*
16*
to
we
will
add another
nuclear quality which can help in identifying the character of the nuclear
namely the low excitation energies of the nuclear surface degrees of
levels,
freedom.
Fig. 12. Statistics of electric
quadrupole
tiansi lions in tight nuclei (Wi-60).
Low-energy spectra (vibrations and
.2.2.C,
model
rotations). In general the shell
predicts excitations of single nucleons of the order of 5-6
which corresponds to the separation of the main

35-
.single particle
energy
excitations between subshells which
MeV
shells.
may have
suhshel!
is filled
shell
As soon
as the
up with nucleons, the single particles have to be lifted into
ihe next higher subshell
(The
lower excitation
but according to the shell model such excitations should
occur only for a few neighboring isotopes and isotones.
E2
MeV
There can occur
model
is
which
will usually
be several
MeV away
in energy.
discussed extensively in Chapters 8 and 9.)
The experiments contradict
these predictions of the single particle shell

+
states with excitation energies of 0.5 to 1
model dramatically. Low-lying 2

20
MeV
%15
occur very systematically in even nuclei
shells.
Furthermore,
the shell
model
if
states,
in the
neighborhood of closed
more and more protons and neutrons are put
into
so that both the proton and neutron numbers are far
from being magic, these 2 + states quite systematically appear at energies
below 100 keV.

I. -1
order to be more
in the
specific, let us
summarize the experimental observation
following way. For even-even nuclei two kinds of low-lying positive

4*
2*
0*
n~*
to*
to-*
OiMtV
to-*
k*
csw
Fig. 13. Statistics of electric quadrupole transitions in heavy nuclei (Sk-66). The occurrence of quadrupole transitions larger than single-particle transitions by a factor 200 is
clearly seen.
! "ig-
4.
Typical spectrum of a quadrupole surface vibiation. The + , 2+, 4* triplet has

+ state. This indicates harmonic vibrations.
first 2
Approximately twice the energy of the
[ch, 1,5 2
ch.
parity* states are observed.

typical spectrum as
shown
One of
these
in fig. 14,
we
call vibrational, since
where the
2 + , 4*
triplet
it
1, 5 2]
27
has a
has nearly
double the excitation energy of the
first 2
state. This suggests a type of
harmonic oscillation ** where the oscillator quanta each carry an angular
momentum
2ft.
The observed
states are then just
which are excited and coupled to a
The other type of low-lying
total spin
collective states
we
two
oscillator
2* or 4 +
call rotational.
various energies of the levels follow roughly an /(/+1) law as

fig. 15.
Such a spin-dependence
quanta
There the
shown
in
in the position of the energy levels suggests
Fig. 16. Schematic figure of the

well.
immediately the rotational character of the states by analogy with molecular

symmetric rotator will have rotational energies <?, = /(/+ 1 )h z /2
physics.
where
motion of nucleons
Only the rotation of the deformed well leads

and orbit.
m a spherical and deformed

to a
potential
change of the nucleoli potential
is
the
moment
of inertia. Both types of spectra are not shell-
model-like and, especially in the case of the rotational scheme, are im-
22*
-2*
0*
Fig. 15. Typical spectrum of a rotational nucleus.
the rotational
The energies of
band follow an /(/+!) pattern.
the
members of the
mediately understood to be of collective character (see figs. I and 2 in this

connection). la the case of vibrational spectra the nuclei are spherical, that
is they perform oscillations about a spherical equilibrium shape.
Rotational
nuclei, however, are
of
deformed since only deformed nuclei can have a moment
nucleons moving in a spherical potential are
inertia;
still moving in the

same potential if it is rotated through an angle. Therefore the nucleons
do not feel any resistance during this rotation, which is not the case for
deformed potentials
Physically
Deformed
(see fig. 16).
we expect
to find spherical nuclei near the magic numbers.
nuclei occur if a sufficiently large
number of neutrons and protons
are outside closed shells so that the spherical shell structure can be destroyed
There
Fig. 17, Zoology of nuclei. The magic proton and neutron numbers are indicated by lines.
The shadowed areas indicate deformed nuclei. Around magic numbers one expects spherical nuclei. The known nuclei have Z 104 and N <, 150, (From Fi-66).
exist also low-lying negative parity spectta.
A discussion of these will be found
in Chapter 9.
** For more details on the quadrupole vibrator

see Chapter
and a new deformed shell structure can be set up. Fig. 17 shows the distribution of magic neutron and proton numbers for nuclei, and indicates the
stable valley where we find nuclei in nature. The crossing of a proton and a
neutron magic
and
3.
line indicates a
doubly magic nucleus. Along the magic lines
neighborhood we expect to find spherical nuclei and therefore

vibrational nuclei, according to the above considerations. Away from both
in their
28
the proton and neutron magic lines

nuclei
(shadowed areas in fig.
we should
[CH.
find the rotational
deformed
17).
Indeed, the nuclear periodic table has three or possibly four regions where
nuclei have been experimentally
A =
shown
to
A &
222,
CHAPTER
be deformed, namely from
and possibly around A = 8.

Fig. 17 is a schematic representation of the nuclear periodic table in which
regions of nuclear deformation are indicated by shadowed areas. Up to
A x 40, neutron and proton numbers are about the same. Therefore, the
< N,Z <
of
regions
limited
first
19 to 28, from 150 to 190, for
20 in
fig.
lomb energy causes
have
17,
between
deformation,
N=
Z.
Above A
< N,Z <
40, however, the
Collective Coordinates
and
Cou-
the line of beta stability to shift toward a higher neutron-
to-proton ratio. Consequently the proton and neutron shells are somewhat
out of phase until one reaches the rare earth and actinides, where extended
Z=
regions of deformation are observed because the
gion
the
is
approximately
Z=
in
phase with the
82 to 126 proton region with the
On the other
50 to 82 proton re-
82 to 126 neutron region and
126 to 184 neutron region.
hand, though highly neutron-deficient and correspondingly un-
stable, the regions labeled
tain
N=
and 2
in
fig.
17,
where
N>
Z, should also con-
deformed nuclei (Sh-61b).
cooperative
is
vibrational
and
a direct indication of collective motion. The
model
these low-energy excitations.
a microscopic picture.
If
one could solve
is N neutrons and Z protons moving

model orbits and interacting with the residual
interaction Vir^rj) one would observe after diagonalization of V(r,,rj)
that some states are pushed far down in energy and others are pushed far up
the
many-body problem
exactly, that
in the single particle shell
in energy since the center of gravity ot all levels
Both such groups of states contain
is
approximately conserved.
collective levels.
The first one
will
contain
the low-energy levels discussed above, while the second type will contain
high-energy collective
ti]
coordinates a
called
briefly in
We
degrees of freedom
which are functions of the I A nuclear coordinates, (x,
rotational low-energy
movement of the nucleons causes
Let us describe this idea
its 3/4
we
shall
collective
call
coordinates.
it is
not only
, x 3A)
a^
x 3A ). These new
1
nuclear model
(Hamiltonian) formulated in terms of such collective coordinates
The systematic occurrence of the

spectra discussed above
Instead of describing the nucleus by
convenient but necessary to introduce new coordinates
will see later that these are of the giant
will be
One of the shortcomings of such a collective

-, x
a U] (xi
3A ) are not known *. In other
collective nuclear model.
is
that these functions
words, the dependence of the a
'
on the nucleoo coordinates is in most cases

completely ignored. Usually the collective coordinates a ul are introduced
on the
'
basis of a classical picture of the nucleus, as for
surface, a rotating figure or
an
oscillating
definitions the properties of the
*3
example a vibrating
proton density. Directly from these
are derived,
and following very general
invariance arguments the structure of a collective Hamiltonian

in terms of the
is
formulated
atA1 Of course, the proper choice of the collective coordinates

.
has the advantage of making the physical problem "anschaulich", and

therefore leads to increased insight, as well as
making the problem
easier
resonance type.
handle mathematically. Naturally, one does not know from the beginning
whether one really has chosen the proper collective variables. This is just
References
properties.
This chapter has attempted to review typical experimental features of col-
which
levels.
to
what we must attempt to establish by successfully explaining nuclear
lective nuclear
motion. These are also surveyed
in the
book of Preston
(Pr-62) and in the review article of Davidson (Da-65c). Further useful

references for this material can be found in Na-65 and Ke-59.
Some comments might be appropriate on the use of the classical picture

is implied when we define these variables. This is in fact exactly what
* In fact, there exists extensive work on the foundations of collective coordinates (Bo-53,
Sue-54, Coe-55, Ma-5Sa.b,c, Na-55,a,b, To-55, Li-56, Mi-56,Ta-56, Vi-57a,b,58, In-62a,b,
Sch-68c), which will partly be discussed in Volume 3 of this series.
29
COLLECTIVE COORDINATES
30
[CH. 2,
physicists always do, even in so-called "basic" approaches to
our complicated many-body problem. What one calls "basic" is just the most
naive model, namely several mass points interacting with each other. We
always construct a Hamiltonian with a more or less classical picture in mind.
After the application of the rules of quantum mechanics we obtain the
quantized form of our classical picture. Typical examples are well known
from atomic and molecular physics, e.g. the sun-planet model where the
sun is the atomic nucleus and the planet is the electron, or the two-atom
rotator model, and so forth.
We shall consider for the moment two classes of collective variables,
namely those describing the nuclear surface, alX] and those describing the
THE SURFACE VARIABLES
ch. 2, 11
where aAll define the nuclear surface

similar to that of eq.
The
collective coordinates describing the nuclear surface
R(9',
where the angles
known
well
9\
[l
ft
(1).
From
fig.
1).
mK
9', q>'
[l
This can be seen as follows. The

is
given by eq. (1) and in the rotated
- 1)" a, _(f) YJLB',
<f>%
are related to the rotated frame as in
9 '^')
(3)
fig.
1.
It is
Z^(9 )r
A( (9,<?>).
an
are
time-dependent,
q>',
t)
= M(9
(4)
(1)
E(-l)"a,_ (0n M (9,<p)

for every X
The
and by inserting
reality of the radius
namely
follows from eqs. (1) and (3) that
q>, f), it
J1
(- 1Y*i -<0 Y^B, )].
= X, Xl,
= {a } with
= *jiji(0 anc therefore describe
to eq.
t)
motion a Xlt are
In the classical picture (Bo-39, Fl-41, Fi-43, Bo-52) the spherical tensors*
Xfl
a manner
ding to (Ro-57)
defined by the expansion of the surface into spherical harmonics
ain
in
that the spherical harmonics transform under rotations accor-
system, J?(9',
a U]
frame
Because of the invariance of the surface under rotations of the coordinate
surface variables x ui
=K
in the rotated
frame by
The
q>, t)
31
quantities Sj are the Euler angles connecting
nuclear surface in the laboratory system
EA]
2.1.
K(S,
The
both coordinate systems (see
density fluctuations #
(1 ).
(*!
eq. (4) into (5)
R{9,
i;(-l) '^-,0)n.(S',<p')
one
(5)
easily proves eq. (2).
requires
<p)
z<-ira-.r*
-(-ir*-^
(6)
oscillating nuclear surface according
the invariance of eq. (1) under rotations
it
follows that the
Now Yx
(1)" Fi-^ and consequently one has
a Xfl are the components of an irreducible tensor of rank X and transform

under the (2A+l)-dimensional representation of SO (3), that is
*X* =
(-l)"*A-)i'
(7)
This can be interpreted as the transformation of a Xli under time reversal,

since the time-reversal operation
Fig.
The intrinsic coordinate system x', z'

The Euler angles 0, are schematically
I.
cleus.
fig. 1
More about
is
here just complex conjugation. Further-
coincides with the principal axes of the nuindicated. Their definition can be found in
of Chapter
quadrupde
5.
the tensor notation can be found in the beginning of Chapter
3.
octupote
Fig. 2. Nuclear shapes for quadrupolc, octupole
hexadtcupat*
and hexadecupole deformation.
32
more, since R(9,

the parity
( *- 1 )
<p) is
[CH. 2,
a scalar, the definition of the a Xll in eq. (1) implies
for the a Xjl ,
i.e.
their parity
is
same as
the
for the spherical
iHO^'H-OXwhere
fig,
is
can be treated as a continuum,

shape each contain at
R = R
harmonics YXli Thus
the parity operator.
Some
(8)
ch. 2,S 1J
(l
+*,!*
least
Y*it) ' s
one therefore obtains X
33
necessary that the
maxima of the
nuclear
one nucleon. The number of maxima of the shape

proportional to A
3
.
For a nucleus with
nucleons
A*.
of nuclei are shown in
typical shapes
2 for quadrupole, octupole, and hexadecupole deformation.
In the
The
model the nucleons are assumed to move more or less inis assumed to have spherical symmetry.
shell
dependently
^
r
v
an average field which
in
R=R
by
equipotentials are spheres described
Such
fields
are
associated with closed shells. Nucieons outside the closed shell tend to
polarize this spherically symmetric
tend to reinforce this effect giving
More
field.
extra-core nucleons
eq. (1).
The coordinates
R, S,
q>
designate a point on the equipotential surface described by the parameters a Xlt
The a^(0 are in general time dependent; any collective surface motions are
expressed by letting the a A)t vary in time. They are considered as generalized
coordinates and serve as collective dynamical variables.
of vibrational and rotational spectra

that those terms of eq. (1) with A
2,
From
preceding chapter,
in the
it is
the quadrupole terms,
seems to be
at very high energies (40-50
lie
may
play a
sum in
a i -i
by
studying
The nuclear shape
0.
are usually
eq. (1) because they correspond to a trivial transla-
tion of the total nucleus as long as the
transparent
because nuclear matter
The terms with X =
relatively incompressible.
excluded from the
MeV)
the
a^ are small.
special
is
case
This
where
may be made more
only
by a small nonzero 10 and
shifted
and
).
in addition the sphere is
all
other ot^ equal to
For large a 10 the center of mass
deformed
is
).
suggested
role in nuclear spectroscopy.
expected to
A nuclear surface characterized
Fig. 3.
zero corresponds merely to a displaced sphere
the discussion
(monopole
The terms with -1 =
terms) correspond to a change of volume of the nucleus. They may give
rise to the so-called breathing modes of the nucleus (Da-58), but these are
dominant
.A
may
to a deformed average nuclear field
rise
whose equipotentials may be described by
an
it is
aW
a ]Q
and
now
Let us
consider the problems of center-of-mass motion and volume
conservation in more detail.
in eq. (1)
undeformed sphere,
original
already mentioned, one chooses the radius
R=
i?
are equal; this assumption
sistent with the relative incompressibility
say, so that
jkR
R m
R' {\
surface
is
con-
of nuclear matter. Consequently,
deformed nucleus one has to renormalize
for a
by changing
it
to R'
Either one introduces R* as above, in which case R'$ depends
a^, or one keeps the
original
on
R and
in eq. (1),
on
which then leads to a relation among the deformation parameters a Xll
R = K (l+a 10 y10 ) =
For small a 10 we obtain a sphere
in fig. 3.
(For large a
nuclear shape
is
shifted
by
the center of mass
the
amount
is still
&).
(9)
a, (3/4jt)*, as
trivial
One
shown
shifted, but in addition the
deformed.) Center-of-mass motions are
$itH
2 are the
has in this latter case
'=
dT=
fdflf r*dr
deformed
ones and
nucleus
ones of interest. The terms with

3 correspond to octupole vibrations and are associated with 3~ states.
therefore the terms with A
+ a 10 (3/4n)*cos
Jto(l
becomes equal to the volume of the nucleus with the

This can be achieved in two ways.
Ai|1 (- iya t _ YXlt ).
the deformation parameters
then given by
As
such that the volume of the deformed nucleus and that of the
first
They are also of great interest (see Chapter 7).

The multipolarity A ot a nuclear surface has an upper bound. Since the
concept of a surface is based more or less on the idea that the nuclear matter
- ir
an (l +
J"
where
at*]
A
- i) (2A+ 1)+ [f x yBtpf,
(
R = R Q (l+ ^.dC -1 )"^-^^)- U P
ca]
(h
i)
one tnen obtains
(10)
to second-order terms in the
34
= {-l) A (2A + l)*
fdfl[a
[CH. 2,
m x Y x Y
(a
101 -|[J
]
if
S (- 1)
A+
*'(2A+ 1)*(2A'
+ 1)*
f dfi [a
wxY
111 2
if
)
1 '3
[0]
be
0. Similarly, eq. (15) will
35
ilÎ
fulfilled
up to the same order
deformations are not considered
0, Le. if the dipole
in the
expansion
of the nuclear surface.
to]
[A]
CH. 2, 1]
]
If only the terms with
2 are considered, eq. (1) for the nuclear surface
becomes
easily be
which can
shown
k-*oO+EOU
to be
a[03 +(4jt)-*X(-l)"(2^+l)+ [
Cil
t0)
( 'l]
(11)
where we omit for the moment the subscript X (= 2) on the variables

i
Similarly one obtains a restraint for the center-of-mass motion by requiring
( 16)
ot.
It is
nstructive to write the equation of the surface in rectangular rather than
in
spherical coordinates:
that the origin of the coordinate system and the center of gravity of the
nucleus
lie
same
at the
point,
R =R
g(r)rdx
+ - + y- + a \ +2av
r
^ +2* % +2a,
r
^)
(17)
rv
(12)
0.
The
nuclear
rectangular ac-coordinates are subject to the restriction
volume
Here e(r)
med to
the nuclear density distribution which
is
be homogeneous. The position vector r
is
xe x +ye 1 +ze i
is
expressed
r=
where f
Ci
' 3
is
1-
-tzî+'^z),
R = R
rf
l,
eq. (12)
e3
ji
(
is
0]
(13)
explicitly given
{_,
by
(l
*. *
in
MS, 9)
terms of x, y, z and r
is
!*,!*).
With these
relations
one
above one obtains
a tensor equation which
ljryi]
xa u-rjiu
is
valid for every
component
fi
1,
to be incorporated into the
and therefore
(W*
2z2
namely
~*2~ y2
(19)
same way
= (-rV)*[K-rr2iO]'
- *{ir*)*(*i^).
4).
dynamics
(1 ),
of the collective
Fortunately in most cases the a
eq. (11)
is fulfilled
(20)
- (An)* riV6(2-a-a,7)].
of the rank-1
even multipoles (even X) in the surface expansion of eq.
and (15) will have
+y 2 +z 2 )*,
(15)
the condition in eq, (1 S) will always be fulfilled. In general the conditions
<x
finds in the
The instantaneous values of a describe
system (see Chapters 3 and
(14)
anc* by a straightforward computation
-K4iO~*E(2A+l)*(2i' + l)*(J
If there are only
w <C
[x
becomes
tensor.
(1 1)
= (W"*(3 cos 2 -1) -
This
( 18)
0-
ni(.9)- T (*)-*(* Scoiffe**)- T (-rVr*(^^).
fa-ica)-
fdzrlY*?"] - JdOp w x^HPl*dr,
similar to that given
r[y
t,1
the spherical unit vector which
For constant density
where
-(47t)
Eqs. (17) and (18) follow immediately from eq. (16) after expressing
Y2tl ($, <p)
in spherical coordinates as
*+*,+
- for simplicity - assu-
w are small,
up to small terms of the order
of the average nuclear

axis system
may
field.
the shape of the nucleus or the shape
transformation to an instantaneous principal
be advantageous. The nuclear shape in this system must
have the form
RmR
(l
a^ +<4^ +<4 -^
(21)
36
one has
In the a'-system or principal axis system
of the tensor
= a^ =
a'iy
a'
ch. 2, 2]
and
the intrinsic nucleus. These coordinates are particularly suitable as collective
<x
dynamical variables for nuclei which exhibit a
0,
and (20) for the spherical components
therefore according to eqs. (2)
are in both cases five degrees of freedom.
a'
'(I If
at
a_!
= a- 2
a2
0,
Now the two quantities a
and a 2
= o_ 2 describe the shape of the "intrinsic"
instantaneous orientation in
ft
/J
cos
and y by
y,
Their significance can be visualized

field
its
and a 2 A. Bohr (Bo-52, Bo-54) introduced the
two shape defining parameters
K(fl'
90,
R2 =
R(S'
90,
fi 3
=:jR(9'
{ iy2
-,,,
and hence involve only
if
<p'
where k
symmetric
1,
if
oblate shape
for x,y,
2, 3
<p'
= -^2 P sin y.
we
look at the stretching or shrinking
0)
90)
J? (l
if
(fit)"*
z.
Note
0, 60, 120,
<
0.
The
-.
five
independent parameters.
collective variables for density vibrations q
(23)
The collective variables for the giant resonance motion of multi polarity X,
protons and neutrons,
distributed over the nucleus.
the
Coulomb
in the
+8r,),
(24)
shows the instantaneous orientation of the
(as for
example
turned on the proton and neutron fluids arc partially separated. This
is
described by the density fluctuation
tj(r, t).
hydrodynamic picture the proton and neutron
More
precisely,
densities are described
by
(25)
>
be illustrated by
fig.
has a prolate shape
may
fluids are equally
But as soon as a perturbation
flp(r,0
ep(O)[l+i!(r,r)],
e n (r,0
e n (o)[i-|u(r,o],
(26)
cos (y-frcA),
situation
fluid,
force between the protons, or an external electromagnetic
+ 8r,),
in particular that the nucleus is axially

It
We use a hydrodynamic picture of the nucleus.
tj(r, t).
described by a sphere with two fluids, a proton and a neutron
separation
(l
rf i)t ,
are defined by the multipole expansion of the local density fluctuations of
field) is
Rofl+Sr,),
=R
lk]
which penetrate each other. In the equilibrium case these
az
The
then
or*
x 2 ? of the laboratory system
complex numbers but obey the additional conditions a 2> *
It is
along the principal directions. If we define
R,
deformation. There
(22)
nucleus, and the three Euler angles give

space. In place of the a
The
static
37
are five
2.2.
of the
THl COLLECTIVE VARIABLES FOR DENSITY VIBRATIONS qtM
ICH. 2.
if
and an
1,
where e p (0) and Q a {0)
(NjZ) e p (0) are the proton and neutron equilibrium
densities respectively (see
fig.
4),
The
quantity q(r,
t)
describes the fluc-
which
intrinsic system.
Let us summarize the results of this section and note that we have two
alternate
We may
ways to describe the quadrupole deformations of the nucleus.

ppSS
use:
PW
1). The five variables a 2 , ,, > -i> a -i which stand on an equal

footing and are particularly convenient as collective dynamical variables in
those nuclei
which show only small instantaneous variations from a
spherically symmetric equilibrium field.
vibrational nuclei
This happens in the so-called
which exhibit small quadrupole
oscillations
tuating part of the density.
and y) which
specify the shape of the ellipsoidal intrinsic deformation, supplemented by
the three Euler angles 3, fl 2 # 3 which specify the orientation in space of
The
bution
intrinsic coordinates
a and c 2
(or equivalently
jS
is
assumed
protons and neutrons.
(see
Chapter
uniform
distri-
10).
about a
spherical equilibrium.
2).
Fig. 4. Equilibrium density distributions for
constructed in such a
way
e p(r, r)+e n (r,
The
densities g (r,
p
that for
()
all
times
e p(Q)+ejQ)
()
and
qJjf, i) in eq. (26) are
eo
constant,
(27)
THE COLLECTIVE VARIABLES FOR DENSITY VIBRATIONS
ch.2,92]
38
[CH, 2,
Table
a constant as a function of position and time.

other words: compression modes of the nucleus
the total mass density
i.e.
We
can also say
this in
<tAl
39
is
The
eigenvalues
Zjj,
=A
"'i? for various giant multipole resonances
are neglected.
The
fluctuation density
rf(r t t)
can be separated in the form
iKr.O-iKOe-'*,
where
is
(28)
the frequency of the harmonic density oscillation. Here
it
is
assumed that these vibrations are harmonic. In fact, this condition is always
fulfilled to a very good approximation in nuclear hydrodynamics (see
Chapter 10). We will see that ij(r) satisfies the Hebnholtz equation
Y 2 n (r) + k 2 t,(r) =
with the homogeneous
Neumann boundary
-Vff(r)| Iurfmee
Here n
is
(29)
0,
condition
=0.
(30)
wave equation. The density waves

are a kind of sound wave in nuclear matter. The wave number k is related
to the symmetry energy constant k of the Bethe-Weizsacker mass formula
* (see Chapter 10) by
and to the effective mass of the nucleon
The boundary
;(r)
M
ir - kr -
M* A
(31)
shall
3.342
4.514
5.646
5.940
7.289
8.583
9.840
10.904
9.205
10.613
11.972
13.295
14.066
12.404
13.846
15.244
16.609
The most general
vanish at the nuclear
surface:
no density flux through the nuclear surface. The normal

eqs. (29) and (30) for a spherical nucleus are
is
i - FPMWriYiJ&v),
solution of the
time-dependent problem
is
therefore
E i i (-ir^cx'ware the
The components q $ pertaining to the spherical tensor q w
('>o
(34)
[AI
coordinates for the density fluctuations.
The
collective
defining equation (34)
the defining equation (1) of the surface variables at
is
*.
to be
Using
the facts that the density fluctuation must be real and a scalar under rotations,
and following
exactly the
same arguments leading
to eqs. (7)
and
(8),
one obtains
^-(-lyrfM
(35)
where P
is
the parity operator.
in fig. 5 for illustration.
condition eq. (30) just states that the radial velocity t t
of the density current
2.081
7.725
compared with
density fluctuations in a nucleus obey a
4.493
a normal vector to the nuclear surface. Eq. (29) states that the
Q2 =
Some normal
The dipole
density distributions are
fluctuation (l
1) consists of a
shown
move-
There
solutions of
(32)
where n characterizes the overtones and X the multipolarity of the fluctua"

The fi ,} are normalization constants. The wave numbers kl } of these
Dlpote
Fluctuation
Quadrupote Fluctuation
Mmopote Fluctuation
tion.
normal modes
(eq. 32) are
obtained from the boundary condition eq. (30),
which now just reads
indicate
4/*(M)
dr
The
solutions of this
4) in table
1.
Graphical representation of the fluctuating densities for various giant multipole
The signs indicate a lack of protons and an excess of neutrons. The + signs
an excess of protons and a lack of neutrons. These distributions are changing
0.
(33)
(oscillating) in time.
i R
transcendental equation can easily be obtained
numerically and are listed up to the fourth overtone and up to hexadecupoles

(A
Fig. 5.
resonances.
ment of the protons (indicated by plus signs) to one side of the nucleus
and the neutrons to the other side. The quadrupole fluctuation (X m 2)
assembles the protons at the poles of the sphere and the neutrons at the
40
equator. Finally in a
monopole
[ch. 2, 3
fluctuation the protons
move outward
the surface of the sphere in a spherically symmetric fashion
move inward
i.e.
Of
to the center.
the proton
and neutron
and
to
CH.
CANONICALLY CONJUGATE MOMENTA AND PHONON OPERATORS
2, 3]
Comparing
with the relation (38) for the component
this
the neutrons
course, these distributions are dynamical,
their positions periodically.
(41)
***--<-trw
()
momenta change phase and
of their second index under time reversal.
The
momenta A U]
fulfill
the usual
commutation
for the variables
6>
Dm *
if
the coordinate system
Here
to be
compared with
A]
momentum
denotes the
(36a)
eq. (2).
we
of as operators since
(36b)
Note
The canonical momenta introduced here are

operators. The expressions on the right-hand side of eq. (36) are invariant
under rotations and space reflections. From this fact we can derive the
transformation properties of ft^ under space rotations in the following way.
Consider eq. (36a) for the special case X
).',
p.
Obviously
this implies that
ft Xfl
&x
acting on
OM*,) =
This relation
ft XlL
i.e.
is
"
tensor in the rotated frame. Eq. (43)

U) must
1
gives just -in, that
tensor for
-^
(41) and (43)
It is
,
the parity operation P,
it
follows
from
'OW*
-1
also invariant
is
Pi&^P' = (1
)*<*.
also apply to these operators, of course.
of creation and annihilation operators for phonons,
-(-0%..
time-reversal operation
under
is
momenta
/^-0 =
By
expressing
j8JM
using eqs. (36)

ators,
ft
and pV^
it is
in
terms of& Xll and
1t
klt
(see eqs. (46) below),
and
easy to derive the commutation rules of the phonon oper-
namely
*-
&=
here just complex
get
(^
K - K - i(ift^ffla)*((-iyK -,-**)
PA'll-PXlt
conjugation. By taking the complex conjugate of eq. (38) and making use
(VO-(V(-
ft All
PlnPrn- m
$\-A
$W$wi'r
LAit> fliv]
(45)
0.
These are just the ordinary commutation rules for bosons. Since
from
we
and
(39)
directly
of eq. (7)
m and
\2B x oi x t
[Px>
also derive the time-reversal properties of the canonical
The
/JJ M
eqs.
done through the canonical transformation
that
We can
eq. (38).
and transformation properties of
sometimes very useful to introduce, instead of the operators i

set
rules
WM
rules of eqs. (36a, b)
(38)
Since eq. (38)
commutation
commutation
(39),
is
now be thought
and
require eqs. (36a, b). These
is
has to transform under rotations in a manner contragradient to & Xli ,
D m *.
"*
(37)
""'''
independent of the coordinate system, and consequently
under the rotation matrix
(43)
quantum mechanics, if we establish a nuclear Hawl and fi [Aj Similarly, we denote by /?

ft
the
momenta which are canonically conjugate to the WIA] The same
respectively. This is
*JlM^JlM~^**l
again form an
and consequently transform
lead us immediately into
&m
p.':
A]
rotated:
that the A 1
miltonian in terms of the

already quantum mechanical
is
i*fl&W4,-
have to
rules
the quantities
irreducible tensor of rank X, parity (1)*,
under
canonically conjugate
momenta:
properties of the canonical
reverse the sign
We have derived several important
collective
variables
we have
ftk-^-,)--*
This states that the canonical
23. Canonically conjugate momenta and phonon operators for the
ft,
and
each other and interchange
fluids penetrate
41
(40)
and
^-)
[( 2
***-i(iftBi*)~*(-l) p *i -,]
(a)
42
[ch. 2
X]
transform under space rotations with the matrices $ and D * respectively
(see eqs. (2) and (43)), these phonons carry a total angular momentum X
with z-projection
/i.
According to eqs.
(8), (39)
and
(46) their parity
is
given
CHAPTER
by
PWP-î-WVW
since
ft
The
from
kll
(47)
has the same parity as & llt due to eq. (39).
time-reversal properties of the
eqs. (46).
We obtain by taking
i
f is the time-reversal
Hamiltonian
()
operator. Similarly,
we
obtain
T&Jf-'-pV = (-!/&-,
(49)
checked from eqs. (47), (48) and (42) that the time-reversal
properties of fi A and # A are consistent.
way
as above
we introduce
Having discussed the
properties of collective variables, and
various collective
in nuclei,
definition and
modes occurring
we now
to the task of formulating specific nuclear models. That
It is easily
In the same
Structure of the
Collective Nuclear
complex conjugate
= <-ir&-.
where
The
easily derived
[^-)"Viy^-wci*^"**J
t (tut- - $1* =
phonon operators are
its
and annihilation
creation (#])
Wan) operators for giant multipole resonance phonons (gions see Chapters
10 and 11)
to establish collective Hamiitoniaus which

the
words
It is
nians
reversal
precisely
we
shall attempt
what we mean with
"collective model".
most
is
is
address ourselves
is,
interesting that the structure of the various collective Hamilto-
determined most easily and most generally by the rotational, time
and
parity inversion properties of the collective variables.
Only a
few coupling constants for the various terms containing collective coordi(50)
ng =
nates will occur as arbitrary parameters which
The value of these parameters
+i(iBi"'QS"')*((-i)'U'i-4S; )-
tain experimental data or
Following exactly the same line of reasoning as given above we find that the
A
Qlp describe bosons of parity ( 1) with a total angular

a spin projection along the z-axis fi.
momentum A and
In both eqs. (44) and (50) the factors {\h!Bx a>$ and
are determined in such a
way
that (a) the annihilation operators are nor-
malized to unity, eq. (45), and (b) the harmonic oscillator Hamiltonian
becomes diagonal. The Bk and w A are parameters characterizing the
harmonic vibrator as we
depend in general on
N and Z.
then either obtained by adjustment to cer-
by a deeper investigation such as a microscopic
treatment of the collective motion.
We
will discuss
a few such
classical
treatments in Chapter 10 and in Appendix A.
At
+i(ihBi mx )i
is
this point,
we need
to introduce a simple convention in order to denote
the various coupling operations of the spherical tensors. In order that every-
thing be as clear as possible
meant with
this
let
us once and for
all
define precisely
what
is
shorthand notation. The coupling of the spherical tensors
A =
shall see in the next chapter.
{A
(la)
and
References
(lb)
General aspects of collective coordinates are discussed in Bie-65, Da-61,

65c and Ke-59.
Some
of the conceptual foundation for these coordinates
to a
new
spherical tensor
is
(2)
presented in Vi-57a.
43
STRUCTURE OF THE COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR HAMILTONIAN
44
components of the
set of the spherical
where {A^} denotes the
[CH. 3,
CH.
3,
Assuming a
tensor,
121
is symbolically written as
ti
C^-O^'xtf*' ]
1
*" 1
series
expansion of
// in
45
terms of the small quantities a
(2]
and
we obtain
Try 2 ',*123 )
(3)
NUCLEAR QUADRUPOLE SURFACE MOTION
{bf$IB 2 )fr
n x 1Py* + B
[l 1fi
n xal3
y n xif
T+1
(8)
and means
that
and
(4)
Vtf
Here [XX'X"\pti' y.")
a Clebsch-Gordan
is
coefficient.
The shorthand
which occur in the

notation of eq, (3) enables us to avoid writing the sums
lengthier explicit
The
appear.
they
everytime
coupling of eq. (4) explicitly
notation
often extremely tedious, especially
is
tensors are coupled. After this prolog
on
if
more than two
The coupling of
momentum"
spherical
the mathematical notation
Hamiltonian.
we
and space
reflections in order to conserve angular
momenta
momentum and
[A]
,
l?
Ci]
,
because time reversal invariance of the Hamiltonian
required. According to eq. (2.42)
zero, Le. to a scalar, ensures the rotational invariance of the
We
*.
now
(6)
namely the Hamiltonian
and (9) is
and do not consider divergent pole terms as for example ([a
Perhaps
this is not
where
w^M*
The
a
i.e.
the nuclear surface
we
is
are to allow here for the
moment
<x
[23 IO] )~
C2
)',
1
term with
'.
(9),
seem to occur, for example
TF
(10)
terms vanish identically because of the

<S
[2]
in the first factor, for
but leaves the total expression otherwise

explicitly.
/
Furthermore, even
which occurs
terms are
in eq. (9). This
can
be seen by explicit calculation or by the following argument. Let us
1,
2, 3,
The ranks j, of the various tensors do not have

Then fourth-order invariants are of the form
to
4) coupled
be equal to
is split into
a kinetic energy T{i?
a" l3] [/ '> x
(11)
Here we coupled the tensor at/,] with the tensor aUl} to the intermediate
angular momentum J' and similarly for the tensors aUjl and a lul Both
.
intermediate tensors of rank J' are then coupled to the scalar (rotational
t23
)
invariant) of rank 0. However,
H=
[ x ^l]^n] t0]
are the
assumed to perform only quadrupole type
The Hamiltonian
and a potential energy K(a
mx
surface motion
only collective variables
deformations.
><
[21
the exchange of the two
[[a"' 1 x
121
However odd
[2]
<S
<2
unchanged. This can also be shown
each other.
They
of the
stiffness
immediately obvious for the fourth-order term in eq.
I, 2, 3, 4.
symmetry of the
to a scalar.
The nuclear quadrupole
similarly the C's in
and the
consider the general case of four tensors au ' ] (v
for low-energy surface quadrupole vibrations.
3.1.
and
K(aC2] ), respectively. The structure of eqs, (8)

unique as long as we restrict ourselves to a power series expansion
just proportional to the
Let us
of the various terms of
in front
collective potential energy,
example, produces a factor
discuss one important case in detail,
Uv
since other coupling possibilities of the tensor a
can also be written in shorthand
parameters
call the
is
t is the time-reversal operator (complex conjugation). The relation (5)

+tf
(9)
the various tensors in eqs. (8) and (9) to a total "angular
we have
f (#)f- =
[[ a
Here
x at2 '] [01 ry 21 x BPf" +
characterize the inertia of the collective motion
conserving comparity. Therefore only rotationally invariant and parity

have to be considered. Furthermore, the kinetic
and &
binations of A
U] must contain products of an even number of conjugate
<&
energy t(ft
)
2]
front of the various potential energy terms the stiffness parameters.
rotations
4 ry
the kinetic energy (eq. 8) the inertia parameters
return to physics and construct the collective Hamiltonian.

1
under space
nuclear Hamiltonian Atf* , & ) has to be invariant
The
[0]
n) =
(W5 C 2 )[y 21 x t21 ] m + C 3 [[[2] x a 12 *} x a t2J]
T( Jtt2] ,
[21
)+K( a[21).
(7)
we could
also have followed a different
coupling scheme, namely a u,] and aUj] coupled to
J" and aUl} and aiM
1
46
[CH. 3,
coupled to a
coupled to J" and both intermediate tensors of rank J"
j-ry/.i
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS OF THE NUCLEAR SURFACE
2]
a123
this relation (17) leads to
set
of linear homogeneous equations
for the various coupling possibilities for eq. (10). It
is
to
show
is
zero and therefore the coupling possibilities with
eq. (10)
now
straightforward
that the determinant of the transformation (17) in this special case
can be expressed
linearly in terms
1=2
of the one with
and
( 13)
<CMi)i tt(AA)'4SJiaiJi)*M(&A)*i '>

,
2
x
[[a"' 3
x rfp^ x [or" 11 x
unitary transformation matrix
/"f^ff
is explicitly
3.2.
Harmonic
As long
as
we
restrict ourselves
to quadrupole deformations of the nuclear
surface only, the structure of the Hamiltonian given in eqs. (8)
given (Ta-63) by
quite general.
The
inertia
parameters
By
and the
measurable quantities (energies of nuclear
2jr
last
symbol in the wavy brackets
and therefore J l2
/t
unitary transformation matrix in eq. (14)
<0i /a)JU h) J'l
0|(/i Ja) J"(; z
=
is
J'
J **
(14>
stiffness
and (9)
more
or calculated from a
some
levels, transition probabilities)
sophisticated nuclear model. In fact
we
will see
and in Appendix A that these parameters can be calculated

a hydrodynamic model of the nucleus (with or without irrotationai flow)
9-/
~ J2* "
and Ju
J "' The
in
or that they can be obtained in the so-called microscopic models (shell
model, superfiuid model of the nucleus see Volume 3 of this
We see,
therefore in this case
therefore, that the
Hamiltonian of eq. (7) does not specify a nuclear
model. It specifies the structure of a Hamiltonian in the variables
J*) J"; o>
series).
geometry of these collective variables
is
523
or
.
special 9-j
(2/'
+ l)(2/" + l)
symbol occurring here reduces to a
6-/"
J4
U"
J"
/'
(15)
oj
so forth.
It is
stiffness
parameters, and quite different nuclear
spectra will be obtained for different sets of these parameters.

that this Hamiltonian describes vibrations
+J +J "[(2J'+i)(2J"+i)]-*{^
h h r ={-i)^^
'
and
and
/" oj
,},
(16)
(12)
3
'
x [au >3 x oOf J]*"
x [[a"'
It is
x u *
"
[/ 3
013
[a
x ^" ] EJ
3
"
3-A 6-/
and
9-}
symbols are reviewed
aUl3
briefly in
Chapter
4.
In order to become acquainted with the techniques used for the solution
of the eigenvalue problem of a collective Hamiltonian and also to become
Usl
Appendix
=
A
we shall now dis-
most important special case of the Hamiltonian of eq. (7), namely the
harmonic quadrupole surface oscillator. In general for nuclei, a number of
terms contained in eqs. (8) and (9) will be needed to describe the dynamic
behavior of the quadrupole surface degrees of freedom properly. Let us
assume however that for some nuclei the first terms in eqs. (8) and (9) are
cuss a
'
deformed nucleus, and also a rotating and vibrating deformed
familiar with the importance of the collective energy surface
[03
t;
immediately noticed that in the special case a
The properties of
of Volume 2.
(I?)
j,',}
will see
in the general expression for the potential energy, eq. (9), will be discussed
in detail in
"
= Z(-l) /l+;,+J M "[(2J' + l)(2J" + l)] 4
{^
We
about a spherical equilibrium,
Which case is realized depends on the structure of the potential

energy V(a ). The structure and the various physical possibilities contained
is explicitly
[J
aUj3]
rotations of a
nucleus.
therefore the transformation between the coupling schemes of eqs. (11)
[[a"'
Jj
it
and
rather obvious that the energy spectrum of such a Hamiltonian
depends on the inertia and
symbol (Ro-59)
The
contained in this structure:
describes surface motion of the quadrupole type with positive parity,
is
parameters C,
in section 10.8
symbol and can easily

case of eqs. (11) and (12)
is
be obtained from tables* (Ro-59). In our special
we have J
" +1 )3*
[(2J 12 +i)(2J 3 *+i)(2Ji3+ 1 )C
where the
,J"
in
vibrations of the unclear surface
are treated as parameters of the theory which can either be adjusted to
The
0.
"i]t J i][-rj
x BUrfpd x [a" 13 x a
The
(12)
exists
eqs.
[[of'
x aUrffn x [a u] x rfWpTfW
ch. 3,
a u,]
scalar:
a unitary transformation between the two coupling schemes

by
(11) and (12), which we denote in general
There
of
[CH. 3, 6 2
STRUCTURE OF THE COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR HAMILTON1AN
48
and dominate the higher-order terms

*
with the .harmonic quadrupole oscillator
in
sufficient
left
Hm =
-(W5/B,)iy
- {IBtY 1 % 2
Wr
2
n 2ll +iC 2
a2
[Z1
.
We
are then
C^W"]
3, 2]
This relation just states that in the vacuum no phonon shall be present.
+<W5
*
m and
CM.
special state
made use of the expression for

r+
(II0\p -ft 0) = (-l) 7(2/+l)*. We
(18)
a/ -
Clebsch-Gordan
the index
p are present
and
coefficient
is
|0>.
(25)
N|i limes
a2
in the last line explicitly
the
N phonons with
^ = ^^--JljO> = ^)
101
The index
where we have written the tensor coupling
where
iV
on
contained in this
we
ijf
just reminds us that
state.
By means of
N phonons
commutation
the
of the kind
p.
are
relation in eq. (2.45)
find immediately that
ML =
recall that
01(1 + ^).
(26)
and hence
-(-l)*K2-.
and
2
Inserting the
= (-0" 2 -,
phonon operator from
eq. (2.44) into eq.
(18)
immediately
where
the frequency of the harmonic
oscillator.
) liinet
Repeating the commutation (jV^-1) times and making use of eq. (24)
we have
It is
m 2 = v C 2 /B 2
is
(N u -
.v tiniti
we have
immediately obvious from h 2)i $ 2fl

.
fil?
fi 2 -
for
p &
p' that
(20)
<W^ =
We now
foip^p'.
<>
(29)
introduce the phonon
Both relations (28) and (29) can be written together
number operator
*v ** =
and show
easily
by means of
eq. (2.45) that
[Ahq.M-O.
< 22 )
is
a good quantum number. The Hamiltonian of eq. (19) can be
*-*-,
expressed in terms of d 2ll as
define a phonon
vacuum
( 23 )
then
we have from
V-
*
'
'
Wn
*
timci
2 )|0>,(31)
'
ffjtirnti
eq. (30)
various states described by eq. (19)
(32)
and
|0> by
2
JO> =
O,
(24)
_- 2
and hence
A 2il |0>
= {N^ + N^ + No+^ + NMs.,...,,, =
0.
apfor describing other multipole surface vibrations in the harmonic

completely analogous to the description of harmonic quadrupole vibraconsideied.
tions. Only the multipolarity index 2 has to be changed to A, if A-poles are
w. ^-i-Ji-Jtfi-i-fi-J
W- 1 limn
We now determine the spectrum and the

and
, *2 (**+*)
(30)
Hence the name "number operator" for n 2lt is really justified. If we have
the most general state with N- 2 phonons with p = - 2, JV_ phonon with
, and N2 phonons with p = 2,
p = 1
,
and thus fl 2
*.
*,*.
**_,...,.
(33)
Hence
The formalism
proximation
is
(34)
50
[ch. 3,
(#+*)*<2.
The first excited state $\ U P). Since the

transforms under space rotations with D
8 m with the energy Nh<o 2
.,...
where B 2r
8m #-,...*, - (#+ i) *<02 ^.,

+ Wl +iV2
state
(N =
1)
two-phonon
3.2.1.
Up
to
vacuum energy
$ 2li ^ 2 J0y
now we have not

The vacuum
carry angular
The
first
number of phonons.
quantum ft 2 The ground
-
vacuum.
identical with the
excited state
The second
is
It
a one-phonon
excited state
is
all
momentum of
the angular
creation operator in the rotated frame, the state

1
p.. We can interpret eq. (38) by saying that a phonon, $|,

an angular momentum 2 with a z-projection p. This conclusion
momentum
carries
follows directly
from the transformation properties of the wave function

*. Hence we have
and operators under rotations
275!|0> = 2(2+l)ft 2 jjyo>,
where is the angular

the
^gin with the lowest states:

ground state and shall by definition
odd
ground
particle(s).
It is
these cases just as for
We choose
now
momentum
positive parity in the
state
may have nonzero
and negative parity due to the odd nucleons. In

even-even nuclei *, and therefore have
angular
the following
2 |0>=0,
ground
where
N gives
z-projection.
its
+|0>,
we
consider
(37a)
a,
oscillator.
We
We are
denote them by
AUM>,
(40)
number of phonons, / the total angular momentum and

The label a characterizes additional quantum numbers
needed for higher phonon states, as we shall see. The one-phonon
which are
the
state necessarily
has angular
momentum 1=2:
|N = l,2M> =
state while
momentum
operator,
in a position to construct the lowest excited states.
convention because
this
and
i|0>
more conventional
then given by |0>-|/'m>*. where
is
(39)
The lowest excited states of the harmonic quadrupole
zero and positive parity for even-even nuclei.
even-even nuclei have spin

for other nuclei the
phonon
us
For odd-even or odd-odd nuclei the vacuum

angular momentum \jm) and the parity n, i.e. \jm}'.
however to define the phonon vacuum |0> also in
describes the last
the
etc.
can be defined as carrying
\jmY
is
(38)
eigenfunctions
^ w _,ff.,...wi- Let
even-even nuclei. The ground state
creation operator
(see eqs. 2.2, 2.43, 2.46)
0> transforms exactly as in eq. (38). Hence p^ 0> describes a state

with two units of angular momentum and with a z-projection of angular
/},
c).
|0>. This describes the
phonon
51
t.puw - **jyo>,
momentum
considered at
momentum
(36)
>
with the energy (2+f)a> 2 ,
Construction of angular
various eigenfunctions
a).
\h<o 2
is
with energy (l+4)fta> z .
^^|0>
state
scheme)
the total
is
carries the energy
state (lowest state in the energy
contains the
SURFACE
& = I*&W5S..
an eigenstate of
is
= JV\. I + JV_ 1 + ;v'

where
Consequently each phonon
(35)
^w
obvious by inspection of eq. (33) that
It is
NTJ CLEAR
b).
j5|
#hq
HARMONIC VIBRATIONS OF THE
3, 2]
ch.
describes the total number of phonons, independent of the index fi, contained
in ^n-i Hz- The Hamiltonian (eq. (23)) can therefore also be written as
0J M |O>.
normalized, i.e.
2M \$\m> = !
The two-phonon states are easily constructed
tum by means of eq. (38), which tells us that
(41)
It is
momentum / =
2,
M=
N-
2,
(37b)
p.
M> .
for a total angular

the
momen-
phonons carry angular
Hence
A,
mi(2 2 / m m M)& m
1
fc mi |0>,
(42)
mi,
where and
denote the angular
momentum and
parity operators,
be clearly realized that eqs. (37) are definitions which

together with eq. (24) specify the vacuum. The definitions (37) for even
nuclei are chosen because of our empirical knowledge about the ground
respectively. It should
In general, if the angular
momentum
of a wave function
ytm
is j,
the
wave function
transforms under rotations according to
where \j/'
Jm is the wave function in the rotated frame. If, on the other hand, it can be shown
(as for example above) that a wave function for which
we do not yet know the angular
,
states
*
of even-even nuclei.
The odd
nuclei are discussed separately in Chapter 9.
mo mentum transforms under D"1 we can conclude that the wave function describes a state
with angular momentum |/m>. For more details see for example
Ro-57.
52
Ich. 3, 2
where the A s are normalization factors. Naively the values / = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

are possible. However, we must consider the normalization of the state
ch.
(22/[m 1 m 2 M)^ m JUlO>)
I (22I\m m 2 M)^m Jl mi \0y
states.
discussed
of fermions (Ro-57, Ta-63). The problem
of course quite similar for bosons.
which has good angular
is
Here one
One must
construct a
momentum and which
is
also
wave function
symmetric under
mi (22I|m m 2 M)(22J|m m 2 M)<0|^ mi ^ ^ Hl ^
-\A,\*
53
already encounters the problem of fractional parentage, which
is
few words should be said about the three-phonon
in textbooks dealing with systems
in eq. (42)
|A,|
3, 2]
sll
exchange of
all
pairs of bosons. This can be achieved by a superposition of
different coupling
fii
mi,
J0>.
(43)
We
schemes for the phonons.
present the result for the
three-phonon states together with the one- and two-phonon states
in table
(see Gr-61).
The vacuum expectation value of the phonon operators is easily calculated

by successively moving the annihilation operators $ 2Bt j$2m to tri e right of
Table
the creation operators using the commutation relations (2.45). If an annihila-
One, two and three phonon
oo the vacuum
way one obtains
tion operator acts

eq. (24). In this
and their energies
states
the corresponding term vanishes due to
Wave
Number of
Angular
function
<fl\$2m 2 #2m,
and by
H* film
>
"
^m, M,
KiMi + m j*, $ mi R,
<5
t 44 )
Energy
momentum
phonons
inserting this into eq. (43)
;o,
oo>
ftoi
]o>
<N = 2,IM\N =
\A t
2JM}
{22I\m m s M){22I\m m 2 M)(S mimi 6mtm + 6mimi * mmt
mi, m2
(Hi,
Zmi(22/| m, m
= MiP
M)[(2 2
m m 2 M)+(2 2 1 m 2 m
1
Oi
I\
<N =
2, 1
JV
2, 1
one has
= iV2 2
M)]. (45)
use of the symmetry relation for the Clebsch-Gordan coefficient

h *h
~'(hh /I 2 m, M) for one of the terms
i z M) - (-l)
in the square brackets,
|2,/M>
mi,
fflt,
Making
|1.2Af>-M>>
|MM>-fVl 2
mi,
(22/| 1 m,M)^,^l 1 |0>
0,2,4
(2+|)Aeoi
(246|munaM)^!.,[2,4jR a >
(3-t-Dftwi
|3,4M>
(3+S)Jto,
(3
+ &)ft<
(3
+ |>toi
hi 2
= JV3{V|| 2
JT1]
finally
-I^Cl-K-l) ) (22J|m m 1 M)(22J|m

1
n. a
M)
3, 3
>
1,3 cannot be normalized. Their
wave functions are identically zero. This originates from the symmetry of
the wave function under exchange of phonons (bosons!) and is due to the
commutation rules (2.45). Indeed, inspection of eq. (45) shows that we are
dealing with the sum of two terms where in the second one the two boson
indices are exchanged. The normalization factor for the non vanishing
independent of the spin,
At =
\^J2.
3,
M> = iV3
+
{y/J
+
|3,00>
(22 3 m,
1
m 2 M)^,
2,
2m 2 >
202
m$
|2,
>
2-
(222|m,miAf)^
4m 2 >}
|2.2m 2 >
ma
2 0*2 1, ,*#)#.,, |2,4iii,>}
y/rf
= 1V5 2
mi,
mi
2
mii
ni,
m M)^,|2,2mii>
!>
(243 m, m* *)&.,
{ Vx^TT
V^
-V| mi.2mi
^lâ+t-i)').
(224|m
1712
Ml
mi,
mi, mi
Therefore the two-phonon states with /
= 1 V3
(46)
(244!m I m J Af)^| |2,4m 1 >}
+ VIt 2
M>
is
(l+i)fiw,
mz
mi,
two-phonon wave functions
M2
mi
(220!m
m J 0)^JT
!2,2/i>
(3+})fitoj
54
[CH. 3, 2
CH.
3, 1
N
Three-phonon
states with
angular
momentum
because of reasons similar to those given above
in
or 5
do not occur
2)
MtV
Jt
S*
fl
=(@P2 754
55
N Jw
MrY
5 35
the case of two-phonon
2 8S8 5!4
For higher phonon states it is necessary to take into account the

pairing of phonons to zero angular momentum. This is done through the
seniority quantum number v, defined as
states.
where
is
= N$a =
the total
2 349
(3.4*5.
13,4-}
TT
m2 304
4.
59
SO
number of phonons- number of pairs,
number of phonons and a
is
the
number of phonons
coupled in pairs to zero angular momentum. The group theoretical
phonon
number can be found in the
tion of the higher
states
and the use of the
literature (He-65,
3*
seniority
classifica-
(3.4*)
agg
2063
4.07
-1931
3.7?
-2.393 4 29
m(12)
.2.225 3 99
(i*)
-2.202 3 95
(0*)
-2.049 168
-1.059
(t*,2*)-
We-66).
1702
3.33
0*2* 3* 4*6*
fiUb
(3X12+)
3(23.4*)-
-1.608
I.SS7 3.04
(3.4*)-
0*2* 4*
(0*)
** o
'I.22S 2.40
î
0*.
2f
I.
Energy spectrum of the harmonic quadrupole
351
-1840 3.30
-1730 lie
2*
Fig,
4.62
(4) (1,2)
quantum
2*-
-2.574
(1,2)
1.
133
112?
2.22
2.20
<s
2*
I.3S3
0*
1306 2 34
4*
244
12S2 230
1208 2.17
2*
0*
oscillator.
2.88
1133
2.03
The spectrum of
where
it is
the
harmonic quadrupole
oscillator
is
shown
in fig.
1,
seen that the three two-phonon states and the five three-phonon
states are degenerate. In order to see
how
welt the
-it.
harmonic quadrupole
oscillator
model describes nuclear
spectra,
we show some of
the most
0SI2
2*
1.00
558 100
4* 2 SOS
1
0* 2.28b
2* 2.1S9
-
ro*.o
-2* 1332
2*
Pd m
mo
62).
Numbers with arrows
A/V
tification
(in
MeV)
of the levels are indicated.
Pdand" Cd;data
taken from Sm-61a,b) (see also
are relative B(E2) values. Thick
and
thin lines
cascade E2 transitions in '""Pd, typical of a vibrational spectrum. Another iden-
of three-phonon states has been attempted in the experimental work by Sen

Gupta and van Patter (Se-63a).
favorable examples of vibrational experimental spectra in
Se 7S
Fig. 2, Typical experimental spectra of vibrational nuclei (Nu-66).
Yoshow transitions
having relative intensities larger than 10% and less than 10 %, respectively. Some of the
levels have been tentatively characterized as vibrational levels (phonon number N) on
the basis of the observed energies and decay branchings, Note particularly the stiong
1X7
asts
Ni
Ctf'
Fig.3,Lcvc!sandtransilionsin 106
The
The
spins
and energies
first
figs.
and
3,
systematic comparison of Ihe oscillator model with experiment was
given by Scharff-Goldhaber and Weneser (Sch-55a).
STRUCTURE OF THE COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR HAMILTON] AN
56
It
should be noted that the two-phonon
occurs at energies quite
triplet
near to twice the energy of the one-phonon 2
[CH. 3,
state.
The
triplet
not
is
CH.3.J2J
which have to be determined. The structure of the
are constants
9y i
multipole operator in terms of the collective variables
some nuclei ( 78 Se) a member of the triplet is missing

+
+
4
while in other nuclei (" Cd) two additional stales (0 ,2 ) occur in the
neighborhood of the triplet. Quintet states have, up to now, not been clearly
identified. The fact that a member of the triplet is missing may possibly be
due to experimental shortcomings. The occurrence of additional states in
in eq. (48). It is clear that
the neighborhood of the triplet has, however, interesting implications for
following way. Suppose t^(*i
the structure of the potential energy surface (see Chapter 4). Probably the
state
degenerate and
upper
and 2
in
MeV and
states at 1.305
MeV
1.363
respectively in
'
14
Cd
the
sum
of ranks X' and X" occur which can be coupled

and so that the parity requirements are fulfilled: the
"
product a inalA should be ( - 1 x
total parity
How
of the
x2
wave function of the nucleus.
on
dinates as well as
twice the one-phonon energy are clear indications of anharmonic terms
We
on a deformed
excited state.
fourth-order terms in # m
and
) in the Hamiltonian of eq. (7). The
harmonic approximation seems to be a zero-order approximation for these
(third-
nuclei.
3.2.2.
An
this
wave function
particle coordinates r
For example,
all
the many-particle ground

single-particle cooris
slow
we
determined (adiabaticity assumption).
assume that for every arbitrary but

which
difficulties
arise
tA]
from having too
a time-independent
is
parameter set and thus does not describe any degree of freedom. Consider
Multipole operators in collective variables

is
) is
degrees of freedom. In the adiabatic limit a
21 = <<K*i, ,*.
operator in quantum mechanics
depends on the
It
is
have then circumvented the
many
the collective variables. Since collective motion
ti]
built
xA
fixed set a
band
can the various constants q* be determined? This can be done in the
compared
rotational
completely specified
to a tensor of rank X,
Nevertheless, the splitting of the triplet states and also their deviation from
members of a
is
over the various A' and X" has to be
restricted so that only tensors
to single-particle motion,
are
57
)lfi5
-Safe.1-1
usually given in terms of single-
the electric and magnetic multipole
a)
et r\
Xi,-;x A
operators in eqs. (1.17) and (1.18) are expressed in terms of r and Y(3 h 
I
n>
(
) lift*,
)it( Xl
xA )>
(49)
,--;x-;xA
or"
to
how
We
shall
show
the general procedure and approximations for achieving
of the electric multipole operators, eq. (1.17). Since there
no spin coordinates involved
shall ignore the
compared
to the
second term
first
particle coordinates
is
term.
in
thus far in the collective description

eq. (1.17) which
Hence the
is
in
electric multipole
we
any event small
operator in single-
dx A
e t rt
*(I}
JljI
dx,
ZMV(4
1
a tensor operator of rank X and parity (I)
for the polar angles 9,,
q> t
where higher order terms
collective multipole operators are obtained
from
the
ground
state,
we
neglect
collective transitions.
some
These
interference terms between single-particle
and
arise because in principle the single-particle
transition charges are not equal to the expectation charges (see below).
is,
however, consistent with the adiabaticity assumption.
We define
the single-particle density
,--;x
(47)
is
a shorthand notation
In collective surface variables such an operator
has to have the form
GE" = *!.+
By requiring that the
expectation value of this equation, where the single particles are in the
This
given by
25 =
It is
dx l+
dx,_ ,
these operators can be expressed in terms of collective variables.
this in the case
are
xdxi
*(*!
,-;xAi aw )})/(x
'.Xt.WYld*,
(50)
= i\Q(x lt o^)e r 'Y^(Q )dx
(51)
t ,
and therefore have
r.r
in
&*& X'Mitv K, -,+

a
11
of-
'
have been omitted. The quantities q
(48)
<K*i . v%<
w es
)
#*i .**** <*
X1
)>
and
i-iJ

that
all
is
the expectation value of the total multipole
single-particle multipole
moment
moments. This sum can
[ch. 3. 2
is
the
sum
over
be performed
easily
ch. 3, 2)
order in
a.
Xt,
and we have
l
where
where we have used the

in
its
ground
0).
state.
protons are charged
fact that
The quantity
(52)
e p (x, a
Relation (52)
(e,
) is
Expanding in terms of the small quantities a
1)
4nR e
J*
Y2lt *dQ,
R Q (l + a 00 Y 0Q +Y
ili
123
(55)
a 2li
Y 2fl *}.
and remembering that volume
and neutrons
is strictly
true only in the adiabatic limit.
we obtain up to
->coU
Geo
II
third order in the a 2 *i
_ 3ZKg
should also be remembered that according to our conul

a ) is the charge distribution of the ground state. In
fV5
It
V(7o> ,n
principle the charge distribution of excited many-particle configurations
^r(*i
we approximate R m
_3Z
the proton density of the nucleus
JJ> Yu *dO
(56)
[i]
should be noted that eq. (52) depends on the collective variables a

,
which exhibits the dependence of the multipole operator on the collective
struction 0p(jc s
in this case
We therefore
quadrupole operator:
conservation (eq. 2.11) requires
It
coordinates a U]
result for the
- _3Z
4nR
,--;x*,*.^\Q%W{Xir -;xA ,aW) >
u
-Je P (*, a VV()d*,
However, the formulas become quite complicated.
nt,n
Q%= <Mx
are not (e {
an example the
give as
59
"
,!W1T
-W^l.,.(2L+1)4
**%" U*a* aU1) is different from
collective
motion
built
that of the ground state. Therefore

on excited many-particle configurations should not
only lead to different inertia parameters
Bx and
stiffness
parameters
Cx
(57)
of
the collective Hamiltonian (eqs. (8) and (9)) but also to different multipole
operators. This state-dependence of collective quantities is usually neglected.
In general, using eq. (2.1), the collective multipole operators are given
to
second order terms in a
can, however, sometimes be of importance. So, for example, the surface

vibrations in the presence of a giant resonance can be somewhat different
from
w by
up
It
["**+KA+2)
those in the ground state (see Chapters 10 and 11).

In order to proceed further we have to assume a model for
ul
Q f(x, a ).
There are several possibilities such as a homogeneous density distribution
with a radius given by
R = R
(l
,,**
Yn>*)
Al.
*(o
{(2X+l)(2X l + l){n 1 + 1)1(4^
1
1
ill:
J)
".."]
or alternatively a Fermi
Other operators, such as for example the magnetic multipole operators,
distribution
can be obtained in a similar way. In establishing the forms for
all
6o
eAr)" 1+^-*-'
(53)
operators,
1*1
jt
where c
(l+ I*. a** Ji/) is the half-density radius and a measures

the surface thickness. The constants l and q\.
q
v can then easily be calculated.
Of course, they depend somewhat on the model for the charge distribution.
We
arbitrarily
choose the
first possibility
mentioned,
i.e.
the
homogeneous
it is
characteristic that their general structure in terms of
can be given
as the q
easily.
For the computation of the various constants (such
in eq. (48)) however, specific assumptions (models)for the charge or
current distribution have to be introduced. There

rule,
these
a and
namely the establishment of the
collective coordinates,
which we
total
angular
will discuss in
is
one exception to
momentum
this
operator in
the next subsection.
charge distribution, and obtain
it-f+W.-A^Vm
3.2.3. Construction
(54)
nucleus
where
R = #(! + , ^ yx
It is
*).
This integral can easily be calculated to any
of a genera! angular momentum operator
in collective
variables
sometimes useful to be able to express the angular
A* in terms of phonon
momentum
operator
operators. It is then possible to check explicitly the
60
STRUCTURE OF THE COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR HAMILTON! AN
momenta of
angular
the various
wave functions given
[ch. 3, 2
in table 1.
Here the index
momentum
(59)
components.
We may
D ll \
ff,
Altering the
U
t;
= Z(-ir(llll/ivA)r^_ y = ^(Ul|^vA)r^,*,
=iiftAf[(22 1|v
which indicates that we are coupling two rank-one tensors {i.e. vectors)
to yield another rank-one tensor. Again the spherical components are
intended for the position vector r and the momentum p. Notice that
has
P*
been coupled with r because p transforms contragradiently to r while p*
transforms like r under rotations. More precisely, r and p* transform under
ll
\ while p transforms under
collective variables.) If
one
D cn *.
(See also eq. (2.43) for the case of
to couple spherical tensors to construct
is
ones, the original tensors should have the
new
same transformation properties
)(-ir^_JL-(221|av U)(-l)^ 2 _JU
ff/i
we determine
ff
)(-l)'
/t
Generalizing the expression (60) to rank-two tensors we
may
(221|
82
ff
vrf-(2
2 1| ffV/1 )]
(66)
_JLby
the normalization factor
the requirement that
S &|0>ntfU0>,
i.e.
the z-projection of the
one-phonon
to the transformation of the
phonon
state 01^
(67)
0> has to be u according
operator.
This should perhaps be discussed in more
we have reached here are extremely
under space rotations.
= -inMX(221|
Finally
65 )
indices in the first term gives
= iiftMS(-l) v ^-v^[(-l)
(60)
<
summation
(64)
= iiftM(221|<rri[(-irfc-.&-(-l)'&-.0!J-
rewrite eq. (59)
in vector coupling notation as
ii
(221|<7-<r0)(-l)* =
serves as a reminder of the vector character of the angular
refers to the spherical
61
we obtain
= ('x^-
operator, which transforms for space rotations under
and the index n
3, 2]
Usually
we have
i,
cm.
detail, since the conclusions
elegant, but perhaps not too familiar
f
transforms unWe have proven in eqs. (38) and (2.47) that ilt
Ui
der D
Furthermore, we have defined the phonon vacuum of even-even
to (he reader.
write
r?
= Mj:(22
1\<Tvti)& 2e fi lY ;
(61)
nuclei in section 3.2.1 such that eq. (37) holds,
angular
which means that the angular
momentum
operator
always obtained by
is
coupling the coordinates and the conjugate momenta to a rank-one tensor

(vector operator). Here
later. If
i
r;
we
is
a normalization factor which will be determined
express & 2 , and 6 2v * in terms of
= Mi(22i|
ff
phonon operators
v^Hiftrj5j 0+ {-ir J52 _ 8
][^_
_ 1)
(2.44), then
momentum
coordinate system
D m xD m =
[Z]
Z>
i.e.
the
vacuum
is
Hence the
rotated.
It is well
state
known (Ro-57)
j8 2)J
i.e.
Dm
if the
|0> transforms under
that if a
wave function i/^
transforms under rotations of the coordinate system with

5.128 and 5.141),
|0> carries the
zero and, consequently, transforms under
U [A]
(see eqs.
if
-,
Ml'
where ^'
-ifcAf(221|<rv,O0U;,-(-ir '&-.J2-,
is
wave function
the
in the rotated frame, then the total angular
momentum of the wave function is X and its z-projection is m. In other words,
+(-i)02-ji,-(-im,A-j.
The terms proportional to ft 0* and 00 are identically
shown in a manner similar to that which yielded the
zero. This
(62)
can be
result of eq. (46).
We have therefore
T^'
= 4*M (2 2
the transformation properties of the
of the wave function. Therefore
j.)
[(- l)-fe _..-(-l)'.
Applying the commutation relations for
A . J.
$p and noting that
M,1 a
( )
(63)
we know from
of the state 0\^ 0> proven above that

|
wave functions under rotations of the
coordinate system determine completely the angular
and that
its
z-component,
momentum
the transformation property
angular
its total
properties
^lO>=2(2+l)ft ^|0>
momentum
has to be
STRUCTURE OF THB COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR HAMILTONIAN
[ch. 3, 1 3
ch.
is
just fih.
By
APPLICATIONS OF THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR MODEL
3, 3]
63
use of the explicit expression for the special Clebsch-Gordan

(72)
coefficients
N times
V limes
[itL-n)(L+tt+iy}*
(LI L\n+v -vn) m (L(L + l))-*x
ft
U[i(I.+rf(I-^ + l)]*
one
easily finds
from
M=
eg, (67) that
=l
if v =
ifv=-l
if v
(68)
iVIO, and therefore
In order to have a measure for the amplitudes of the vibrating nucleus,
we
Xf
(69)
mean square deformation
define the
I
= VIu l(2 2i\ay fl)(-iy0 2 _Jl,
r"
because of the orthogonality of states with a different number of phonons N.
PN
a ^|
'
n tne g round
<a, N,
IM &
|
-A- <,
This expression for the angular momentum operator is

completely model
independent. It has been derived by the use of only
very
iv,
2d 2 Q>2
as the expectation value of
Using eq. (70) we have for an N-phonon
state.
& 2)i
2ll
2
fi a
a,
N,
state
IM}
/mi K-iytfU+t-i)***.)
It
general
x(&+(-iy%-, )i,tf,/M>
arguments, eqs. (60) and (61), and the properties of the

collective variables
(angular momentum behavior, commutation rules, ere).
Therefore,
no
matter what kind of special assumptions are made concerning

the oscillating
charge distribution (homogeneous, Fermi-type, Gaussian,
etc.), the angular
momentum operator will always be given by eq, (69).
3.3.
Simple applications of the harmonic oscillator model
for the
various transition probabilities between the oscillator
states,
quadrupole moments of excited states.
3.3.1.
states,
the nucleus
is
<,
2
ft,
N,IM\Z (2& $ u + SJ
N,
M,
IM >.
we have
IM} =
(5
+ 2N).
for the
(73)
2B 2 co 2
the
phonons. In particular
the change of the
given by the expectation value of
(70)
3.3.2.
Thus, in the ground state of the harmonic oscillator
a method Tor determining, at least for some nuclei,

mean square deformation in the one-phonon state comstate.
The mean square charge radius of excited slates
theoretical expression for the
mean square charge
collective coordinates of the nucleus
radius in terms of the
can be obtained through the electric
monopole operator
i
<
a,
= 9h/2B 2 oy 2
We shall now discuss
^G^)^- ^-^
(2^)
mean square deformation depends on the number of

we have for the ground state /J 2 = 5h[2BiC0 2
2
one-phonon state B t = 7hf2B2 a> 2t and for the two-phonon state
As expected
pared to the ground
<0, * 2j0> =
^ =
- O, N,IM\Z &*
B2 *
The mean square deformation
The deformation of
H,1M\
Using eqs. (33) and (34) and
seems useful to compute a few nuclear quantities which can

be predicted
by the oscillator model with a view to comparing these results with
experimental data. Such quantities are, for example, mean square
radii
and
(a,
It
various
2B 2 <a z
'^ + (-
)"^-.l> =
loo
(71)
-1
Q P r dr,
(74)
nuclejr
i.e.
the expectation value of
Nth
excited state <
\6t
2ll
>
is
volume
<* 2
in the
zero since
ground
state is zero. Similarly in the
we have
where q p
constant.
is
as usual the nuclear charge density which again
The
integration
is
is
assumed to be
i.e. from
carried out over the nuclear volume,
STRUCTURE OF THE COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR HAM1LTONIAN
64
r
= 0tor =
J?
(56) according to
ôfl + aooôo + Z^^x^*) where a oo

volume conservation, eq. (2.1 1). Thus
[ch.
is
3,
g 3
given by eq.
CH.
3, 3]
Only the electron charge
The
potential.
inside the nucleus gives rise to
4tz
J Jq
we
TZ R o
is
mean
the nuclear state.
noticed that this term
It is
now easy
A nuclear level W v will

AE,
radius should be proportional to the vibrational
_ L\\ r
In
various
y-ray
<P,|
from the
)j^(0)|
|/excttedate
fV
4n
by thepositive
this interaction
-Ze 2 V(r)\W v y = + $TtZ e 2 |^(Q)| 2 <V,| r 2
state
|i
\C
{/ground jtaiej-
<f\>,
and consequently a nuclear
) to the ground state
f>
(81)
transition
> will be shifted
by
(76)
where A, and
This
2
f
|^(0)|
(82)
Af are the level shifts of the initial and final states respecAE is so small that cannot be measured directly. However,
shift
it
(77)
2B 2 u) z
*v
4tc
"I".-'
is the mean square deformation of the ground state. The change in

mean square radius therefore depends quite strongly on fi a 2 which
where p
changes between 10"' and 10" 2 for various nuclei (see table 2 on pp. 66, 67).
The first measurements of the mean square radius in excited states were
made by
Kistner and Sunnyar (K.i-60) and by Brix, Kienle et
al.
(Br-64b,
s-shell electrons is finite
be some probability
Coulomb
The probability density of atomic

at the origin (i.e. over the nucleus) and so there
for finding these electrons within the nucleus. The
interaction of these electrons with the nuclear charge distribution
will disturb the
far
SSL
Ile-68a) using the following technique:
will
A = AEj-AEf = +fjtZe 2 5<r 2 >

tively.
(see fig. 4)
With eq. (73) we find
8<k |>.
-ir
be shifted according to
in first-order perturbation theory,
compute the change of the mean square radius

the harmonic quadrupole vibrator. We define
"\ r /excited (tile
quite plausible because
to
excited states for
the
2Tt(R o
energy
is
amplitude a 2 .
It is
nr) =
proportional to the squared deformation, which
the change of the
a?)
find
(75)
4rc
The second term depends on
Using the expansion
- * i -|-t n.tflj Yjm

i~a
i.m2f+l
\rr\
r>
which gives
Goo
an r-dependent
spherical charge distribution outside the nucleus gives rise
to a constant (r-independent) potential.
4iuK
65
Compound
Pig. 4.
Compound
II
The initial and final nuclear levels are shifted due to finite electron
The shift is different for different compounds. 6E is given as the
tween the two wavy lines (y-rays).
nucleus.
density at the
difference be-
nuclear levels. This shift in the energy of the levels can be
measured by means of the Mossbauer
effect.
More
precisely, the nearly
Huefner
ei al,
(Hue-65) use two different ions placed in a

2+
constant electron charge density |^(0)| 2 where ^(0) is the wave function
of all s-electrons evaluated at the origin, produces an additional Coulomb
Eu z+ and Eu 3+ The
potential K(r) for the nucleus given by
missing,
[W0)J
is
v(')-\m\*
J"
nuclear
volume
i-^'
(78)
the one for
and
electron density for
Eu 3+
different, since
is
given by |^n(0)|
different in the two cases (see
is
electron density at the origin.
SE
Eu
Therefore the
fig.
at the origin
is
crystal,
e.g.
described by
one additional electron

shift
4) since this shift
is
of a nuclear y-ray AE,

is
proportional to the
Then
- (AEX-fAEX,,
(83)
cm.
structure of thb collective nuclear hamiltontan
66
3, 3]
67
[ch. 3, 3
Table 2
Table 2
(continued)
Properties of vibrational nuclei.
Elements
1-phonon
state
fc<2*
Data from La-61, Wa-63, Nu-66

-0 + )
2-phonon
1-phonon state
Elements
states
2 + -energy [MeV]
lpt
0,356
0.125
0.405
0.134
'*Hg
0.426
0.129
198
Hg
200 Hg
201
Hg
304
Hg
0.412
0.109
0.368
0.098
0.440
0.086
0.430
0.047
0.229
204 pb
0.899
0.043
0.635
0.337
aoep b
0.803
0.037
1.41
0.13
Fe
0.845
0.23
3B Fe
0.805
0.27
*4
Zn
0.990
0.250
2.29
1.78
"Zn
"Zn
1.039
0.227
2.37
1.87
1.078
0.205
70 Zn
0.887
76
(2
>pt
"Fe
*Sc
(J
-*0 + )
2-phonon
state
2 + -energy [McV]
2.085
1.664
0.687
1.089
0.947
0.965
1.563
1.216
Se
0.559
0.326
"Se
0.614
0.287
B0 Se
0.666
0.240
*Rn
Rn
0.833
0.159
0.654
0.215
10D Rii
0.540
0.232
101
Rn
104 Rn
0.473
0.264
0.358
0.288
0,893
This small energy
ioPd
0.555
0.212
1.33
iosp,j
0.512
0.224
1.137
1.125
i*Pd
0.434
0.243
1.049
0.942
iio Pd
0.374
0.252
measured with the help of the Mossbauer effect by using compound I as

an emitter and compound II as an absorber. It is seen from eq. (84) that
<5<r*>j can be obtained if the electron density at the origin is known for both
1M Cd
1M Cd
0.633
0.186
0.633
0.195
1.473
1.509
obtained from isotopie
110
Cd
0.658
0.183
1.474
1.541
electron density
i>*Cd
0.617
0.186
1.23
1.31
1.41
1,4
Cd
" a Cd
0.558
0.193
1.15
1.21
1.278
0.513
0.201
1.217
IJ0
Te
0.560
0.170
'"Te
0.564
0.183
1.250
0.603
0.174
1.326
1.248
mTe
0.667
0.163
1.41
1.36
0.743
0.142
"Te
0.840
0.127
'"Nd
1.570
0.104
14
>
*Te
1JSTe
(1.44)
1.307
(1.44)
1.455
(1.41)
1.14
where the indices

1.42
^Z e
1.156
0.812
two compounds.
compounds.
It
is
is
1.105
We
obtain easily from eqs.
shift, called
ClW0)|
isomeric
2
2
-f^ (0)| ]S<r >
I
shift,
(5x
10"
(84)
eV
for
153
Eu)
is
believed that reasonable information about this can be

shift
measurements (Br-64b). This uncertainty in the

if one uses muonic atoms instead of electron
eliminated
atoms since the wave functions of the muon are very precisely known.
Furthermore, the
efTect is in this case so large that it can be measured

one compares the nuclear y-ray energy with and without
the presence of a muon *.
directly,
3.3.3.
i.e.
Electromagnetic decay of the quadrupole vibrational states
Transition probabilities for the states of the harmonic quadrupole vibrator

are easily calculated by means of eq. (1.16). The most dominant transitions
*Nd
0.695
0.111
1.31
" 8Nd
0.455
0.161
(1.20)
1.07
*Nd
0.300
0.197
'"Os
0.155
0.193
are the electric quadrupole transitions in this case.
means of the quadrupole operator given

0.633
0.479
to the leading
0.557
0546
the transition operator
0.186
0.185
" 2 Pt
0.316
0.179
0.613
,M Pt
0.328
0.156
0.622
1900s
(I refer to
5 =
1.36
1.105
I,
and (82)
(81)
These take place by
in eq. (57). Restricting ourselves
term of the quadrupole operator, which
can
easily be expressed in
For a more complete discussion of muonic atoms we
is
linear in
a 2ll
terms of phonon operators,

refer to
Volume
2 in this scries.
STRUCTURE OF THE COLLECTIVE NUCLEAR HAMILTOWAN
H^ (-*-) ^+(-irffi-
&;" =
J.
(85)
seen that only transitions between states differing by one
in this
E2 transition
approximation. The
state to the
ground
*<*."! E
exist
+
It is
5)
^rlKo'^fitfW
&
first
fe
5
(fie)
(86)
ft
(^>
2
O
easy to see that
Coulomb
also governed by the
matrix element as enters in eq. (86). Consequently,
2
J
\0
0/) 2B 2 to 2
Coulomb
\N,
IM)
are inserted.
For the one-phonon
ill -phonon
10(fK)-*p
*v
4k
\0
3.3.4.
listed these quantities in table 2.
With <0|p\ 2
I
otjp is
Qu -
in
-phonon
&J J
2
4n
k* + W
I (*T* ft
\0
term
is
22 |0>
obtain
2
)
0/
0/2B
2 co 2
5 v2 one finds
10(
V"T^)
^(o
\0
4ji
terms of the quadrupole surface variables
o)2l^^ " 2|2 2 )

0/2B 2 w 2
= -(~Hi)- 1 ô 2o
have p = 0.193 (see
.
given as a special case of eq. (58),
we
x|V5 E(222|v -vO)(-iy<O!0fl,&,tf 2 |O>.
Quadrupole moments of excited states
The quadrupole operator
state
same
excitation
(91)
This formula can be further simplified only if specific wave functions
2
In order to get a quantitative
can also be used for the measurement of /J
feeling for excitation energies (ftw 2 ) and mean square deformations for
we have
0, (90)
xW5<W,JJ|X(222|v -vO)(-l)'&&,jAU/>.
can be determined directly
is
e = (*)* -îo(!*r*(;;
4n
vibrational state. It turns out that the
excitation probability for the one-photion states
various nuclei
(89)
ft
mean square deformation
from the decay of the
_ v o)(-1)'(2K,^+1)|W,//>.
(J
and therefore
(ftc)
(h(o 2
8jc
0/
(222|v -v0)(-l) v = V5 (222|v = v0)(220| v -vO) =
8-3
Therefore the
phonon
probability from the first excited 2
lo
4rt
state is then
WE2) - 2(1
REFERENCES
CH. 3)
\2B 2 tt> 2 /
4rt
It is
[ch. 3, 3
For U4Cd we
')
\v,
0/ (
v2
fil
**"J
(87)
(92)
table 2),
Z-
48,
R =
1.2xyi*
fin
and thus (Gi -,*,,) "ca * -2x 10" 2 b. This value is much too
small compared with the experimental result obtained by the measurement of
5.82 fin,
reorientation effects (see Chapter
The
first
linear in the
and the second term
moment
is
(see eq.
is
phonon creation and
annihilation operators,
quadratic in these operators. Since the quadrupole
we
(1 .2))
e = (Y)*<*u'ieiJM'>.
(88)
only the second term of eq. (87) can give a contribution to the quadrupole
moment
in
the harmonic oscillator model.
C-(Wa.3ZRq
:<*r.-/iii(J
We find
2B 2 o) 2
4it
-v
1) which yields about -0.28 b. This inharmonic oscillator is a very crude description for these
particular nuclear states, and may sometimes be quite inadequate. Indeed,
dicates that the pure
2
^(^+(-iy^-.m~M-iy^)\N,io
will see in
our discussion of the collective potential energy surface
the next chapter that
most
in
nuclei vibrate quite anharmonically even for
low-energy excitations. For such anharmonic vibrations the phonon number

will never be a good quantum number and consequently
the first and most
dominant term of the quadrupole operator
in eq. (87) will contribute. This

mixing of phonon stales due to anharmonic vibrations essentially accounts
for the above-mentioned discrepancy between theory and
experiment.
References
Some
useful aspects of quadrupole vibrations are given in Gr-61.
INTRINSIC COORDINATE SYSTEM
CH. 4, 1]
ting ourselves for the
moment
of fission processes. This
CHAPTER
t2]
for large a
sign of
C+
It will
We also do
The
Collective Potential
to eq. (3.9)
we have excluded
so because K(a
[2]
be positively or negatively
from basic models
(e.g. the shell
more phenomenological point of view.
We ask
a major extent the
example whether the nucleus

vibrator, whether it has excited deformed
is a harmonic or an anharmonic
state and perhaps spherical for
states, whether it is deformed in the ground
special properties of the nucleus. It describes for
special excited states,
and so
forth.
It
model). Instead,
What
(3.9).
we
for the various types
are the potential

,
collective potential energy surface determines to
some
infinite
depending on the
maxima and minima for various sets of the parameters C2 C3 and C4 ?

What is the appearance of the various "mountains" described by the
surface of eq. (3.9)? After we have discussed these possibilities and the
qualitative behavior of the corresponding energy spectra we will attribute
to every nucleus "its'* potential energy surface.
The
infinite
the discussion
becomes
not intend here* to derive the collective potential quadrupole
of surfaces possible with the ansatz of eq.
Energy Surface
in eq. (3.9)
surface of eq. (3.9)
take a
is
also determines the softness of
This
the characteristic feature of that particular nucleus.
be considered as
will
Many
of
its
properties
then be easily understood in terms of peculiarities of the collective
will
energy surface.
The
4,1.
intrinsic coordinate
system
In general, it depends
the nuclear vibrations and the fissioning of the nucleus.
l
), and hence
,
on a variety of collective variables, that is V{of* \
We have learned in Chapter 2 that
function must be
be a very complex function. We know that this
in order to conserve
invariant under space rotations and space reflections
with the principal
new coordinate system K' whose axes coincide

axes of the nuclear surface. The nuclear surface in this
coordinate system
is
will
angular
momentum and parity
respectively.
We also
know
that this function
given in terms of Cartesian coordinates by
1 *3
eters, that is for
and a w
w -
tx
oo,
it
(1)
Rq
should vanish. The potential barrier between
governs the fission processes. The nuclear

excited states, will be given
spectra, i.e. the nature of the various low-energy
U] In order to discuss
xt
potential energy surface V(< ) for small a
or
possible for the quadrupole collective
coordinates a C2]l to define a
it must desmall a
has to have the following qualitative behavior. For
paramdeformation
scribe some type of a binding potential, while for large
5*1
it is
oo essentially
by the
Hence the surface
Rq
Rq
in this coordinate system is invariant
under any of the
transformations
a manner as possible,
the collective potential energy surface in as lucid
the
show the main features which can occur in the structure of
- x
->
-/,
z -
z,
(2)
and to
surface,
we
namely the collective

we assume that
words
other
In
discuss the simplest nontrivial case here,
potential quadrupole surface of eq. (3.9).

C2]
are the only collective coordinates
the quadrupole surface coordinates a

which matter for the structure of the nucleus. This
is
certainly not true for
that the surface defined from eq.

large
of low-energy nuclear
understanding
qualitative
(3.9) is only relevant for the
extent. By restneconsiderable
will see that this is the case to a
spectra.
deformations. Hence we can expect
We
70
t-e-
it
*V-,
is
invariant under the mirror transformations with respect to the
x'z'-
and
j/z'-planes.
principal axes of the surface
and
The condition
is
a!^
a,,
that the coordinate axes are
(t'
?s
0,
compare
eqs. (2.17)
and with eq. (2.20) leads to the following condition for the
spherical components a 121 of the tensor a [2] in the intrinsic frame
(2.21),
This will be done in Volume 3 of this

there.
series,
and the
results -will be discussed extensively
COLLECTIVE POTENTIAL ENERGY SURFACE
72
o2
[CH. 4,
1
i (-it*) (<***- <*)
ch. 4,
73
Let us denote
=
=
by {x,}
by {x\}
{x, y, z)
the components of a point fixed in the lab system,
{x',y',2'} the coordinates in the rotated intrinsic system,
where the rotation

Therefore the intrinsic nuclear surface of eq, (1) becomes, in terms of
spherical coordinates,
by {xj
{x, y, z)
is
through the Euler angles
8 2 Sj,
,
the special coordinates x'
3c,
/ = y, z' = z
of a
point in the intrinsic system.
R'(V, 9')
= RoV +fl,n o('. *') + 2 { la 2(9'. <P') + F,
In the following
we
will drop, as in
the quadrupole variables a
Chapter
2, the
2 (', 9')}]-
redundant
and keep only the second index,
first
i.e.
(4)
index of
we
write
The
situation can be visualized as
shown
we
will give here
a detailed and general discussion of
m=
- jz (*+y)
r
does not lead to a one-to-one correspondence between the variables in the

and the
lab system and the new coordinates consisting of the Euler angles
misunderstandings
leads
to
often
intrinsic coordinates. Since this point very
difficulties,
fig. 1.
y, z) as
a replacement
for the Cartesian ones, as in eq. (2.13),
a 20 = a Q and a 22 = " 2
At this point it is necessary to realize a few peculiarities of the transformation from the laboratory system to the intrinsic system. This transformation
and
in
Let us introduce the spherical components rm of {x,
m=
-(x-iy)
s=
r($n)*Ylm (&,9),
(5)
-1
it.
where
9,
,<p'),
(6)
m = 1
V2
where
&', tp'
are the polar angles with respect to the intrinsic system.

r
and the rm are given
= V* a +/ + i 2 =
in terms of the
r'
y/x'
+ y' 2 + z' 2
by {Ro-57,
see
We have
(7)
>
Chapter 5)
Fig.
fines
The requirement that a point P moving in the laboratory system (indicated by full
in the intrinsic system (indicated by dash-dot lines) dehas fixed variables $,
are symbolithe Euter angles connecting both coordinate systems. The Euler angles
1.
lines)
cally indicated
by
^0/^*-
The Euler angles are in general defined by the requirement that in the rotated
frame a point must have fixed coordinates r, = r r where f , are fixed numbers.
In this
way
of freedom. There are three degrees

namely x, y, z, and three degrees of
eq. (8) conserves the degrees
of freedom on the left-hand
freedom on the right-hand
side,
side,
namely the three Euler angles 9 t , S 2 9 3

,
74
The fixed numbers
ICH, 4.
x, y, z characterize, so to say, the intrinsic coordinates of
the point. If the point
moves in the laboratory system,
i.e.
xm
x(t),
= y(t),
= z(r), then the requirement r, = r, for all times defines the Euler angles
S = 8,(t) as functions of time. However, the Euler angles could also be
z
4, l]
ch.
new
the coordinates rm to the
transformation.
To
a given
75
coordinates $ lt 9 2 , S 3 , r'v
set
is
not a one-to-one
rm , there belong different sets 3,, S 2 ,
33
This can be seen in the following way. There are 24 different possibilities
for choosing the intrinsic coordinate system to be coincident with the
r'.
principal axes
system.
and
have the same point x, y, z described in the laboratory
still
We show some of these possibilities in fig. 2. The laboratory system is
not shown here. Only the intrinsic system together with the fixed coordinates
of the point are drawn. Fig. 2(a) corresponds to the normal situation. The
x', y\ z' intrinsic system is the same as in fig. 1 and is rotated through the
Euler angles. 3 lf S 2 , 8 3 , with respect to the lab system. In this special
intrinsic
system the fixed point has the coordinates
x
In
fig.
x,
z'
y,
z.
(9)
we have another
2(b)
possibility for the intrinsic system. This is

obtained from that of fig. 2(a) by a rotation through |rt around the z'-axis.
The point
will
system of
fig,
have the same position in the lab system
*'
Similarly in
figs.
the old one of
2(c)
fig.
y,
/=
-x,
the
new
and 2(d) the new
z'
intrinsic
z.
intrinsic
(10)
systems are obtained from
2(a) by rotations around the z'-axis through
Again the position of the point
respectively.
if in
2(b)
is
re
and \%
not changed provided that
the intrinsic coordinates are simultaneously changed according to
-x,
= -y,
z'
z,
(11)
-h
z,
(12)
and
respectively. It is
fig. 2,
Fig. 2. Four possibilities for the choice of the intrinsic system. In each of these possibilities
only the orientation of the intrinsic system is changed. If the axes of the intrinsic system
coincide in fig. 2(a) with the principle axes of the nucleus (denoted by the arrows
of length
, y, ) then the
axes in
all
the cases (c)-(d) also coincide with the piincipal axes.
defined in another way. In fact, the

intrinsic
system
the x'-, y'-
and
z'-axes
most usual
must
definition is that for the
coincide with the principal axes
of a nucleus (or a molecule). In this case, the transformation of eq. (8) from
x,
immediately seen that besides the four cases shown in
the following possibilities also exist;
1).
In every case shown in
2),
The
fig. 2 the x' and z' axes can be inverted.

can be chosen either along the z'-axis or the x'-axis or
the /-axis, and either along the positive or negative directions
of these axes
z'-axis
of fig. 2(a).
Hence we have altogether

coordinate system
* If
there
x',
/,
z'
4x3x2 =
24
possibilities for
making the
coincide with the principal axes*.
symmetry (as would occur for example in fig. 2(a) around the
we can turn the rotation shown in fig. 2 through any angle. We will always
have the coordinate system K' coincident with
the principal axes. Hence in this case we
have an infinite number of possibilities for
making K' coincide with the principal axes.
*'-axis
its =.
is
rotational
j>)
For most of the 24
possibilities the Euler angles
"intrinsic coordinates" x'
x, y'
y, z'
[CH. 4,
S lt 9 2
be changed.
will
9 3 and
tae
It is easily
seen, however, that all the 24 possibilities can be built up in terms of products
of three basic transformations R lt 2 , 8 3 defined in the following way,
,(x,
It
y, z,
9 it 9 2 8 3 ) =
(x,
-y, -z, 9 1 +n,n-9 2
2 (x, y, z, fl,
S 2 33 )
(y,
3 (x, y, z,
3j, S 3 )
(y, z, x,
S,
-x,
z,
fl,
S2
-9 3 )>
Ri
interchange of the intrinsic variables x, y,
1,
2 -
1,
+in).
and
- z.
z'
Finally,
This can be seen from the very

5): the coordinates
the
{x',} in
{x,} in the lab system are related by
Zi ^jj(*'i
2> $3) X/
>
1. 2, 3.
(15)
i=i
(14)
1-
These three basic transformations can be viewed pictorially as in fig.

corresponds to a simultaneous reflection of the y' and
It is seen that &
,
axes and a corresponding change
y' ~*
z.
Chapter
and the coordinates
The elements of
U "
^3
*%
intrinsic coordinates x'
describes a cyclic interchange of the x', y' and z' axes and a corresponding
(13)
obviously follows that

Jt*
describes a rotation through $n around the z'-axis and simultaneously a
change of the
rotated frame
it 2
1]
definition of the Euler angles (see
S a 9 3 +i*),
+K S
ch. 4,
Ru
the transformation matrix
depend on the three Euler
angles and are given explicitly by (see eq. (5.22))
3.
z'
in the intrinsic coordinates (x,y, z).
(cos &i cos #i cos

cos #, cos #1
sin
#3
sin #,
93
sin
sin 0, cos #j
sin #i cos
&z
sin #1 cos d 2
cos #i sin #2
cos 0j
+ cos 0,
sin
sin #3 -!-cos 0, cos
sin
#i
sin
sin
&3
nWM
#1
sin
cos
sin
0i
cos
3S\
#
(16)
Substituting the changes of the Euler angles according to eq, (13), one can
check by straightforward computation the interpretation of
/*
given in
fig.
3.
^1 -* Si+ji,
Sa
For example,
-*
it
is
^3 -* -83, the
&
t ,
R2
and y'-components change

x'-component does not. This exactly
sign according to eq. (15), while the
z'-
corresponds to the transformation performed by A, as shown

It is
&3
also easily checked that the operation
it
in fig, 3.
on the Euler angles described by
leads to a cyclic change of the intrinsic axes.
We called the three operators R k 2
and ^3
easy to see that by the substitution
is
obvious from
fig.
coordinate system x\
3 that all
24
fc 3
"basic transformations", because
possibilities
of making the
intrinsic
coincident with the principal-axis system can be
y', z'
obtained by successive application of 1
R =
/? 2
^3
i.e.
as products of the
form
Si" &s"\
(17)
where the nk denote positive integers.
We
must next see
how
the
symmetry operations
expressed in terms of collective coordinates.
the intrinsic Cartesian coordinates

to the rotated
of a
Fig.
3.
The
three basic transformations J?i,
shown. The quantities
X, f,
fia
on
the x',
/,
z' intrinsic
system are
denote the coordinates of a point fixed in space.
stated in eq. (13) are
quantities x', y', z' describe
particle, for
example, with respect
frame (principal-axis system). The collective variables with
respect to the principal-axis system are
A,
The
a z as given
in eq. (3).
The
surface of the nucleus in the intrinsic system, in terms of Cartesian coordinates,
is
given by eqs. (1)
and
(2.21).
COLLECTTVH POTENTIAL ENERGY SURFACE
7S
R = Ko
(l
Ich. 4, B
GEOMETRIC SYMMETRIES
CM. 4, 2J
i
/(*H x2t*3i a 2jJ
+ +<^ + )
18 >
= M*I.*2.
W.*2, - I^*(*l2.S3)fl.)
=>/(*
f(x,
'
Applying ,,
!"m
-K 1 &yy
we immediately obtain
according to eq. (13),
axx
= &yy
Rl a xx
R-2 &yy
= /'(9i,92>S 3 ,x',y',2',a
&yy>
a xx
We now
ft3
>
#2<4 = '
a yj-
^,a'
= a >
= a'
(19)
have two important* consequences:
The new
function /'(Si. S 2 , 9 3 , x' t y',z',a a ,a 2 ) is automatically

invariant under R~ lt k 2 , & 3 because eqs. (8) and (23) are invariant under
1).
these transformations,
a2
a 2'
^2 a 2
2 a =
fl
fl
'Os
(20)
it is
invariant under
one finds
function
tj/
k2
fc 3
(21)
t
&iy
y,
-y.
&-.?
l-**
s 2 s3) -
(ft
-v,
3 (ft 7. i S 2 3 3 ) -
(P,
y-$n, i Si+in, Sj+i*),
Si
a manner often
expressed in terms of laboratory coordinates,
a a +iX
.
$'
under A,
\lt(x,
y, z,
-
way can the uniqueness of the wave function in the laboratory

which is a basic requirement of quantum mechanics, be achieved.
is
a 2(I ),
R 2 and ^ 3 Only
system,
the nonuniqueness in the establishment of the intrinsic variables
which necessitates the symmetrization of the wave functions and which

automatically generates symmetries in the functions of the intrinsic variables.
V
V
*iC*.7,i,a.i)-(ft7.i+*.*-*2.- 9 ).
.
in
in this
It
and hence the three basic transformations can be written

found in the literature (Bo-52)
one requires, however, that the same wave
If
be a unique function one has to symmetrize
the 24 transforma-
all
one performs a calculation in intrinsic variables (9 t 9 2 S 3 x\ /,

a
z\(>a> 2}i sav by solving a Hamiltonian formulated in these coordinates,
one in general gets solutions 1/^(81 9 2 S 3 , x',y', 2', a a 2 ) which are not
,
Introducing the /^-representation of the collective variables, eq. (2.23),
y> Si
and hence
2). If
3 a 2 = iV^ a o~"i 2'

3 a = -ia +W Sfl 2-
2)
invariant under ,,
*aG.
(24)
tions discussed above,
or by inspection of eq. (3)

8.X
,fl 2)
12
It is
=1,
very necessary to
remember
the origin of the various symmetries since
otherwise one can easily be led to false conclusions.
= l
= L
22>
the a ^-representation
As we
shall
soon
see,
of the collective potential energy surface with
equipotential curves not only shows the symmetries of the nuclear shape,
but also reflects the peculiar role of the intrinsic coordinates.

It
should be realized that both the transformation of the coordinates from
the laboratory system to the intrinsic system in eq. (8),
and the
trans-
formation (see eq. (2.22))
4.2.
The geometric symmetries
The
collective potential energy surface as
in the collective
quadrupole energy surface
a function of the quadrupole
coordinates has the form, eq. (3.9),
are invariant under
k lt R 2 ,k 3 and hence under
all
24 transformations from
the lab system to the principal-axis system. Therefore,
we can
our results in the following way. Assume a unique function of the laboratory
coordinates {*,} and {oc 2 } is given by/(x,, a 2<1 ). To every set of variables
and {a 2ft } there corresponds one and only one value of f(x a 2 J.
If we express this function now in terms of Euler angles and intrinsic
variables by inserting eqs. (8) and (23) in the arguments we obtain a new
{x,}
function /'(9,
S 2 B 3 x",/,
,
z',
a2 ):
V(*
also express
W3 C
[2]
a^T
+ C 4 ry 2] xa [2] ] l0]
It is
+ C 3 [IV 2] x [2] ] [21 x ara] [01

|11
x I2I ] |01 +
(25)
a rotationally invariant function pf the coordinates a [2] in the laboratory
system. If
dinates,
we
we
express V(txS 21 ) in terms of Euler angles
generate in the
and
intrinsic coor-
new function V(a ,a 2 ) the symmetries
in the foregoing section. In addition
it
discussed
should be realized that the trans-
GEOMETRIC SYMMETRIES
CM. 4, 2]
[CH. 4, 2
system
(e.g. the principal-axis
same form as
it
new system
has in the
new system,
for instance in our case
[2]
ce
-Ki m
Hence
f,
F(-o,i)
ySQ^xa^r + â^xa^^xa^T
JYK, <*i) -
(-|a -W62. W6o-laa).
f2 3 (a
(a
T,
we have
-ksl^ a o-ia 2 ),
(31a)
(
31b)
exactly the
old system, only the coordinates transform into the
in the
coordinates of the
system)
= (-iao+K/^.
fa(ofla)
formed potential energy V(a Qt a 2 ) does not depend on the Euler angles at
E2] is a scalar. If a scalar is transformed to a new coordinate
all because F(a
)
81
fÔo,
t2 2 (o 0s
a 2)
a 2)
(31c)
(an identity),
a 2)
= (-ia + i>/6fla. W6o + ia).

= (-ia -y6a 2 -*V6a +ia)>
a 2)
fl
2)
31d )
(31e)
f,
f2
3
(fl
.,
We give in fig. 4 a pictorial

lines a 2 = 0, a 2 = iV6a
or explicitly
V(a Q ,a 2 )
plane.
One
(o
-a a ) = f,(fl
a 2 ).
(31f
interpretation of these six transformations.
o2
of these, say the area
-Wô
The
generate six areas in the a a 2 -
(1), is sufficient in
order to cover the
full
The
areas. The
g\ g" and
o a 2 -plane by the use of the symmetry transformations in eq. (31).

2
2
2
0)
+(2 2 2 2 -2 0)a 2 + (2 2 2 - 2 2 0)a 2 }
K{(2 2 2
+ 1 {(22 2|0-2-2)o fl2 + (2 2 2|-2 0-2)fl 2 }
+ V5
various transformations needed are indicated in the various
letters
fl
g and g 2
x
indicate the borders of the area
(1
).
The letters
fl
+ a 2 {(2 2 2|0 2 2)a
+jO
+ 2a 2 2 ) 2
a 2 +(2 2 2|2 02)a 2 a
g'
}]
new areas.
Now, if conclusions concerning nuclear
(27)
g' ' indicate respectively the transformation of these borders into the
2
properties are to be
the structure of the collective potential energy,

If all
f(fl
Clebsch-Gordan
,fli)
coefficients are inserted
- iC 2 (a 2 + 2a 2 2 ) + V/rC 3
fl o
(6a 2
one
is
with
finally left
J
-a o ) + iC 4 (a o + 2fl 2
to only
one of the
six areas in fig. 4.
one has to
drawn from
limit the discussion
Each of these contains
all
the physics.
2\2
2
)
(28)
/at = $V2a,
a 2 ), which' depend only on a a and o 2 and not

on the Euler angles, only six of the 24 symmetries are left. Namely, there
which
are only six transformations of the form given in eqs. (20) or (21)
For functions such as V{a
,a 2 ) or equivalently (fry). These six

transformations can be constructed out of the two basic transformations
change the
f,
and
f2
intrinsic coordinates (a
defined as follows (Gn-67):
ti(<*o,a 2 )
^(ao- a 2 )
= ("o. - a z)>
m (-ia +iV 6a 2'"iv/ 6 a o-i
f.
1,
(29)
fl 2).
?2
*>
Fig. 4.
The effect or the symmetry operations
that every point (<io, i) in
or
(30)
six different
transformations which can be built from fj and
f2
one of the
T lt Tiin the a
six areas
aa -plane.
It
should be realized
of this figure desci ibes a possible shape of
the nucleus. Functions defined
on such an area, give information on a particular nuclear
property
02}
(e.g. a
function V(a
may
be the collective potential) for the special nuclear
ax ). The question arises as to how to discuss the physical content in

one of the aa ai-areas in the easiest and most lucid way. This will be achieved by discussi ng
the extrema of the potential energy surface, the saddle points and, in general, by finding the
shape defined by (a
The
^ = -[3/2 0,
are
equipotentials of the potential cneigy.
explicitly
Due
[CH. 4, 3
to the character of the intrinsic variables, the other areas are simply
redundant.
One should
fig.
realize that every point (a
4 does correspond to one possible
Functions defined on such an area,
,a 2 ) in one of the
V(a
a 2 ), give informa-
tion about a particular nuclear property, e.g. the collective potential, for
the special nuclear shape defined by (a
(32)
c 2 cA
six areas of
of the nucleus.
intrinsic surface
e.g. the potential
83
A SCHEMATIC MODEL
ch. 4, S 3]
a 2 ). The question arises as to
how
a 2 ) always has a minimum at s =

independent of the values of C3 and C4 In particular, one has
For
b).
a2
C2 >
the potential r(o
P(0, 0)
0.
Except on the borders of the
c).
six
areas
shown
in fig. 4,
V(a
a 2 ) does
to discuss the physical content in one of the a a 2 -areas in the easiest and
not have any extrema. This can be seen most easily in the /Jy-representation.
most
For
lucid way. This will be achieved by discussing the extrema of the
potential energy surface, the saddle points, and, in general, finding the
equipotentials of the potential energy.
f}
the necessary condition for aD extremum,
has solutions for y
^jc,
where n
the borders of the various areas in
fig. 4.
0, 1, 2,
3F/90
3K/6>
This corresponds to
Hence we only have to consider
the special surface in eq. (28) along the a -axis.
A3.
A schematic model
for the collective quadrupole energy surface
d).
A necessary and sufficient condition that
mum on
The collective quadrupole energy
ansatz. In general
surface, eq. (28),
is
series.
one would expect that the potential energy
more
realistic
a2
0, is
energy surfaces
in
a much more
is
we will
Volume 3 of
> -^ =
6.222
(33)
calthis
Nevertheless, the schematic potential energy of eq. (28) already
and
exhibits all important features
which may be realized for
structures
nuclei 7h *ertain areas of the periodic table.

!
It
therefore seems worthwhile
to discuss briefly the various types of surfaces described in the

(28). In this
way we
realistic potential
also learn
parameters
C 2 C3
,
The case
how
to investigate
energy surfaces. For
the intrinsic coordinates a
4.3.1.
there occurs a second mini-
a very simple schematic
complicated rotation- and parity-invariant function. Indeed,

culate and investigate
the a Q -axis in addition to the point a
and
all
the following discussions
and a 2 The surface

.
C4 We
.
amatz of eq.
more complex and more
in eq. (28)
investigate first the case
we
use
depends on three
C2 >
(Ack-65c).
Fig. 5.
the
C2 >
Schematic representation of the potential curve V(a
a a 2 -plane) for a nucleus which
is
spherical in the
0) (cut along the a -axis in
ground
state
and deformed
in
an
excited state.
C3 can be chosen positive without loss of generality. A

C 3 just corresponds to a mirror-transformation of V(a a 2) on the
The parameter
negative
a 2 -axis. As
(a
>
to
a2
0,
Finally,
C4
minus
is
seen from
fig.
same dynamics, but prolate
0) nuclei are converted into oblate (a Q
infinity for large
deformations, that
shall allow
The extrema of the
<
0,
is
the nucleus
a2
e).
This second
We
would
occurs at the position o
/J
(see
fig.
5),
where
& = >/SLW*(x-)].
(34)
fission.
now found
in
The height of the second minimum (energy

minimum) is
f ).
difference to the spherical
quote here the results of the calculations:
greatest importance for the structure of the surface in eq. (28)
the value of the parameter
minimum
0) ones.
only for transuranic and superheavy nuclei.
surface V(a 0i a 2 ) in the a a 2 -p[&ne are
a straightforward manner.
Of
this gives the
has to be positive because otherwise the potential would tend
This possibility we
a).
4,
is
nfc.o) -
^[x-A**+W(*-)-AW*(x-MH-
(35)
follows that the second
g). It
mum at
a2
0,
i.e.
V(fi
minimum
0)
<
Therefore the nucleus
is
deformed
an
symmetric shape in
axialiy
>
which
is
energetically higher than the central
The
7.
The condition
<
<
0),
minimum
its
minimum,
that there exists a second
is
therefore
1.
surface V(a ,a 2 ) does not have
curve V(a
x>
in
(36)
6.222
if
7.
state if
eq. (33),
h).
deeper than the central mini-
is
0, if
x >
ground
[CH. 4, 3
(37)
any maximum. However, the
corresponding to a cut along the a 2
axis,
has a
maximum
6.222. This occurs at
(38)
This
maximum
of V(a
0) corresponds to a saddle point in the V(a
a2 )
surface
i).
The height of the maximum of this curve above
vifii.o)
j).
The
mum at
ff
minimum is
^^[*-A^-W*^)+*W*^)-]. (39)
difference
is
the central
A between
the saddle point at
/J,
Fig. 6. Potential energy surface
V(aa a,) for the harmonic quadruple

,
oscillator.
and the second mini-
(see fig. S)
w
k ).
There also
exist turning points in the potential curve
The advantage of
= 1
V(a
0)
4.67.
if
(41)
the parametrization of the collective potential energy in
terms of the parameters
C2 C
,
and
C4
is
that
all
cases can be described,
such as spherical nuclei (harmonic vibrators), slightly anharmonic spherical

vibrators with an excited deformed state, real anharmonic "spherical"
nuclei, nuclei
truly
which can neither be called spherical nor deformed, and also
deformed nuclei with excited spherical
states.
We now
potential energy surfaces in terms of equipotentials for a
\A-{Woa
present the
few typical
cases.
shows the collective potential energy surface for a harmonic vibrator

in the a a 2 -plane. The six equivalent areas are indicated by the various
Fig. 6
Fig. 7. Typical potential energy surface for a slightly
anharmonic quadrupole
oscillator.
rays through the origin.
curve V(a Q , 0),
slightly
i.e.
The right-hand corner of fig.
[CM. 4, 3
6 shows the potential
a cut through the mountain along the a u -axis.
anharmonic vibrator
is
shown
in fig. 7.
A SCHEMATIC MODEL
ch. 4, 8 3]
nuclei;
C3 <
87
would correspondingly give us energy surfaces of

in the ground state.
nuclei
which are oblate
Notice the stretching of
the equipotentials along the o -axis, and also along y
120 and y
way
This affects the corresponding wave functions in such a
240.
2,0-
that they have
a tendency to favor deformation.

In
fig. 8
the potential energy surface of a nucleus with a spherical ground
and a highly deformed excited state is shown.

potential barrier between the two minima is about A
state
It is
ol
noticed that the
W-
MeV.
-Q4 -02
/a,= ipK<fe
Fig. 9, Potential
ground
state.
00
0.2
a$
04
energy curve V(a a , 0) for a nucleus which is spherical and deformed in the
The dashed curve
indicates
an oscillator potential which approximates the

minimum.
spherical
".,. J
Fig. 8. Potential energy surface for a nucleus
deformed
in
an excited
state (see also fig. S).
which
is
spherical in the
The spacing of the
ground
equipotentials
state
is
and
MeV.
nucleus which exhibits both spherical and deformed features could be
represented by a potential as
ously
show a
shown
in fig. 9.
Such a nucleus would simultane-
and a rotational pattern for low excitations. Some

the transition region between vibrators and rotators may
vibrational
of the nuclei in
Fig. 10. Potential energy surface for a nucleus
spherical in an excited state.
which
The corresponding
is
deformed
in the
potential curve V(a
ground
0)
is
state
shown
and
in the
right-hand corner,
perhaps be of
Finally, in
this type.
fig.
10
we
see the potential energy surface of a nucleus which
deformed in the ground

nucleus should
It
show
state
and has excited spherical
states.
is
This kind of
rotational patterns for the low-energy excitations.
aould be realized that with
C3 >
we
restricted ourselves to prolate
4,3.2.
The case
d<
Again the extrema of the surface

solutions of the equations
in eq. (28)
can easily be found from the
Ich. 4, 5 3
ch. 4, S 3]
A SCHEMATIC MODEL
T*
9a
a'^flB.aQ
o^K.^) _ pVCao.^n 2 ^
2
8a,
*2
8fl
From
loss
8a
it is
C3 <
seen that
nuclei into oblate ones
The
>
and
0>
{42)
0.
of generality, one can again
eq. (28)
aa o8,
Without
a2 ~</% Qa
3a 2
restrict the discussion to
C3 >
0.
corresponds to a change of prolate
C4
Also
vice versa.
must always be
positive.
result for the solutions of eq. (42) is then the following (Gr-63):
maximum at the origin
a).
There always exists a
b).
A minimum occurs only along the
relative
(a
0,
a2
0).
a -axis at the position
o, vâ
% = h - WSJ?
a-,
! -^/*fc 3
-c
c4
(43)
0.
Fig.
c). It is
exist,
seen that for
however, a
C3 =
"minimum
no minimum
has no
exists.
Potential energy surface for a nucleus which
1.
quasi-stable excited spherical state.
In this case there does
is
uation resembles
l6
state
and
are chosen such that the
sit-
deformed
The parameters
in the
ground
*Er.
ring" around the origin of the a a 2 -plane with
= \-JSi\C 2 \lC^f. Such a ring corresponds in the/Jy-representa= iV5(|C2 |/C4)*,y} where y covers the full range ^ y < 2n.
the radius a
tion to {p
One
says that nuclei with such a potential energy surface are y-unstable.
Indeed, the potential does not depend

d).
The expansion of
ao
on
the value of y at
the potential V(a
J?o
+ a o>
all.
a 2 ) around the
minimum
0+ai,
ai
(44)
gives
V(a a ,a 2 )
V(POl
0)+^8a
8
3! I8a n
41 I8a n
The
8a*
a
+3
a?)
3
K
\
fl
a
O a2
6a 8a 2
a'
*+6
daa*da,
derivatives are to be taken at the equilibrium position a
(45)
8a 2
= fi a ,a 2 =
0,
Fi. 12.
The
potential curve K(db 0) for
"*Er. The dashed
approximation.
line indicates the
harmonic
and are given
9a
C,B
C+
and
S3
by
lft.0
CHAPTER
(46)
eV
2 8a a
It is
C2 C3
of
in terms
[Of. 4,
= C2 +6^C 3
+4 C4 pV.
00.0
convenient for later discussions to express the higher-order

derivatives
in terms
of
C2
and
Quantum Mechanics
of the Rotator
8
K _
2io?"
a
t-2
24 8a
simplest nuclear collective quadrupole Hamiltonian has the form,
given in eqs. (3.8) and (3.9),
18ft,
The
2 9oeo 2
i
'
F _ C,+9C
*-2'
6 8o
3
C2
&=iB
+ Co
(47)
d 2ft
24ft>
instead of the conjugate
aV
all
show
term
We
have
the equipotentials of such a potential energy surface

in
fig.
II.
seen that the axially symmetric
2 ).
harmonic approximation is indicated. The parameters (deformation,

energies of ^-vibration E and of y-vibration E see
Chapter 6) in these figures
r
are chosen such that the low-energy spectrum of 166 Er is
reproduced. It can
be seen that the harmonic approximation can account
for the structure of the
potential energy around the equilibrium deformation
only in a rough
way. For a more detailed discussion we refer to Chapter
6 in which
restricted ourselves
in the kinetic energy of eq. (3.8) in order to deal
one of the challenging problems
physics to pin
minimum at a = 0, a 2 = is repeated
120 and 240. Fig. 12 shows the potential curve
V(a Q , 0), corresponding to a cut along the o -axis through the mountain
V(a , a
The
at y
first
will
already exhibit
the important features of nuclear rotations and vibrations. In fact,

is
it
to the
be more convenient for
will
with the simplest possible situation. This Hamiltonian
6/V
C2 + 3C
24 8a,*
momenta. This
our present discussion of nuclear rotations.
It is
(1)
where we have introduced the time derivatives of the collective coordinates*,
ca +3C
2
4 0a o 3o 2
We
'ZA u du + V(a af),
|8
in eq. (1)
down
in present
day
theoretical nuclear
the true collective Hamiltonian of a nucleus. This can
be done pragmatically in that one starts with the simplest ansatz, eq. (1)
where V{a 2ll ) is given by eq. (3.9), and finds out to what extent experi-
mental facts are adequately described.
If discrepancies between theory and

one can introduce more complicated higher-order terms,
the kinetic energy and in the potential energy. Again, the agreement
experiment
both in
arise,
of theoretical predictions with experiments
is
the measure for the quality
the
rotation-vibration model
is
discussed.
of the collective Hamiltonian chosen. The other possible approach would

consist in a microscopic derivation
and justification of the
collective
Hamil-
tonian. Since there then exist mathematical difficulties as well as difficulties
involving basic principles, one
The
relation between conjugate
simply given by
2 =
3#/3&,, Le.
more or
less
has to solve the phenomeno-
momenta and time

in
our ease from eq.

91
derivatives of coordinates
(I) jii 2M
Bia
*.
>lt
is
92
QUANTUM MECHANICS OP THE ROTATOR
logical
problem
principles
is,
first.
[CH.
5,
CH.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
5, 1 1
One of the difficulties relating to fundamental

we simply do not know what the real micro-
for example, that
scopic Hamiltonian looks like to start with.
The only thing we do know

must be an average potential (probably of Saxon- Woods-type),
and a residual interaction. Again the form of the common potential and
that there
is
the residual interaction have to be found by comparison with

experiments.
We therefore prefer the pragmatic point of view here, and we shall now
show how to obtain model

be
realized that even the
collective
Hamiltonian
is
solutions of the Hamiltonian of eq. (1). It should

problem of finding the solutions of this simple
mathematically quite involved. In
solutions can only be obtained
by diagonalizing
fact,
exact
in the basis of the
five-dimensional harmonic quadrupole oscillator. If the schematic

potential
is
of a form which
satisfies eq. (4.33) so that
a deformed second
minimum
occurs, this procedure requires the diagonalization of very large

matrices.
Nevertheless, this exact approach of Kumar and Baranger (Ku-67a)and
of
Gneuss at al. (Gn-67,
69, 70) gives very interesting results. It will
be discussed
Volume 3 of this series. We shall first give a more physical solution for the
case of deformed nuclei. In this and in the following section
we shall
construct model solutions in the neighborhood of a strongly
in
deformed
potential
minimum such
This approach
is
as is shown, for instance, in fig. 12 of Chapter 4.

extremely physical, and gives us a good deal of insight
into the dynamics of the
phenomena connected with nuclear
Fig.
1.
The
definition
of the Euler angles #,. The quantities X,
vectors of the laboratory system, x!
system, and e. (i"=
1).
rotations.
1, 2,
(i=
1, 2, 3)
(/
1, 2,
3) are the unit
are the unit vectors of the final rotated
3) are the unit vectors along the instantaneous axes of rotation.
Rotation through S, (G
<
9,
2ji)
about the original z-axis x 3
thus changing the position of the x- and >>-axes.

5.1.
The Euler
angles, the space-fixed coordinate system,
2).
the body-fixed
Rotation through S 2 (0
with e 2 in
coordinate system and the system of instantaneous rotations
3).
In order to transform the kinetic energy occurring in eq.

(1) to intrinsic
coordinates we have to investigate the time derivatives of
x-
fig. 1).
The
<
32
z-axis changes
Rotation through
(0
33
n) about the new
from x 3 to x 3
<
and ^-axes then change to x\ and x 2
2%) about the
(2)
that
z-axis x 3
The
we introduce unit vectors e s (i

1, 2, 3) which indicate the
direction of the axes of rotation of the Euler angles (see fig. 1). These three
rotations
is
new
respectively.
In addition
j-EC(*i.i.j),.
.y-axis (coinciding
may now be
specified relative to the
x r system. The
first
rotation
3i takes place about the original z-axis and hence
It is
useful in this context to recall the definition of the Euler angles.
*t
Two
orthogonal coordinate systems x, and x't in the linear vector space M may
3
be transformed into each other by a rotation through Euler
angles
dj
1 2, 3). The quantities x and x't are unit vectors in the three direc(J
tions of the two coordinate systems respectively. The Euler
angles are
defined as (see fig. 1):
The second
*3.
(4)
rotation 8 2 takes place about the
e2
= -x
new
&'m^ 1 + x 1 cos9
jy-axis
which
is
therefore
(5)
.
l
The
third rotation 9 3 takes place about the
H=
x!j cos S x
sin
+x 2 sin 9,
new
sin
z-axis x'3
i.e.
S 2 + x 3 cos 9 2
(6)
^
94
QUANTUM MECHANICS OF THE
We can
ROT7
|ch. 5, (
condense eqs. (4)-(6) into
CH.
5,
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
1 ]
of the rotated frame x'j in terms of the unit vectors of the laboratory system Xj
(7)
*)
where
E Vmt (V-\x m = Wm
where
WJ&t
S2
S3)
E VJ&i
cos
one can express the
frame
sin 3! sin
Jfi
S2
(8)
ft
Similarly,
and
in terms of the vectors x\
of the rotated
(cos
EW
,s 3 )*;.
82
,^)x m
'(^2
(15)
9 3 ))y
(16)
explicitly
w.,(0,0i,0s )
sin
*t
cos 0i cos
sin 0! sin
#| cos'0! cos #y +cos 0i
cos 0i
0j
sin
cos 0i sin
0i cos
sin
sin 0, cos 03
in0j\
cos 0i sin
3
H-cos
sin
cos
in0j
0i sin
j
sin 0i cos
(9)
sin
sin
0*
cos
0j
sin
(17)
One
finds easily (see
fig.
1)
Using the transformation properties of the vector under rotations, we have
(-sin B 2
sin
32
cos 3 3
sin
sin
&3
S3
0\
cos S 3
inverses of the matrices
([/
1/
sin 3, sin
32
COS 3,
H.
-cos
sin a,
9i cos
-cos
(18) with x\ gives
sin
sin
S2
*'
fl.
(11)
The
scalar product {x\
xs ) can
EW */>*
easily
(!)
be found by the scalar multiplication
of eq. (15) with x, and using the orthogonality relations (x,
f\
3,
92 \
y
^ sin 3 2
sin
-sin
e.g. the position vector,
with respect to the base x} and x[ respectively. Scalar multiplication of eq,
C and V are respectively
(wun #!
cos
32
<?! tus
(is)
E*'*i'.
(10)
where yj and y\ are the components of a vector,
cos S 2
The
E>v*/ =
'
*)
and
(20)
- sin 3 3
cos 3 3
% = -sin %
(^
-sin
3 2z
With
j.
these relations
According to eq.
sin 3
-cos 3 2 cos 3 3
one can also

(7)
.
-sin
, 3
2
cos S
3
cos 3 2 sin 3 3
Substitution into eq. (19) finally yields
^
(12)
-sin 3 2 /
easily express the vectors x, in terms
= E(U"%i.
(21)
Hence, as should be the case, the coordinates
of
one has
*>
to the basis vectors x L
matrix
similarly
from
eq. (9)
cos 0i
S-.EC"1m*
tj
v,
transform contragradiently
and the transformation matrix
The matrix
is
(J
R tJ is just the transposed
therefore explicitly
(13)
(cos 0j
and
S tm ,
cos &i cos
sin
cos 0i sin
sin 0j cos
sin
sin
sin
0j cos 0i cos03 +cos 0j sin

t
cos 0j sin
cos 0, sin 0
(14)
sin
sin
sin
+cos 0j cos 03
sin
0j
cos
0j sin 03
cos0 2
(22)
Also, by substituting eq. (7) into eq. (14) one can express the unit
vectors
This
is
exactly the transformation matrix
we have used
3\
earlier, eq. (4.16).
QUANTUM MECHANICS OF THE ROTATOR
96
5.2.
The components of the angular momentum with

and to the
intrinsic body-fixed
The
rotation vector can be
that
is if
relative
[ch. 5, 5 2
respect to the laboratory
systems
COMPONENTS OF THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM
CH. 5, 2]
By a
straightforward calculation one obtains the commutation rules for the
components of the angular momentum along the
decomposed into components
97
intrinsic system,
in the xj-system,
we perform a time-dependent rotation of the intrinsic system

to the space-fixed system x,, we must deal with the Euler angles
functions of time, ,((). fa describes a rotation about xj, etc. Then, for
infinitesimal rotation one has
x[
[^), 3 (9j)]_ = -i;(3,),

[ 3 {S/),' (3; )]_ = -i2 (3j ),
as
an
(30)
which can also be written
in
a shorthand notation
(23)
and by substitution of eq. (14)
fx#j)xr(*)--iW
it
(31)
follows that
Note
(24)
is
that the prime refers to the fact that the angular momentum operator
given with respect to the intrinsic system. Eq. (3 ) states that the components
1
of the angular
and
(25)
The components of
the angular
momentum
operator along the intrinsic
axes are defined as*
momentum
along the intrinsic axes obey the usual
tation rules except for the minus sign
make
important feature more transparent
this
'
1, 2, 3.
It is now easy to express these components of the angular

momentum in
terms of the Euler angles by the use of eqs. (24) and (25). One has
commu-
In order to
us derive the components
momentum operator along the axes of the laboratory system.

We denote them by Lk k = 1 2, 3. They can be obtained either from eq. (21
,
4 = (*'%),
(26)
0&
let
side*.
of the angular
on the right-hand
(32)
more easily,
or,
in the following way. Let the rotation vector be decomposed

components a, along the laboratory axes (/.e. a, describes rotations
about x, etc.). Then in analogy to eq. (23) one has
into
ff-SS'sr-WTkSr.
a fa d&
3&
33,
7
J
(27)
E*d^ **,*%.
or
=-iI(K-%
By use of eq.
By
substituting eqs. (7)
and (13) one
finds
(34)
(12) one has explicitly
= -' ~
*
(28)
fsin
cos 3 3 8
3-?
sin 9
2
S3 3
(33)
+sin S 3
39 2
33,
_
+cot S 2 cos S 3
and
1
,
daj-HVIS,.
(35)
momentum
operator along the axes of the
39 3 j
a!
The components of
the angular
laboratory system are
ti--i{y.
(29)
L*
Notice that here the angular
momentum
1. 2, 3.
3a
operators are defined without the usual
factor . This is convenient for the geometrical discussions in

this chapter.
->
This was
first
noticed in the theory of molecules by O. Klein (Kl-29).
(36)
98
It
Ich. 5, 2
ch.
5,
COMPONENTS OF THB ANGULAR MOMENTUM
2]
follows from eq. (34) that
a)
-vpL. T
8
34
3a* 89,
( ir)
*
.
(37)
l,2,3.
(38)
89,
and hence
^=-iZ(t "%!-r.
as,
/
With
fc
eq. (11) one finds explicitly
= -i{- cos
9, cot
92
cos 9, 3
-sin 9,
39 2
f
i-2
f
i
n
n
S, cot 9 2
sm
+cos
sin
SHI 9,
1
89,
39,
n
9.
sin
8S 3 J
1
}
9 2 89 3 J
3 = -i( -].
It is
(39)
ponents in the laboratory system are
now
(9 y )x(9i)
For
At At
straightforward to verify that the commutation relations for the com-
later
The no ncom mutation of rotations is exhibited by comparing two different sequences

is a point on the *-axis. In (a) we rotate first about the *-axis and then about
y-axis; in (b) the same two rotations are performed, but in opposite order, The dif-
Fig. 2.
of rotations. P
i(9i ).
(40)
purposes we note also the total angular
momentum
operator in
the
ference in the positions of the point P after these operations
about the original
is
equivalent to a rotation
z-axis.
terms of Euler angles
V - Lf+Lf+L*
(-
39
We recall
J_ /3j_
-cot 9 2 .
= L'*+L?+L
89,
sini
9 2 \89
2
1
89 3
\
2
cos9 2 3
sin
2
1
9 2 89,39 3 F
-ii
.
In
tively, are
(41)
It is
very important to understand somewhat more about the sign change
in the angular
momentum commutation
relations for the rotated (intrinsic)
system as opposed to the commutation relations for the laboratory system.
The reason
for this peculiarity
is
that the
components with respect to the lab
system are defined along space-fixed axes, that

operators do not rotate the lab system;
for the intrinsic system.
it is
is
the angular
momentum
fixed for all times. This
Here the angular momentum
is
not so
operators in fact
which they are defined and hence we are led to

commutation rules. We illustrate this situation in figs. 2 and 3.
(Ro-57) that the rotations through a t about the x-axis are carried
out by the operator e

fig,
"'" l
and those through a 2 about the 7-axis by

2 two infinitesimal rotations, through da, and d 2 respec-
applied in different orders. In
fig.
2(a) a rotation
out about the x-axis and then a second rotation

y-axis.
To determine
is
is first
carried
performed about the
the final orientation of the x-axis, for example, attention
on the point P with Cartesian coordinates (1, 0, 0), which is a point

at unit distance from the origin along the x-axis. Fig. 2(a) shows the effect
of rotating first about the x-axis, and then about the y-axis, i.e. of the
is
fixed
rotation e"
ldalI
x-axis. It does
e"
i!l " ,
Of
course, the
first
change the y-axis, however.
that the second rotation
about the y-axis
is
rotation does not change the

It
should be noted carefully
carried out about the old y-axis
rotate the system along
defined in the space-fixed system, not about the
different
rotation about the x-axis through da,
new one obtained
after
100
Fig. 2(b)
First
we
shows the
effect
CH.
COMPONENTS OF THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM
5, 2]
of interchanging the order of the rotations.
b)
da 2 about the y-axis and then through da L about

The rotation operator is e~' d " L e -i d"J **, Again attention should
rotate through
the x-axis.
'
be drawn to the fact that the rotation

axes,
tCH, 5, 2
the y-
i.e.
and x-axes
also indicated in
fig.
Comparison of
of the rotations
z-axis, the
around
x'-axis,
2(a)
and 2(b) shows
is
-y
that the difference in the order
a displacement perpendicular to the original space-fixed
magnitude of which
a second-order
is
Hence the
infinitesimal.
well-known statement that infinitesimal rotations commute to
The net displacement perpendicular to
the x-axis
OP and
the net change of the vector
_-i<l2j_
-ldaiCj
da 2
- d*i dsi Ij
1
second order
to
order.
JrM
We calculate
have
-l(taitj
Expanding the exponentials up
first
equivalent to a
is
rotation about the old space-fixed z-axis of magnitude da
-Idaiiti
which
2(b)).
figs.
is
always around the old space -fixed
is
respectively (and not
_j
f42^
in the infinitesimals
da t
Fig. 3. The same sequences of rotations as in fig. 2, but this time carried out with respect to
components defined in the rotating intrinsic system. In (a) we have a rotation about the
x'-axis followed by a rotation about the new y"-axh; in (b) the first rotation is about
the
y -axis and the second ., about the new x"-axis. The difference in the positions of the
point
is
equivalent to a rotation about the z"-axis, but in a direction opposite to that
and da,, one obtains
which emerged
-y* t -Mda,) , ] [1 -ida 2 -i(d /]

-[l-ida^-Hd^^D-ida^-itd^) !!
2
[1
2)
_i aai da 2 3
(43)
The
on
linear terms
the left cancel
and the second-order terms give
In fig. 3(b) a rotation through d^ 2 about the /-axis is performed, followed

by a second rotation through d0 about the new x"-axis. The rotation
operator in this case

the difference in the
-daida 2 (i 2 - 2 i)
= -id
da 2 3
(44)
Since this equation holds for arbitrary magnitudes of the rotations di and
da 2
we
find the usual
operators
L and L 2
x
commutation
rule for the angular
momentum
referred to the space-fixed system, eq. (40),
2 -2 l L = 3
s
We now
(45)
is
" ld ' l,
compares the operations of

the change of the vector
-iWiI
'
t
the coordinate system to which they are referred. Hence

ld * jEl
'e~
ul ' ,t,
The prime on L\ and
operators are referred to the rotating system.
fig.
3(a) shows the
' reminds us that these

2
One
notices
equivalent to
becomes
we
from the
figures that
rotation around the
especially evident
2 with those of
fig. 3.
We
when one
again calculate
have
-f(-ctf|d02)j'_|
Again expanding the exponentials up to second order
and hence the commutation
is
-liViIi'_ -i<j0iAV -l(]A!LY

e
e
the x'-axis through d/J, is carried out, followed
new /'-axis through d/? 2 The important difference from the space-fixed
case discussed above is that the rotations are carried out always about the
new rotated body-fixed axes. The point is that the rotations themselves change
fig.
OP and
as in eq. (43)
the
ldfl2C2 '.
two rotations
commutation of the same rotations carried out about

the axes of the rotating body-fixed system. The analogs to figs. 2(a) and (b)
can be found in figs. 3(a) and (b) respectively. In fig. 3(a) a rotation around
by a second rotation about
'e"
z"-axis through (-d/t 2 d/f,). This
discuss the
rotation e~
in fig. 2.
t^\
in the infinitesimals
obtain
-<V, dp 2 (; ft - 2 *,) = +id^
d& 3
(47)
rules for the angular momentum components

with respect to the rotating intrinsic system follow,
; 2 ~ 2 ; = -i 3
(48)
We notice quite clearly from this consideration that the sign change between
and (48) comes entirely from the fact that the components t
k
describe rotations around a space-fixed system while the components L'
k
eqs. (45)
102
[CH. 5, 3
generate rotations about a rotating intrinsic system. In other words, the

rotations
tk do
not rotate the coordinate system to which they are referred,
while the rotations
4 do.
CH.
COLLECTIVE KINETIC ENERGY
5, 4]
103
where we made use of eq. (166), 4(3,)(3,) = - L' (x' R(dj)

which
)
k
proven below in section 5.7. In the last step we have also
expanded
is
the
matrix element of the product t' R in terms of the

k
matrix elements of the
separate operators. Substituting eq. (53) into
gives
(51)
5.3.
The time
derivatives of the
ZMunctions
g
A>'(3()
The
Dffl ffl -(3
operator
&.,
9 2 &s) are defined as the matrix elements of the rotation

which transforms the laboratory system through the Euler
angles into the intrinsic system (see section 5.6),

- i9 '
iSlIlW
& a (3
L.(x))
*<*>e-
The rotation matrices Dj-^! 9 2

,
>
h)
e-
1S3la <*>.
(49)
in the r-space
<f
m| (;-**-*%-%*
/ OT '>.
we need
we
m"> </ m"
&(?,
tfe))
m'>
di
the angular velocity
(25)
around the body-fixed
(55)
we have
(intrinsic) axes,
tt
L,(x ))\Im'>ai.
l
(56)
In eq. (53)
we can
also
make
use of the relation
write
3/33,
momentum
can be expressed in terms of the components of the

operator along the intrinsic axes.
We
will
be proved below (see eq. (179)), and find as

an alternative to
have from eqs.
DL*(d - -i
3(
Ss-?S -{**?"*
(52)
(57)
eq. (56)
and (26)
The argument
it is
?'"&
^PUtd = -IE >n\tite)\Im''><Im''\&(9
which
angular
(54)
afi*-IH,.
k =
40W,-, 400) = -*&. 4C0)4(*,),

The operation
In the argument of the operator R we have indicated

explicitly that
function of ,(*) as well as of S, (see eq.
(49)). Then defining
the time derivatives of the D^. in order
to transform the collective kinetic energy to the intrinsic coordinates.
obtain them
m 4W)
are then defined as the matrix
(50)
To
V*j </
between the states \Im(x)y and |/m'(x)>,
PKi.i.9 s ) = <im \&\I m'} =

eq. (3)
Im
J)j
where we have again indicated that the wave functions \Im} are defined in
r-space, by the relation
As can be seen from
-*
j, k,
Note that here the angular momentum operators 4(*) act

of the lab system and not on the Euler angles.
elements of this operator
5.4.
The
collective
Xm" *>LAdffli.
(58)
k.
kinetic energy in terms of Euler angles
and
intrinsic
variables
of the (3,) operators indicates that these, are the operators
of eq, (29) which act in the space of the Euler angles. Then
we have
The
collective kinetic energy in the laboratory
system
is
given to lowest
order in the collective variables by
33
OiTj
rîÎC-i^M-,We
I VkJ </ m 4<X)

k,m*
-i
m"> <J m" &

\
J m'>, (53)
(59)
here restrict ourselves to this simplest term and

illustrate the principles
of the method of transforming the kinetic

energy from the laboratory
coordinates to the Euler angles and intrinsic coordinates.
The more involved
quantum mechanics of the rotator
104
[ch. 5,
ch.
terms in eq. (3.8) can then be treated straightforwardly. Inserting eq. (3)
we are
The orthogonality
led to
(-l)"[D,Vfl,+D, /d,][6 _â

2
+Di^*d
(t
which reduces to *
We now
(-l)*[^*DVa, .+Dj/D VMJ.
T = iB
(61)
fl
iB(-irJ^*Z>, _
cross terms vanish since
(-i)*(!>,\*DVKa =
Then using
ff
eq. (58)
(58).
Then
ff
m"
(67)
V.m'"
S (~1)W2-JM,-
and
IZ>i,...<2m'"|It .(jc)|2-ff>i.fl,fl..
E (-ir(^V+,VfiVK.
2
eqs. (56)
(66)
L(-1)'M-J-
^ I (-1)D^*<2 m"| (*)|2 v>'i

kt
a a
a ,fl.+
making use of
investigate the first term,

2
term in eq. (61)
is
(-lWdV
T = iBll
(60)
],
105
relation, eq. (64), also reduces the last
so that the total kinetic energy
T = iB
The
COLLECTIVE KINETIC ENERGY
5, 4]
Again the orthogonality relation of eq. (64) and the Hermiticity of t k

used and one obtains
(62)
*B
one obtains
(~ 1)' <2 v
*<x) 2
1
m"> <2 m" r (x)

|
- ff> w'k o>k
is
a,
k.k'.m-
= iB(-ir<2vl,(x)
Jt
+2i
(- irz)^-* <2 m"
ff
(63)
v.
Upl-
S 3 )Bi-,,(9.
$2
33 )
*-
-a>a,a,a>l<-
(68)
ff
In this expression the terms with k
and using the orthogonality relations of the jD-matrices,
I Dl-SWi h
.(x)|2
M'
*(*) 2 v>* a,;/) _ a, d,
even values.
We therefore
T =
(64a)
get
T i
fe'
vanish since v and
cr
take on only
an expression of familiar form:

2
/(fl
a 2 ) +iB
d,* d,
(69)
IB
where the quantities

in
(-lT(>l*DZ_ a) a ,&. = +2i
(-1)'<2 -*|*(x)|2
v/M.0*.
might be called moments of inertia, and are given by
= a. = 0, the indices and v run only through the values

2, We shalKsee in section 5.5 that , and 2 have nonvanishing matrix
elements <2 - a L(x) 2 v> only when v= -ffl. Hence the terms
with k =
and 2 in eq. (65) vanish. The only term then left is
<2 <r 3 (x) 2 v> = >.$_,, (see section 5.5). Using a 2 = a_ 2 it is
(;c)|2 -*><.,,,,.
(70)
er
<2v| 3 2 (*)|2<x> =
and
<2 v ,
<2v+2|
2
1
v <5,
2 2 (x)| 2
(x) 2 v>
(x)|2v>
= -<2v + 2| 2 2 (x)|2v>
The matrix elements of the angular momentum components with respect

to the intrinsic system are derived in section 5.5. They are explicitly obtained
from eqs. (123) and (124) in the next subsection:
(65)
Since a^
A = B(-ir<2v|,
one easily gets

2
<2
v>
i[2(2 + l)-v
2
],
= W(l-v)(2-v)(3 + v)(4+v),
Hence all the cross terms in eq. (62)

comes mainly from the special properties of the
a and a 2 '"-*- from the fact that Oj =
since the principal
easily seen that these terms also vanish.
are zero. Note that this

intrinsic variables
<2v-2| 2 WI2v> = -<2v-2|

1
2
t
(x)|2v>
= W(l + v)(2+v)(3-v)(4-v).
axes of the nuclear ellipsoid coincide with the intrinsic coordinate system.
(71)
106
If these expressions are inserted into eq. (70)
and
[CH. 5, |
eqs. (2.22)
and (2.23)
moments
are considered, one obtains the following expressions for the
of inertia (Bo-52)
B(3a Q 2 +Zj6aQ a2 +2a 2 z )
<*i)
fxia* . a 2)
fz{a 2 )
= %Ba 2
/i(0f
B(3o
-2^6
a a 2 +2a 2
= 4B0 2 sin 2 (y-iit),

= ABB 2 sin 2 (y -fre),
2
)
4BjS sin
CH.
MATRIX ELEMENTS
S, 5]
eq. (2.22), such that the rotated frame coincides with the principal axes,
a_! =0, leads to the diagonal form of the rotation energy given
in eq. (69). If the Euler angles would have been defined with a x # 0, it is
i,e.
at
from
easily seen
/^{a^,
eq. (68) that then terras
occurred and thus the deviation

(72)
107
a 2 ) a>'k m'k would have

'
moments (products of inertia) JF^ would
be non vanishing.
Up
y,
to
now we have
restricted
our discussion to the simplest form of the

i.e. T = JB d* d
more complicated terms of
kinetic energy in the laboratory system,
or in condensed form
straightforward to calculate the
= 4BS 2 sin 2 (y-fc
*),
ft
(73)
1, 2, 3.
parameter
/?.
One can
e3
inertia are proportional to the square of the
define the eccentricities ek of the nuclear spheroid
r>
r>
e,
*.
R*
where the B, are the
deformation
radii
e,
by
r = iB/+B3 Z
We
Ack-65),
(I
?Um*.
(77)
In terms of Euler angles Sy and intrinsic variables a, this becomes
r - i/i(o>2K + iW(l+2B'a
2
)+Bfl 2 a (l-2B'a
ire),
using eqs. (2.24) and (2.25). Hence the
in 7*(Sh-61,
a.
(74)
R, 2
of the nuclear ellipsoid along the principal axes.
- (tt*)"V sin (y-k
now
namely
These can be easily expressed in the form

e*
It is
the kinetic
energy under inclusion of third- and higher-order terms in d and
quote here the result for second- and third-order terms
The moments of
4BB'a 2 d Q d 2
(75)
1, 2, 3,
moments of
inertia
may
where B'
also be
(78)
= -V-^-B3 /B and
/; = 4B p [1 - 2B' | cos (y- k
$ir)] sin (y
(79)
fit).
written as
We have thus found the

T h.B a* d splits into
angles
and
intrinsic
= &KBek 2
(76)
very important result that the kinetic energy
Again one has formally a division into a rotational and a vibrational term.
The latter now shows an amplitude-dependent mass parameter, that is it
depends on a
two parts when it is presented in terms of Euler

variables. The first part of eq. (69) might be called the
it
also contains an interaction with the shape vibra-
tions of the intrinsic nucleus. This interaction is
due to the
kinetic energy of the
This
splitting
kinetic energy
is
shape
oscillations.
of the total kinetic energy into rotational and vibrational

quite formal.
We will
see,
the collective potential energy leads to
nucleus
it is
eq. (69) is so large
one cannot distinguish between rotational and vibrational kinetic
energy.
It is
also important to realize that our definition of the Euler angles,
derive the Heimitian matrix representations of the

,
matrix representation of angular
i-i,
a very realistic division. In the case of a harmonic oscillator
along
t 2 3 These operators are supposed to be defined

by the commutation relations of eq. (30). The procedure for deriving the
a deformed equilibrium of the
in
we
system of operators L\
the
on the other hand the rotation-vibration interaction in

that
In this section
the cases where
however, that
momentum
the components of the angular
the intrinsic axes
fact that the
moments of inertia of eq. (72) depend explicitly on the surface variables

a and a 2 The second part of eq. (69) is clearly to be interpreted as the
The matrix elements of
5.5.
rotational energy, but
and a 2
momentum
(40).
We
is
well
known
for
present here the procedures for deriving the representations of
* and t'k in a parallel fashion. In this

in
operators
components of the angular momentum along the laboratory axis,

L 2 3 which are defined by the commutation relations given in eq.
way
it
becomes
clear
where differences
the matrix representation occur due to the different commutation
relations.
108
Lk
Instead of the three operators
ICH. 5, 5
ch.
5]
5,
109
one usually introduces the raising ( + )
and lowering (_) operators by
Li H"iii2
>
l^_
Li
f'
L+.
to
The
~ -i
= ^3
>
momentum
total angular
is
'
i^-l 1^2
(80)
K Body
i( +
_+_ + )+
= ; 2 +'2 2 +A 2 =
$(t'+
LL+LLL'+ )+L' z
= 1
easily finds that the
fixed axis
then given by
2
+ 2 + 3 =
One
or
commutation
relations in eqs.
(81)
(40)
and (30)
become
2
[ , + ]
[ 3 , + ]
o,
[\ ]=o,
[ 3 ,_]
Fig. 4. Pictorial representation of the
=-_,
(82a)
angular
m-value.
[ ,_]=o,
[+,_] = 23
[L\ '+ ] =
0,
LL 3
o,
1]
momentum
At
the
commutation rules of eqs. (82) and (83). The

precesses around the laboratory z-axis, thus giving
a sharp
time, the figure axis of the nuclear ellipsoid
precesses around
vector
same
thus giving simultaneously a sharp if-value.
and
2
[
,
2
,
L+]
L +
eigenvalues of
[ 3 ,l]=
&i
['+ ,'_] = -2l3
0,
(82b)
2 3 3
respectively. To different symbols j, m, n shall

,
,
correspond different eigenvalues of 2 , and vice
versa. Hence the
3
3
eigenvectors u(j, m, n) with different values of
and/or
j
and/or n are
orthogonal. Also, if there are other operators, f which
commute simultaneously with 2 , 3 and all the elements of
the basis set which we
3
consider are supposed to possess the same set of
eigenvalues with respect
,
respectively. It
also easy to see
is
L 3 (Sj) commute
from
eqs. (29)
and
(39) that
3 (9
and
with each other,
to those operators
[ 3 ,3 ]
This
last
commutation
be seen in
fig. 4.
An
o.
(83)
relation has a simple pictorial interpretation as
angular
can
momentum state with fixed L and nfcaa be

vector in fig. 4 around the fixed
that in this way L x and L y both have no fixed
Any
operator
f
is
defined in angular
A(u(j, m, b))
values.
immediately seen
This
is
the pictorial interpretation
commutation
of the
momentum and
is
in addition
around the angular momentum
formally expressed in the commutation rule [ 3
We now
vectors
u(j,
like the
3 =
]
itself.
m, n')Q'm'n'\A\jmn),
u(j,
angular
This fact
0.
Let
Xj,
know
and n be eigenvalues of 2
these eigenvalues;
we just
3 3
,
assign to
2 "(j, m,
n)
5 jr 5 mm .S,.
m, n) where
=
j,
2
,
3 and 3
The
eigenvectors
are
denoted
by
m, n are related by a one-to-one correspondence to the
( 85 )
respectively.
them the names
Xjt
(We do
not yet
m and n.) Then
Xju(j, m, n),
(86a)
u(j, m, n) = m u(j, m, n),
(86b)
u(j,
choose as a basis for our representation the normalized eigen-
2
of '
(84)
m, n) has been assumed,
OmnU'm'n') =
because the body-fixed axes are processing around the z-axis
"(/>
where the orthogonality of the
rules
[ 3 1] = +ij and [ 2 3 ] = +ii It is also seen that the projection

of on the intrinsic axis has a sharp value simultaneously with 3 This is
,
representation by the
j'.m'.m'
represented as the precession of the

z-axis. It is
momentum
relation
m,
n)
n u(j, m,
n).
(86c)
<
no
Since
the angular
all
we have
momentum
[ch. 5, 5 5
operators * and L'k
commute with t 2
ch.
-2 3
V-tûQ, m,
n)
m Lk 2 u(j,
2 ;(; m,
n)
m, n)
A, *(/',
m, n)
</
m n\t + |/m-l ><jm-l

-
Note that
L 2 u(j, m,
any
this equation holds for
u(j,
n)
m,
= XjLk u{j, m, n).

n).
We
to a subset of u(j, m, n) with the same value j for

the operation with L'k or
Let us
now
Lk does not lead
all
and
L+ ,L+
L+
\j
m n>
(98)
^m-
xm - 1
xm xm
2m,
m n + l>0 m n + ljl |j m n>
|j
-</mn|'_|;mn-l><;mn-i|V]/mn>
(88)
= -20mn| 3 l/mn>
&t
ft
ft
f-t
(89)
^n+i^+i "** x
n'\
m n> =
\j
<; m' n'| +
\j
m w>5 M
(90)
-,
(99)
or
have
dm ,(m'-m)<j m'
and
Q m n|'+
mn
\j
or
of the states because
us to subsets with other values ofy.
1*3
m n>
_ j m+ 1 n></ m + 1
n|_
= 2<jmn|3 |jmn>,
consider the matrix elements of the equations

Z. 3
We
(87)
can restrict ourselves
= 2 3 and '+'_- l '+
imply respectively
and
L'k
111
Hence the commutation relations +_-_+
any k
for
MATRIX ELEMENTS
5, 5]
Eq. (98)
is
= 2n.
difference equation for \xm 2

\
and
5-(n' ~ ")
\J
- -<;
>
m'
' 1'
1
+ \j
m n> 8m
(91)
respectively. Therefore the only nonvanishing matrix elements of
t+
and the only nonvanishing

for m'm =
n'n = I. Hence we may write
are for
(;,
m, n)
matrix elements for
xn u(j,
and
m + X, n%
2
\x'.+iM<\ = -2.
(101)
2
\x',\
general solutions are respectively

2
(92)
and
(100)
eq. (99) is a difference equation for
are
The
-\x m
2m,
\xa _
' *'\ '+
\xm
= C-m(m + l),
(102)
(103)
and
'+ u(j,
m, n)
x'u(j,
m, n-l),
(93)
\x'n
C'-n{n~l).
respectively.
One
is
Now
similarly led to
for any finite value of
sufficiently large positive
u(j,
m, n)
xm u(j, m-i, n)
(94)
other hand \xm
and
\x'a
{
the right-hand side
or negative values of
2
or
becomes negative for

n, respectively.
are nonnegative, This contradiction
is
On
the
removed
by inspecting the
'_ u(j,
m, n)
x'
u(j,
m, n + 1),
A straightforward calculation shows that the definition of +

and the Hcrmiticity of i,
2 and
L\
*m + I
x-t
(95)
in eq. (80)
' imply that

2
x.
relations in eqs. (90) and (91) and realizing that these

equations are satisfied for any values of
(or n) when the matrix element
of + (or '+) is zero, Le. when |xJ 2 (or \x'\ 2 is zero. We therefore conclude
that
\
xm\ 2 and
\x'K
2
\
m and n respectively:
(96)
are nonzero only over a restricted range of values
m - m + l.m+2,
-,
m-2, m-1, m,
and
xn
(97)
= S,+l,n+2,---,S-2,B-l,
of
(104)
(105)
112
[CH. 5, 5
where the lower and upper bounds m and m (or n and n) differ by an integer,
We can also say that the eigenvectors u(j, m, n) which enter into the
representation thus have m-values
m + 1, m + 2,
m-I, m and
CH.
MATRIX ELEMENTS
5. 5]
Similarly
we
obtain from
Xj
similarly
n+l, n+2,
% S 1. The bounding values m and m on the one
hand and n and n on the other hand are found by solving the quadratic
equations derived from eq. (102) and (103) respectively,
/j-values n,
(106)
C'-(-l).
(107)
We obtain
m = --iVl+4C,
m = -i+lVl+4C,
(108)
= i+iVl +4C
(109)
and
n
= i-iVl +4C,
m B KV I'- + '- '+) + i 2 1/ m n>

iij m n '+ j m n + ><j m n + '_ \j m n>
+K/ m n|'_ \j m n-l></ m n 1 1'+ \j m n> + n 2
<;
m = -m
and
2
i|
in the second case. Since
J, 2,
and
a nonnegattve integer and
is
-.
Similarly 2ii
m(m + l)
m = n
is
and
differ
may
= l-n
by an
(111)
integer, in
m = 2m + 1,
only take the values
a positive integer and hence B
is
given in eq. (81) in terms of 3 ,
computed by use of
scheme
1,
+ _
,
just considered
the results obtained above.
*(;, m, n)
We
m =
, 2,
0, i, I,
independent of
We also make
and n
(115)
respectively, as expected.
and 3, '+
may
'_
is
now
2 3 and
,
- m(m + l).
2
momentum
operators
is
basis of
given by the eigen-
n)
= ;(i + l)0",
m,
n),
mu(j, m,n),
(116)
The j, m, n quantum numbers are

1 ).
is fixed
subject to the following restrictions:
for a given representation
and takes one of the values
o,i,i,i,2,---.
(117)
= i(K- + \xm )+m

= [m(m + l)-(m-l)m + m(m + l)-m(m + l)] + m 2
\
with
W/,m,n) = BQ,m,n).
;
1
' where /, m, n are given by

3
3(/, m, n)
(112)
and n one of the values
identify
results are the following.
momentum
L 2 u(j, m,
in eq.
use of eqs. (86b), (86c), (92)-(97), (106), (107),
The
completed.
vectors u(j, m, n) of
therefore be
must just find X}
We now
task of constructing the representation of the angular
(110) and (111) and obtain

^j
fi(ij-l),
the symbol / which has been used for labeling the eigenfu notions of
The
*.
Xju(j, m, n),
takes one of the values given in eq. (104),
in eq. (105).
we have
Hence the quantum numbers n, which run in the interval n^n<n, cover
the same interval as the quantum numbers m. Both eqs. (1 1 3) and (1 14) are
(86a),
' 2 ,
= m
= m.
representation of the angular
respectively. Its eigenvalue in the
where
2 =
yielding with eqs. (1 10) and (111)
(110)
The eigenvalues oft?
The operator 2
(114)
Putting eq. (113) equal to eq. (114), since
operators
5.5.1.
and
C'=n(fi-1)
2m
+iKP + n
n
in the first case,
n(ii-l).
with the solutions
Hence we have
C = m(m + 1)
= i[2C - n(n + 1) - (n - l)n]

= i[2S(S-i)]
and
0=
=
=
= iK +
= C-m(m + l),
113
2).
For every value of/ and every value of n there are (2/+ 1) values which
namely
m can assume,
(113)
m=jJ-l,>-;-j+U-j.
(118)
114
Ich.
S,
| 5
For every value ofj and every value of m there are also (2/+ 1 ) values
which n can assume. These cover the same interval as the wi-values, namely
3).
m Jj-u *.
-y+i. -/.
TRANSFORMATION UNDER FINITE ROTATIONS
5, 6]
and
0'm + ln| 2 |/mn> = - 2W/fj+l)-m(m + 1 )>

(124)
(119)
Thus we have obtained a (2/+I)x(2/+l)-dimensional representation of

2
the operators
3 3 The basis of this representation is given by the
(2/+ l)x (2/+ 1) eigenvectors u(j, m, n). It is clear that for any fixed n = n'
,
ch.
</m-lfl| 2 |/wn> = +{bfj(j+l)-m(m-l).
From eqs.
the (2/+1) eigenvectors u(j,m, ') form a basis for a (2/+l)-dimensional

,
successive use of the operators

n') into another
application of L'+ or
,'_
or
_ we may transform any
one of the same
set.
are required in
m n+1
<j
m n- 1
arbitrary, but of course
must be adhered to consistently. We follow the convention established by

Condon and Shortley (Co-35) who have chosen the phase as +1,
+//</"+
l)-m(m+l),
Thus we
n>
= hlj(j+ !)-"(" + 1).
; j
|
m n> =
frfj(j + 1)- n(n - 1),
+iiVj(/ + l)-n(n + l),
m n-
>
= -#jj(j+l)-n(n-l).
see that the matrix elements of
are formally equal. However, those of
and L\, eqs.

2 and 2 eqs.
t
and
and
(124)
(123)
(126),
(127),
differ in sign.
(120)
similarly
The transformation of
momentum
the angular
eigenvectors under finite
rotations
< = WC-n(n-l) -
+Jj(j + l)- n(n-l).
(121)
Hence we obtain
We have
n') with
irreducible representation
n),
(122a)
and
how the (2y+ 1) angular momentum eigeny'+l, j form a basis of an

=j,j 1,*
2
of the angular momentum operators 3 L t
seen in the last section
vectors u(jt
+ u(j, m,n)= + *Jj(j + 1 ) - m(m + 1 ) (/, m + 1
referred to the lab system.
',
The
fixed index n'
can be dropped for the
following discussions and thus the eigenvectors are denoted by u(j,m).
_ u(j, m,n)= + -Jj{j + 1 ) - m(m Since
(127)
<j
5.6.
and
1/
<jmn + l| 2 jjmn> =
and
and (102) are used. However, the quantities

eqs. (92) and (94) are obtained from eq. (102)
= +y/C-m(m + l)=
and
it
xm
(126)
are given by eqs. (92)
is
= + Vj(j+1) -n( + l) u(j, m, n + 1),
m, n)
<j
(94), respectively, if eqs. (96)
only up to a phase. The choice of this phase
n- 1),
and hence
transforms any vector of the set u(jt m' t n) into
The matrices of the angular momentum operators
xm which
m,
i.e.
vector of the
Analogously, the successive
The matrix elements of the operators + and _
intrinsic axes,
(125)
'_ u(;V
another one of the same set with the same/ and m'.
5.5.2.
similarly the matrix elements
= +Vj(i+l)-n(n-l)u(i,
' u(j, m, n)
+
m,
and (121) one can obtain
of the components of angular momentum along the

i - i('++'-) and 2 = -ii('+ -'_). Explicitly,
two operators 2 and 3 Similarly for any fixed

m m m' the (2/+1) eigenvectors u(j,m\n) form a (2/+l)-dimensional
representation for the two operators 2 and '3 It is also clear that by any
representation for the
set u(j,
(93), (95)
Lt =
2 = -#(+-_)
elements of and 2 are
( + + _) and
nonvanishing matrix
u(j,
m-
n).
(122b)
In this section
under
it
follows easily that the
we
investigate the transformation of these eigenfunctions
finite rotations
of the coordinate system.
It is useful to
and to develop systematically the mathematics of the D( (9 l 9 2 Sj)

l
<Jm + \ njLiljmn} = Wj(j+i)-m(m + l)
functions.
fl|il/M>
Our
investigation
will
climax
in
the
proof
that
these
(123)
O'm-1
remind the
reader here of the elementary concepts of transformations of wave functions
= K/(/+l)-m(m_l),
Anntî . ^2 . ^s) matrices are as functions of the Euler angles eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian for the symmetric rotator. We will also derive
116
the various
known
symmetry properties of the
wave functions
which have to be
eqs. (4.13) and (4.22)
Z>-functions
for later incorporation of the symmetries in
into the
[ch. 5, 6
is
related to the
by a transformation R, and
wave function is normalized
both systems.
$'
We
have
the third one, 9, gives the magnitude of the rotation. In the limit
R(n, 9) must approach unity, of course. Hence one
e-
may
rotations through
small
we may
an
write
" 9>,
will
then become
Comparing
this
We now consider infinitesimal
rotations
laboratory system respectively.
Making
(nob)
around the
x-, y-
and
z-axis of the
the usual Taylor series expansion,
one obtains
= -idSL^,
R 2 ij/-^ = -id9 2 ^,
R 3 ift-\lt = -id9 3 ^,
,^f-i/r
(131)
Any
finite
rotations
rotation
Lf
Qx
9y
-i [x
momentum
rotations
If
field
(134)
and
in this
will
e-'*'"'
^.
(135)
eq. (135) serves as the definition of the angular
\j/
operators, that
way
the finite rotation
operator
)d9.
then constructed from successive infinitesimal
is
is,
one studies the behavior of the
determines the angular
is
momentum
field
under
operator.
defined by the three Euler angles the rotation
be a product of the three rotation operators defining the three
successive rotations of the three Euler angles 9 lf
- R 3i K Sj K a
92 9 3
,
(see section 5.1),
(136)
Sj
are, following eq. (135),
immediately expressed
in
terms
of the three Euler angles
R R^R^R^ _
.-lajtj-g-isiti'g-is,!,
e
(137)
where the primes on the angular momentum operators refer to the fact
that the rotation through 9 2 is around the new y-axis, obtained from the
old one by a rotation through 9j around the old z-axis, and the rotation 9 3
is around the final z-axis. It seems desirable to express the second and third
It is
well
known
that a unitary transformation
= UtU'
l8ltl
U trans-
Now R Al e~
f into t'
form of e~ 1Sjtl where 2 is defined with respect to the fixed y-axis of the
i9,ti
Hence we have
lab system, under the previous rotation e~
forms an operator
9y>
(133)
and one thus has
laboratory system.
2 = -i(z-
generally,
rotation in eq. (137) in terms of rotations about the axes of the fixed
where
0z
immediately obvious
It is
more
(130a)
^=(l-i Sty.
The operators
components of the angular
equation with eq. (130) one finds the rotation operator
R(n, 9)
l-i$(B,d9),
and
^'
which determine the infinitesimal
m -i(-)d9f.
Rty-ty
write
{i.,d9)
2 3
that for an arbitrary axis of rotation n one has,
For an arbitrary
(129)
infinitesimal angle d9. Since
t ,
operator along the laboratory axes.
-+ 0,
where for 9 - 0, we have (, 9) -* 0, and must be Hermitian since

R(n, 9) is unitary. In order to determine the operator R{n, 9) we have to
determine (n, 9). This is achieved by considering infinitesimal rotations,
i.e.
rotations are thus identical with the three
(128)
In the general case the unitary transformation operators depend on three

angles which are most conveniently chosen to be the three Euler angles.
In our case two of the angles may be used to specify the direction of it, and
(i.,9>
three Hermitian operators
117
for infinitesimal rotations,
R(n, 9)$.
lic
The
TRANSFORMATION UNDER FINITE ROTATIONS
g 6]
$' in the rotated system
transformation must be unitary since the
this
in
wave function
5,
momentum
for the collective Hamiltonian.
Let us consider a rotation of the coordinate system through an angle 9

about an axis defined by the direction n, a unit vector. The wave function iff
in the original system
at.
'
is
the trans-
|,
dz}
(132)
e
-ijEi'
-lili
-liti litj
e
(138)
9 \
dx)
Analogously e~'* ,a "
is
the transform of e"'*
jv under
the previous
'
118
rotation e' ISll '. Using eq. (138)
we
[en. 5, s 6
CH.
5, S
UNITE AND INnNrTESTMAL ROTATIONS
7]
thus have
didPO =
119
W + m)lU-m)l(]+m')l(j-m')tf
(-1)'
=
and
e"
l8,Ej
e"
*lll
c,
'
inserting this into eq. (137)
e~
we
ls,,
,9,tj
e"
ls,Cj
+1 *2l
(139)
x (cos
obtain
and
= f***Hr**f***>
*(i.*2,* 3 )
(jm'v)l(j + mv)\(v + m' m)\vl
'
(140)
& f + m -*i
'(-im iS 2 )"
'- ,n+2
(146)
be derived in Appendix B. The sum over v runs over
will
all
integer
values for which the factorial arguments are greater than or equal to zero.
This is the form of the rotation operator we shall use for

expressing the
Euler rotations. Note that the order of the rotations in this
equation seems
to be inverted: first a rotation through S and last
a rotation through 9 t .
3
This "puzzle" comes from the fact that we have related all
rotations
One may
the rotated axes occurring in eq. (137) to rotations in the

laboratory system.
Let us now investigate the effect of the rotation of the
coordinate system
through the Euler angles on the eigenfunctions u(j,m).
The operator
obtaining
rewrite this result in terms of the hypergeometric function
' + 'W +
*M.h* - 1+ ^*+ i
2!
c(c+l)
'>
,.+
(14 7)
.,
about
(8,, 3 2 8 3 ) in eq. (140) transforms the

itself,
since the successive application of
generates wave functions of the

the last section.
same
u(j,m),
set
m=j,--, -j
any of the operators ,,
set u(j,
m) according
s
, )
dm
mKf 2/
into
2 3
D^fS,
is
3 2 0,) (;, m'),
(141)
obviously defined by
DLA9i S 2 3 3 ) .
first
= <M'|e-
U-un$
(e"
'
3 we
,
'*'** 0perate
+l8 ' Li
>y
n the
Ieft
,l,I '
and
fl 3
)j/
m>
-"'V
~'*ll
on
as well as the fact that the u(/,
mj,
'|/m>.
the
m) are
(148)
ri S ht
>
(142)
and
usin 8
eigenfunctions of
are always negative integers.
In
this
here,
case
x) are Jacob! polynomials of degree n and are orthogonal

g x ^ I under the weighting function x*~ (I x)~ m " c ~",
c;
is
-m; c; x)xe
F(-n, -m;c;x)F(-n',
l, ' t
m'^m,
two parameters of the hypergeometric function appearing
F(n, ~m;
that
</ m' H(, S 2
-tan 2 i9 2 ),
to the result's of
in the interval
where the />-matrix
(m'-m)l
-m-;;m'-m + l;
XjFjfm'-/,
The
5 2 3 3 ) u(j, m)
(cosi3 2 )^"-"'(-sinia 2 r-"
l(j+my.(j-myj
namely m'j and

&(i
r(/-m')!(j + m)n
'
-1
~e
(l-x)"""
~"dx
j;
In eq. (148) the Jacobi polynomial
on which of the two numbers
is
is
= &m ..
(149)
of degree \m' -j\ or \m+j\, depending
smaller.
get
0jL(Si,3 2 ,S 3 )
We abbreviate the
- e- l, '"'<;m'|e-"l
^m
>e
- I,J
5.7. Relation
";
We
matrix element appearing here by
shall
operator
4L(3 2 ) =
which yields the Z)-matrices
O w'|e- ***y m>,
in the
di.,(S 2)
(144)
form
have been given
finite
and
infinitesimal rotations
now
derive
some
6$i$it9i) and
useful
commutation
the angular
relations
momentum
between the
operators. These will
enable us to derive important properties of the functions Di-.fSi , S 2 , S 3 ).

One important property which we can prove with the help of these commutais the fact that the Di- w (S , S , 3 ) are eigenfunctions of the
1
2
3
symmetric rotator (see sections 5.8 and 5.9).
tion relations
DUi.i,>) - e-'^'diU^Je-'^These matrices
between
(143)
explicitly
(145)
by Wigner (Wi-31, 59),
To
start with let us re-examine eq. (128)
^'{x 1
x2 x3 )
,
(S,
which
is
now
written
S 2 S 3) <K*i , x t x 3 ).
,
(150)
QUANTUM MECHANICS OP THE ROTATOR
120
[ch. 5, 7
Here
#X*1 *2
I
The coordinates
X))
*(*! , *2
X'3)
^(ftc).
in the rotated system x't are obtained
Xj in the laboratory system
by the transformation
(21
(151)
5,
is
We
now
shall
relate the operators
rotations. In the
r, 9, <p
wave function
ij/
let
x'2 ,x'3 )
\ji(r,
!T-A(a,,a,8j)--jj-A(Si.a 1 .a,).
<p)
(9,
32
(
( ,
x i> x 2 x 3 )
,
tjr(r,
We may rewrite eq.

9, ?) = tfr, 9', <p').
9 3) ^(r,
&2
>
- R{i
a3 )
39 2
3, <p)
(150) as
^(9i
92 9 3 )
,
in the
around the
Let us
now consider a
an angle 3 3 that
,
P of a
rotation through
#j
z-axis.
<p t
jR(9i
9 3 ).
A point P with coordinate cp
(see fig. 5) has the coordinate (*',
in the old
frame
/) in the rotated frame with the azimutha!
angle
tp'
= (p-9 3
The
92 9 3 )
,
 , *) - l~ #(r, 9, 9 - 9 3) = J- (9
0*3
Otfj
9S 3
J0<p
*(r, 9,
?-9 3) = -
^(r, 9,
<p
-9 3 ).
(159)
space of the wave functions (x,
the usual polar angle
<p
in eqs. (38)
x 2 x2 )
,
defined around the z-axis.
is
one can either perform a
3 2 , 3 3 and then an additional
one through dSj7 or one can perform the
We have seen
finite
rotation followed
dspj.
and (39) how the angular momentum operator
be expressed in terms of Euler angles,
93)
= -i
(U-
fl,)
9,
t(9,
<?>)
tfr, 9, ?).
%l~,
39,
k=
1, 2, 3.
(160)
(155)
From
9 2 9 3) *(r,
?- (9, , 9 2
V.tp
) in the
This equation can also be written in the differential form
= -
9 2 9 3 ).
(154)
j,(r, 9,
through the Euler angles 9
4(Si ,
<p)
are here defined as polar angles around the three
by an infinitesimal one through
may
R(9i
relations of eq. (159) express the fact that
Thus we have
(0, 0, 9 3 ) tfr, 9,
>
Sipj
same sense as
finite rotation
positive rotation of the frame about the z-axis through
is (0, 0,
$ 2 9 3 ),
in the equation
Euler axes e l7 e 2i e 3 (see fig.
the coordinates of a point
(153)
The angles
on
KtSj
B^t
99j
38
effect
^2 > ^3)1
(158)
9', tp'
>
dtp 2
of the
immediately clear in a similar fashion that the following relations hold
It is
which can be summarized
Fig. 5. Illustration
depends.
\jt
This angle corresponds to a rotation about the third Euler axis c 3
are defined with respect to the rotated frame.
f(r, 9,
(157)
9^3
993
In the last relation the polar angles
&',<p').
121
(152)
(9i,9 2 ,83),
instead of Cartesian coordinates
and $(x[
INFINITESIMAL ROTATIONS
from the coordinates
given by eq, (22).
rotations of the frame of reference,
AND
Here we have already extended our considerations to general rotations

{9 lf 8 2 8 3 }, Thus we have found the following important relation
where
where R,j(& lt 9 2 3 3 )
FINITE
S 7J
), i,e.
I *</*i. *9)*i.
*'-
cm.
(156)
eq. (159)
we
are thus led immediately to the relation
9 2 9 3 ) k(&, 9 2 , 9 3 )
,
= -
U~
% %-
(9,
= +>I(t/-%?-^(9
J
Q<pj
9 2 9 3)
,
,9 2 ,9 3 ).
(161)
122
[ch. 5,
ch.
J@$
"it'
**
...
ANG UI-AR MOMENTUM EIOENFUNCTIONS
obvious that
It is
-i E(tf
I
L 2 (9j). We have from
(*!
X lt X 3 )
^(xj
eqs. (167)
angular momentum operator acting on

x2 x 3 ). Hence we have the important result
(162)
the
wave
function
= +<Im'W| 2W%|/m(x )>.
h)&{&t S* ,
&z >
>
,)
= -tk(x x 2
,
x 3 ) (S, S 2 S 3 ).
(163)
important to realize that the A (Sj , 9 2t S 3 ) are the angular momentum

operators acting on Euler angles while L (x ,x ,x ) arc the angular
t
It is
Here we indicate
on
explicitly
and not on Euler
(x,)
operators acting on the wave functioo ^(xj , x , x ).

2
3
Similarly one obtains from eqs. (28) and (29), by use of eq.
(159),
and writing 2 (3j)

f
-5
2
09,
).
[/
m(xj)> that the states
-cot S 8
892
/o
-
(164)
m} depend
(169)
m (&j)
we
finally get
ifa'jjW, 1
8S 2
|/
Using eq. (116), we have
according to eq. (41)
explicitly
il(V-% &($i,&z,9 3
by writing
angles.
Pi^D^JLa,) = +Kl+l)D'm
momentum
(168)
U$i
and (142)
0<pj
the
is
8]
5,
8
\
^r-5
2
8S 3
^?r srsr -'('+i)}*Jj) -
o-
(no)
Since
t&t't
x>2
x 3) - -i (V-
% |-
ft
Both
1, 2, 3,
(165)
and (170)
eqs. (169)
angles,
state that the
are eigenfunctions of the
D^. m (9j), as functions of the Euler

2 (j) with the eigenvalue
operator
+/(/+!).
are the angular
momentum
operators acting on the wave functions with

respect to the rotated system, we obtain
U&i
*s)*(Si
Furthermore, since
($i
*>2
t =
3 2 , *,)
t'
-i(xj
we have from
*,)H(i , 3 . ,)
- + 2 (x,
x'2
x'3 )k(& t
9 2 , 9 3).
is
we prove
the next step
3 (#z).
We use
x 2 , x 3 )(A , S 2 , S3 ).
very important to realize that
the relation (163) and obtain
k($j)
The
The D'm m (9j) as angular momentum

.
m( Xi )>
Since
3 (x,)
m'(x )>
(
L3 (h)D'm .JLQj) - -in'DL-^j).
lk (9j) and 4 (x,)

Hence
$m m (9j)
-
is
(171)
m'\l m'(x,)>, we have
diagonal also for
3 (9,)
(172)
with the eigenvalue
&
way we can
5.S.
(167)
operate in different spaces; the former acts on the Euler angles, and the
latter on the x, y, z coordinates.
= </m'(x )| 3 (S )^(9j)l/ m (x )>

= - </ m'(x ) U*d*&j) ' (*i)>-
eq. (163) or (166)

,
that the E?m m (9j) are also eigenfunctions of
3 <3j)DL. Jj) = 3 (3j) </ m'(x,)
(166)
These "commutation" rules are usually given in a notation which does not
refer to the argument of the angular momentum operator, and
this leads
to great confusion. It
As
m\
In a quite similar
also prove that the
m m (9j) are eigenfunctions of '3 (9j), i.e. of the projection of angular momentum along the
eigenfunctions
relations (163), (166) and (167) derived in the preceding section lead
us to a very simple proof of the fact that the matrices >". (Sj), as functions
m
of the Euler angles, are eigenfunctions of the angular momentum operator
z-axis
of the rotating
We make use
intrinsic system.
t'^Dl^Sj) = 3 (S,) </ m'(x )

t
>
of eq. (166) and obtain
R(j) /m(x,)>
|
</m'(x )| 3 (9J)^)|/m(x )>

1
= -ilrnXxML'sWRi^llmixdy.
(173)
12*
Now the functions

The
|/m(x,)> are eigenfunctions of
JcH. 5, 9
3 (^)
but not of
3 (*;).
ch.
\lm'(x)}=R(Sj)[l m (x)y.
momentum
M'k =
< / m'(*0 R(Sj) LsixdZ- '(3,) (3,)
< / m'(x ) (3j) 3 (x,)
m(x )>
%(j)DL-JLt)
= -mDLJL*,).
also an eigenfunction of the angular
along the rotating
z'-axis.
(175)
momentum component
we made use of the
fact that
Note also
that
we may
^(9y )3 (X| )r*(aJ ).
(177)
easily obtain the relation
3 (9,)(s,) = - 3 <*;)(s,) =
and
M' 2 + M' 2
Tm
+
ri
Ml
2/,
=z
2/
a
(183)
-*(*,),(*,),
M?
M -M?
2/
2/3
Ml
(184)
2/3'
until
the intrinsic components fulfill the commutation rules of eq. (82b) or the
components along the laboratory axes obey the commutation relations
According to the
We
results of the last section
D MK*(&j)
s
it
is
then immediately
are eigenfunctions of the operator in eq. (184).
have
(178)
any component
similarly for
M-x
now we have simply recapitulated classical mechanics. T becomes

an operator if we require that the angular momenta are quantized and
Up
obvious that the
-it(3j) 3(*,),
'
2jf
(82a).
or
3(^(3,) =
2/ 2
= 2 = </o. '*
The symmetric rigid rotator is characterized by
two of the moments of inertia are equal. The z'-axis is then an axis of
symmetry. The kinetic energy is given by
(176)
In the above derivation
3 K) =
M'-t
therefore
is
(182)
fl)t ,
m(x )>
= m</m'(x )|^(Si)|/m(x )> = mD'*^),
i^.D^^Sj)
Mi
2/i
one also has the alternative form
</m'(x )| 3 (xO^(9/ )|/ m (Xi )>
and
components of
along the intrinsic axes are
(174)
Hence we have
125
the rotating coordinate system fixed in the body. Since the
angular
eigenfunctions of L'3 (x't ) are given by
SYMMETRIC TOP
s, 9]
,(S,)Dl*(,)
- MDU*(3/).
t&Bj)&*(j)
= KD !MK *(9j%
(185)
(179)
and
also
where we made use of the

tXxft&{9j)
)R(9J
J
The "commutation"
derivation of the
relation in eq.
DiiK*{i)
(180)
)=m )L (9
moments of inertia
fact that
= RiSj)^),
J).
which
will
(-1) -*D'-*-k<3,).
be proved in Appendix B. Thus, the eigenvalues of
(see eqs. (53)-(58)).
2/
2/
<fi
fh
L -h tg
fiVf
"{
The
ft* #\
of a rigid body with three moments of inertia

which rotates about its center of mass is given by
T=
where ;,(;,
ai'3
i/^l'+i/^^+i/â
0V
(181)
are the angular velocities about the
/*(,)
2/ 3 )
2/o
2
-KH>
tl(I +
+
M/(3j}
\
2^
2^ 3 /
kinetic energy
>
f are *
(179) has been used earlier in the
The symmetric top
5.9.
(186)
*
x'-,
/-, z'-axis of
The angular momentum operator
M=
ft (see eq.
(6-lfi)).
(187)
126
Since the projection of the angular
momentum on
[CH. 5
the rotating z'-axts must
always be smaller than the angular momentum, K

g /, the energy levels of
the symmetric rotator exhibit different rotational
bands (tf-values) in
which the energy levels are spaced according to the famous
/(/+!) rule.
We
CHAPTER
however that the wave functions have to be symmetrized

R 2 ,R 3 (see eq. (4.22)), and this will lead to selection rules for
shall see
under
& lt
the possible values of
/and
of the symmetric top were
(see section 6.4 below).
The
eigenfunctions
The Rotation-Vibration
Model (RVM)
by Reiche and Rademacher

(Rei-26) and, independently, by Kronig and Rabi (Kr-27).
first
established
References
The
original paper on the rigid rotator is that

of Casimir (Ca-31). The
properties of the rotator are also discussed in books
dealing with angular
momentum
in
quantum mechanics (Ro-57, Ed-57,
Br-62),
In Chapter 3
we have
treated the
harmonic quadrupole vibrator as the
simplest example of the very general form of the collective nuclear Hamil-
tonian (3.7) for low-energy excitations.

collective potential energy V(<
could be expanded as ^(ot
121
) ss
It
was
essential that in this case the
and thus
had a minimum at a123 =
iCX 2 * a 2 . This was expected always to
21
be the case for nuclei near or at closed shells, since such nuclei are spherical
in their
ground
states.
Quite a distance away from the magic nuclei the
outer nucleons are only loosely
bound and hence the
become
nuclei tend to
deformed. The collective potential is then a complicated and involved

expansion of the type discussed schematically in sections 4.2 and 4.3 and is
typically of the structure shown in fig. 4.10. It becomes much more advantage-
ous to transform the total Hamiltonian to

Euler angles S r
The
potential energy
deformed minimum (compare
fig.
is
4.12)
a 2 and
then simply expanded around the
and approximate solutions for
the
dynamics of the system can be obtained in this way. These are the general
ideas behind the models which we discuss in this and in the next chapter,
namely the rotation-vibration model and the asymmetric rotator model.

Historically A. Bohr first proposed (Bo-52) the introduction of the
intrinsic system in 1952. It was, however, Davydov and his school (Da-58a)
who
first
obtained systematic solutions of the Bohr Hamiltonian assuming a
The systematic solutions

symmetric deformed nucleus with /J- and y-vibrations, i.e.
statically
deformed
triaxial nucleus.
vibration model, were later obtained by Faessler

64, 65).
127
for an axially
the rotation-
and Greiner (Fae-62,
128
6.1.
ROTATION- VIBRATION MODEL (RVM)
The Hamiltoaian of
{CH. 6,
fi
the rotation-vibration model
The rotation-vibration model
treats nuclei
axially
symmetric
deformed equilibrium configurations in the collective potential energy.

This collective potential energy is expanded around the equilibrium position
= 0+oi
a2
and
is
V(a'o
The
*a)
classical kinetic
energy
is
a'
+ C2 a 2
taken as a
|C
first
+ C2
%
1,
(2)
= 2T(d0 =
The quantized form of the
0.
The volume element
is
and
(g
= v/ ?|d*j
dr
then
denotes the inverse matrix of
use eq. (6) for our purpose here, that
E* /*K
I Vu{h
\
a) (
& 2 S 3) î) +iB(d

,
dt
where we have made use of eqs. (5.69) and
inertia
k (av ) are given by eq. (5.72). We will see
moments of inertia are to be expanded around the equilibrium
of eq. (1) up to second-order terms only, because of consistency
later that the
To describe higher orders consistently it is necessary to include

higher-order expressions already in the ansatz for the kinetic energy in the
laboratory system. This would involve terms such as
arguments.
B 3 [[ctm x <*t] [21 x ^rjEoi + B4[dt2] x ^rjtoj

The
for the quantization of
is
T=
values
(7)
form
or in terms of Euler angles and intrinsic variables
where the moments of
(6)
'--d^..
eq. (3). Let us therefore rewrite eq. (3) in the
(5)
given by
is
approximation to be
We
then defined by
IU<a<Mg,.
kinetic energy
the determinant of g^
is
is
-^14^^%-%/-,
^ =
where g
ds*
(1)
0+f?,
thus of the form (see eq. (4.45))
= C
THE HAMU.TON1AN
CH, 6, 1]
length element in the curvilinear space
which have
^m +
+20,
(8)
(5.55).
The
coordinates
^ in the
general formula, eq. (5), are
?i
o.
02
a2
9s
Si.
9a
- 92
<7s
S 3)
(9)
and hence the g,{qr ) are

0ii
0i*
9ik
-B,
= 3ki = 52 =
9i2
2B,
for
for
fc
?t 2,
1,
(10)
kinetic energy in the
form of
eq. (3)
is still
has to be quantized. The question arises as to
Hamilton functions given
classical expression
how
and
to quantize classical
in general curvilinear coordinates.
There
is
well-defined procedure to achieve this, which, because of its mathematical

character,
we
shall discuss separately in section 6.2. Let
state here the essential results
Assume a
classical kinetic
us therefore just
which are to be used.
energy function
is
This matrix
1 8MMA
= g(q9 )
by
* _
/,
given as a bilinear form in
1, 2,
-,
N,
are functions purely of the coordinates.
sin
&; cos* & 3
Si sin # 2 cos 0j sin & 3

+ /* sin *a sin #*, /*i
+ / 1 sin**1 sin I * 1
+ / 3 COS 1 #2
v
eq. (1
25
(4)
where the g{q.)
explicitly given
Mo
the coordinates q y ,
T-
is
sin #3 cos
+ Si
sin
/,
0j
0j
sin
COS02
sin
&3
0,
/\
sin*
#j +
cos* *3
cos #3
/s
00
ROTATION-VIBRATION MODEL (RVM)
130
The determinant of this matrix

g
=
=
is
det (a,)
easily calculated.
2B
2
16B a 2 (3a
[CH. 6,
One
THE HAMILTONIAN
CH. 6,51]
obtains
where the l'k %) are given by
sin 9 2 /, /a / 3
- 2e 2 2 ) 2 sin 2 9 2
last
5.9 in a
(12)
form
Notice that we have obtained the
eq, (5.29).
in eq. (15) for the quantized rotational energy earlier in section
much more
we have
elegant way. Here
derived
it
by
explicit calcula-
tion according to the quantization rules in curvilinear coordinates.
The
'
(/IB
inverse of the matrix
oo
also easily evaluated to be
is
The
vibrational energy
eq. (13).
One
relatively easy to calculate
is
2B Laa
gilB
2
2B S*
x(/
2
3
+/
cos 2
/3
+/"ism# I sin# s cos0j)
-2flVcos^
x(/ 1 sin I # 3
+îCos 1 # ] )
2**>s
+2il 2
-2fl
sin
x<-,/isiii*iCos*3sin*3
3)
-2B 1 /,
x{ /isin-îcos^jsindj
+ /1 sin #2 sin fl 3 COS # 3 )
-2B 2 / 3 cos0 3
x (/^
sin
5, cos
+ / a sin 1 #i sin 2
x(X|Sin 2 5 3 + ,/2COS I #i)
3 sin
/(Asin 2 ^
+fi/i cos 2 # 3 sin 2 0,
+ ftfy cos 2 2 cos*
#3
+ / 3 sin dj cos 0j sin 02.)
now a
lengthy but straightforward calculation to obtain the
eq. (6).
The
The volume element

dr
One
result is
where the rotational energy
is
lb
(14)
f-
i(a
,a 2 )\
-ft
+cos
lUnêS,
8
()m-)J
Q
2/3(00, a 2
+sin 9 3
+cot 9 2 cos 9 3
a9 3
sin9 2 09,
/sm9 3
*-2a 2 2 9a
(17)
-2a, 2 )/ 8a J
is
h -=
ft*
f sin
3)i
_
sin 3y
.
(18)
9yJ
9y
given according to eq. (7) by

1
4B*|a 2 ||3a
-2fl 2 ||sin9 2 ]da da 2 dS 1
d9 2 d3j.
(19)
can, of course, drop a constant factor in the expression for the volume
all
normalization and orthogonality relations will not be
affected by such a factor. Historically the
volume element was chosen
(Bo-52) such that
given by
cos a 3 e
+ 2a 2 2 )(3a
dx
1
3a
|7G|da da 2 dS d9 2 d9 3
element because
t-tM +f,
-4a 2*)
90
quantum
mechanical operator for the kinetic energy of eq. (3) through the use of
eq. (6) using
This can easily be rewritten in the ^-representation of eq. (2.23) to obtain

the form used by the Copenhagen school (Bo-52, Bo-53)
(13)
It is
l2a 2 (a
cos0 2
2 9a 2
3(a
x ( ,/isin02COS0 3 sind s
+ </i sin # 2 sin # 3 cos 3 )
3
3)
+2J 2 / 3 cos#2
x( /[ sin 2 cos
from
obtains
89 2
\
I
df(a
a 2)
dft,
(20)
where
dfl
883/
cot 9 2 sin 8 3
9,
is
[sin
9 2 d9 A d9 2 d9 3
|
9 2 d9, d9 2 d9 3
sin
(21)
the volume element of the Euler angles, and
8 3 /
dT(a ,a 3 )
>/2|a z [|3a
-2a
2
;t
|da o da 2
^[sin 3y[d0dy
(22)
the volume element of the vibrational coordinates. Hence the vibrational

wave functions ij/(a a2 ) have to be normalized according to
is
]
J
Aft'
<fr*K . a 2 ) ^(a , a 2 ) ^2 |a 2 J3a
(15)
J<
- *t&$t
),
(16)
- 2a 2 2
da 2 da
^*(%. 02)^(00^2)0(00, a 2 )da da 2
Here we have introduced the angular momentum operator components

Xttfj)
where
-J
D(a 0i a2 ) = V2|a 2 ||3a 2 -2a 2 2
|.
1,
(23)
132
It is
much more
[ch. 6, S
convenient (Fae-62), however, to redefine the wave
CH. 6, 6
THE HAMILTONIXN
] ]
functions
with the volume element * dt
133
>(a
a 2 )da da2
functions according to
,a 2)
<p{a
*jD{a Q ]a 2 )4t(a 9 , a 2 ),
(24)
which are then to be normalized with a simple volume element

dt(o
that
a 2)
da da 2
D
The wave
functions
*(a 0r a2)<p(a
a 2 )da da z
1.
(26)
^/D
In other words, according to eq. (24) the factor ^D{a a a 2 ) is contained in

the new wave functions (p{a Q a 2 ). Care must be taken if the matrix elements
,
= -i* 2
of differential operators have to be calculated between the wave functions ^.

differential operator must then be properly transformed before it is
The
applied to the wave functions
to the wave functions

Let us
now
Non-differential operators can be applied
The
which yields as solutions
<p(a
a 2 ).
We know
that the
wave functions
ij/(a
kinetic energy
i=o, i
now not
is
"additional potential"
immediately.
<p
investigate the differential equation
wave functions
satisfy the
<p.
k,
*, * - "o, 2
the
(30)
*,xaa K
t,tb<P(ao, a 2 )
is
f...
VtM
da K
|-(ff-'XiA?-+Kidd5a
only a differential operator but contains an
which
is
.
E | Sk +(,-.!,*>
4D*,a
da 6a
lea* 8a,
2x2
However, since the
2D
vibrational submatrix of
8a, Qa
(G~
),
ai) iKô
fl 2)
- EH<to
>
(27)
Oz).
and
simpler. This simplicity
see eq. (13),
diagonal matrix, the form of the differential operator
îb(a
(32)
da.
a2 )
Schrodinger equation
da 2 y/D
is
is
'
now much
the simplicity of the normalization integral in
and of the matrix elements has been paid for by the appearence of
an additional potential K, dd (a ,aa ). In our special case of the classical
eq. (26)
THb is given by eq.
where
tp(a
a 2 ) from eq.
(17) or the corresponding part of eq. (6). Inserting
we
(24),
obtain
kinetic energy, eq. (3),
mechanical operator.
(28)
f =
-jD(a ,a 2)
*jD(a 0t a 2 )
and multiplying with ^/D{a 0f a 2 ) from the
Thus <p(a
energy
a2 )
Tya {a Q
satisfies
.
up
2/k (a 0> a 2 )
where dt
2)
7==)
but there
= E <p(a
a 2).
(29)
a Schrodinger equation with the vibrational kinetic
a 2)r which can be
instructive to follow
Y&_
this
explicitly calculated
from
eq. (29). It is
procedure in the general formalism of quantiza-
tion sketched in eqs. (4)-(7).
The
6V
IB
dflda da 2
energy has become
VjDfflo.aO (f 6(a
easily obtains the corresponding
quantum
8*
2 8a 2
(3a
2
+6a 2 2 ) 2
8a 2 (3a
-2a 2 2 )2J
(34)
left
(<> o 2 )q>(a 0f a 2 )
L*
one now
It is
vibrational kinetic energy for the
wave
now
sin
$ 2 d$ t <i9 2 6B 3 6a Q 6a 2 The
.
vibrational kinetic
much
simpler than the corresponding one in eq. (17),

also occurs the "additional potential" in the last term of eq.
This term, however, can be treated quite simply as we shall see.

If instead of eq. (3) we quantize the more complicated kinetic energy in
(34).
eq. (5.78)
which contains second- and third-order terms
in the laboratory system,

* Notice that
"o and a 2
C 1 (o
i)
is
we
obtain in the same
just the part
in
a123 and
c^
21
manner
of the determinant G(0>, a) which depends on
134
l-2B'a
18_
3_
+2a 2 2 )) 8a
(1 ~4B'\a
(l-4B' 2 (a
+ 2B'a
2 da 2 (1 -4B' 2 (a
4B'a,
9a
+2a 2 2 )) 9^
4B'a,
+2a 2 2 )) Bas
9a 2 (l-4B' 2 (a
+2a 2 2 ))
-I
+ Kdd>
where dt
= dda da 2 The
"additional potential"
[9 (aQ
28B' 2
2 (3a
^.g^g
-2a 2
B' (2-5B' 2 (a
l
is in this
+WY+2B'{aJ + 2g 2 2
2Bls
= 3B'
(a
)fl
(aQ
- 6a, 2 )
a (a
-6o 2 2 )
2fk {a Q ,a 2
+ V(a
with dt
dflda
dfl 2
J\
So
Po
Si
S*
BQ
/a
8Ba 2 2
Jo =
3Bp
or
2
ft
The
last
*
1
2
'*>"
(3a *
2
8a 2 (3a
* 2 2
+6a
2 )
2
a2
tj)
(39)
^3
iia
(Fae-62, 64, 65)
H = # + H + /?i b
n),
+ 5- +
ft.
2f
2/,
-2a 1 2 ) 2J
derived by A.
Bohr
an
1 lbroi
j&
(Bo-52) on the coupling of nuclear surface

oscillations
It was one of the starting
points for the development
of the low-energy collective model and
has been used subsequently by many
Ah 2
I6Ba 2
-#; 2
$ -m
2
_
1
2/o
m
>
(41)
I6B7'
ii-2i + 3ii]
r2
2
L Po
a-S+ti'-
4#0
in 1952 in his
famous paper
to the motion of
(40)
ts
<--i&*ia*w.* -
0*|sin 3y|dJ?dydO.
first
j|,
where
(38)
form was
'
2/o
with di
reciprocal third moment of inertia can not, of course, be expanded.

Performing a similar expansion also for the "additional potential" in
eq.
(34), one gets the Hamiltonian of the rotation-vibration model (a'
^-representation
<J
_ + *9_
.W 2 9o
re
2B
in
The
tyj\
obtaining
).
a 2 ),
to?
fl-Z
"
-6V)
quadrupole Hamiltonian in terms of the Euler angles and

the intrinsic variables is now obtained by adding
the vibrational potential
^(o, 02) to the operator of the kinetic energy in eq. (34)
2
a v'/B
collective
in
2 2
case of eq. (34), as indeed one must.
&'k 2
up to second-order terms
case given by
The moments of inertia f'k {a Q ,a ) and the parameter B'

2
are defined in
eqs. (5.78) and (5.79). It is noticed that for B' =
one obtains the limiting
coupled to each other due to the a-dependence of the moments of inertia.

If the assumption is made that the potential energy
surface has a deep
deformed axially symmetric minimum, so that the expansion of eqs.
(1) and
(2) can be made, one can readily expand the moments of inertia in eq.
+ 2a 2 2 ))
+2a2 )-2B'
2
2a2 )-2g' go ( go 2
- l-4B' 2 (a 2 +2a2 2
=Z
7
is
(5.72)
(35)
'
The
135
is the root of various low-energy models. The

form given in
completely equivalent to the Bohr Hamiltonian. It has, however,
the advantage of the simple volume element and the simple
form of the
vibrational energy. It is seen that the rotational and the vibrational
part are
eq. (37)
*!
P
2B l3a
THI HAMILTONIAN
authors. It
2/;(o ,a 2)
where
CH. 6, 1]
I
f=E
_
[CH. 6,
with dt
A,*J
Po
[**%-**
Pa j
L.
(43)
fJ<J
dfldf dtj. Here the abbreviations
individual nucleons.
j'+
= i;+ij2J
tf_
. j&i-j^,
ji>-x>j*
KJ'+ +i'-
2
)
(44)
136
have been used. The rotational Hamiltonian

rotation-vibration
"additional potential" in eq. (34).
#Yib
been denoted by
The energy
model
will
rol
The
The
term of ftnb comes from the

rotation-vibration interaction has
last
ch.
6,
QUANTIZATION IN CURVUJNEAR COORDINATES
2]
wave
classical
fields
and
eigenvalues
the eigenfunctions of the rotation-vibration

6.3.
namely the quantization of
we
In the next section
more detail what we have accepted thus
far
will
first
is
precautions which must be taken in applying this technique. First, the
momenta must be
coordinates and
This
coor-
is
orders.
usually
expressed in Cartesian coordinates.
noncommuting
If
we
factors
done by taking a symmetric average of
These precautions are
write the Schrddinger equation
first
atom
And
must be resolved.
the various possible
illustrated in the following
Let us consider the case of the hydrogen
without discussion,
classical kinetic energies in curvilinear
137
found to be useful in connection with

as well as classical particles. There are, however, two
This quantization technique
second, ambiguities in the order of
be obtained in section
investigate in
contains in the last term a
This has, for convenience, been
energy.
interaction
attributed to the rotational energy.
ft roi
[CH. 6, 2
example.
in spherical coordinates.
in Cartesian coordinates,
dinates.
vV(*,
6.2.
The
^ (e+ *) K*> *
*)+
quantization in curvilinear coordinates
and then transform
Any
y>
classical
system can be taken over into quantum mechanics by finding
the classical Hamiltonian function and equations of motion in terms of some
canonical variables q, p, and making the appropriate replacement for the

classical Poisson brackets
t 8_ /
r
8(r,3,) \ ,
Qr\
we
this to spherical coordinates,
8r
8_ /.
1
2
in9
o.
(50)
obtain
a^M,y) \
89
9 88
r sin
*)
r" sin*
(45)
6t
Qt
Note that ^, regarded

r,
Ê +
aVM.p)
i
-2 - J - 2
9
y
^ttV(-,9,
V) =
0.
(51)
5q>
as a function of x, y, z in eq. (50)
same function of position, so
9, <p in eq. (51), is the
and as a function of
that
where
'
is
?s
%.
*(*,**)*(/;
,
"./;j'i."'
any function of the dynamical variables
Hamiltonian function. The
(52)
a, <pX
(46)
j'/;')
for the corresponding values of the coordinates. Eq. (51) is the usual
p and
q,,
classical Poisson bracket {F,
is
H}
the classical
is
defined as
Schrddinger equation for the treatment of the hydrogen atom.

If,
however, one starts with the Hamiltonian function in spherical coor-
dinates
{F ,H}
i(-*l\,
dpj
ii \dq,
8p
Qq
(47)
2p
and eq. (45) is the classical equation of motion for the quantity F. The
quantum analog of the classical equations of motion is found in general by
substituting the
commutator bracket divided by
ift
sin
(53)
-*
i
ft
ft
in
The canonical
variables q, ,
(48)
lft
39
quantum
is
led to the following
equation
8 2 ff(r, 3, y)
are then found (Sch-55b) to obey the
3
(54)
8r
one fulfills the commutation relations, eq. (49), but one
(lMl)->i[*,ff]-I<M-ltf).
and puts
for the Poisson bracket,
i.e.
3r*
"
38
8 ^(r,
ff(r, 9, q>)
r sin
3y
9, <p)
2
conditions
[4, , pj}
ifi
5 ti ,
[4, ,
4J =0,
fj),
pj\
^(+^)f(r,9,<p) =
0.
(49)
0,
(55)
CH.
ROTATION-VIBRATION MODEL (RYU)
138
which obviously
differs
from
[ch. 6,
$?(r, 9,
<pi)
are normalized.
For
The Hamiltonian function
tj/(r,
9, <p)
tp)
=
while ^(r,
3, q>)
dr sin 9 d$dq>
(56)
where we transformed to a volume element which
is
just a product of the infinitesimals of the coordinates involved. In our case

this
is
dr
drd9dq>, and
3V
between
^(jt!
1.
(57)
and
\j/
must therefore be
ftr, 9,
2
is still
tp).
we obtain a
correct equation for
quantum mechanics. Indeed,

eq. (53) into many classically equivalent forms which will
their quantum mechanical analogs. For example, a term
2
1
pr r pr r~ ,rpf r
commute with r.
,
p,r
pr does not
Following the work of Podolsky (Po-28),
alent
if
which
will thus
3N
have
may be
form.
dimensions
is
momenta and
The Schrddinger equation
well
known
to be
*wM*i
w - 0,
(62)
supposed normalized in the Cartesian coordinates
JV(jci
, x iff )$(Xl
2
,
etc.,
h i.2*
p/ may
like
be
ds
=0i
develop a method for
Hamiltonian
degrees of freedom.
The Cartesian
(59)
Pit Pit "'*9aa<
(60)
>
and the corresponding momenta by
,,
we
start
dx 3N
1.
(63)
with 3JV coordinates for
transform the system to
,---,h 3W!
+2ff
dw 1 2 + 2sj 2 du 1 du 2 +
Im du, dw,+
ffd,dii,,
new
(64)
+53N3du 3W du 3W
(65a)
r,i-l
with
which are not equiv-
X 3W>
x 3 )dx,
characterized by the coefficients
The
first
collective
coordinates u x
g*
(65b)
, u might, for example, be considered as
coordinates while the um+u
-,
u iN
describe the additional
internal "single-particle" degrees
of freedom of the ^-particle system*.

One usually denotes the determinant of the
g by g,
g
We
in configuration space.
coordinates of the particles are denoted by
*i x%
consider a situation in which
9n
we now
g which occur in the expression

for the square of an element of arc length in terms
of the w's
differ greatly in
operator in an arbitrary coordinate system. Consider a conservative system
N particles,
N nucleons
easy to see that one can put
of the quantum mechanical
obtaining the correct form
of
not a function of the
(58)
inconsistent with eq. (55).
function for
p,rpr
is
{}
it is
x iN )
(61)
coordinates involving collective coordinates and residual degrees

of freedom.
The new coordinate system
We are thus led to the conclusion that eq. (53) is not a correct Hamiltonian
written as r
sin 9
substitute eq. (58) into eq. (51)
$(r, 9, <p) which, however,
(see eq. (24))
vr
we
now
Let us
ip{r, 9, <p)
If
* *3n)-
we would have
^*(r, 9, g>)#(r, 9, 4>)drd9d<p
ifi
is
where
be written
so that
the
relation
2m
x3W )
its classical
8x,
The
be identical with
ay
F(x
potential energy
in Cartesian coordinates of 3JV

I,
could be thought to be normalized as in the procedure of
the previous section
(x lf
*=i
will therefore
\ijr*(r, 9, q>) $(r, 9, tp) r
A
+K
2m
may
139
if-I
we have
z)dxdydz
z)il/(x, y,
for the entire system
3N
The
^*(x, y,
QUANTIZATION IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
6, 2]
eq. (51).
Part of the difficulty can be due to the difference in the ways ^(r, 9,
and
fi
det {g n },
(66)
should be emphasized that these latter coordinates are

not pure single-particle
coordinates and should not be identified with any
of the x's. Later in Chapter 9, however,
we shall introduce such a relationship as an
approximation to the true situation for heavy
odd nuclei. This leads directly to the very basic
problem of spurious states in the collective description, which will
be discussed further in Volume 3.
It
ROTATION-VIBRATION MODEL <RVM)
140
[CH. 6, 2
) the inverse of the matrix g.

wish to transform eqs. (62) and (63) to the coordinate system
{}. In doing this we regard \j/*\j/ as an invariant function of position since
we interpret it as a probability density. Thus, in the expression for
-
we imagine x lt x 2
3N )
'
'
replaced by
their values in terms
"
'
* K*l " ."->"
*3*)
i.e.
OU r
we
In eq. (32)
(67)
"aw)-
(ft/i)
V 2 -operator in N dimensions, are known from
of the Laplacian
quantum mechanical expression
correct
g (-
F(i
'
to the usual
V 3*)) *(
,", a) =
*-*/,fl*cr UU-*+K( Bll ...,B 3
(75)
i).
immaterial, this reduces
is
(76)
"n r,#I
U^)^
", li
3N )|flf*(i
'
',
Usj^dU!
du 3tl
1.
way the
for the Hamiltonian in curvilinear
3N
(68)
Let us
tfr*(i
operators
differential
obtain in this
form
and
-
of
3ff
ft
(74)
0.
coordinates,
a=
special curvilinear space
momenta Pk and
In the classical case, where the order of factors

5u,
8u, V
,---,H 3W )
(3/3t ) by the corresponding
r,
i,r-l
can use the general rule for replacing the
We obtain
example Sp-59 or Mo-53a).
form for our

and a2
discussed just this
the formulation of general considerations concerning curvilinear coordinates

(see for
3,
+ (K-)*(ti
We
".
for expressions such as those in eqs. (62)
The formulas of transformation

(63),
2fflr,j = l
intrinsic vibrational variables
(K*i
and
so that
's,
141
(g
We now
of
QUANTIZATION IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
6, 2]
-1
and by
^(x lt
CH.
now
consider the case where the
first
collective coordinates while the coordinates
coordinates u lt
um+lt --;u Vi
" ;um
are
describe the
freedom of a nucleus. It is easy to see that the separation

of the wave functions into collective and internal motion means that the
internal degrees of
(69)
Thus, the new volume element
is
matrix elements
dT
|fl*(i
% 3)|di
d3*
(70)
If one prefers to work with the volume element
df
have to vanish,
= dn^'-du^,
(71)
ffu
for r
Le. the
g m
|fl*(i
'
'
. 3W)]*"K"I
"
*.
and
matrix
>
m, and for
g must
Sn
**Wi
, u 3 ) \g*\ d!
=
Substituting eq. (72) into (68)
"
'i
(77)
9ml
9m+lm+2
(78)
8mA-
3N
Bm+lm+t
du 3W
* *(Ut
0*(i
be of the form
ffm+lnt+1
*
> m and
(72)
3).
so that
8i2---9im
02i
one has to use the wave functions
*(1P2."-. 3)
WjKjdU!
dti
(73)
and multiplying the
9itfm+i
resulting equation by
u 3N ) gives the wave equation for the wave function *(ui
u 3W ):
purely collective model thus implies that for
internal
wave function
is
the same. This
is
all collective
only partly true in
states the
reality.
In
142
general, dynamical interactions between collective
freedom also occur. In
[ch. 6, 2
and
internal degrees of
ch. 6, 3]
and
SOLUTION OF THB HAMILTONIAN
in particular
this general case
extreme care must be taken in

establishing the correct quantum mechanical Hamiltonian according to the
r or
rules of eqs. (75) or (68) discussed in this section.
As an example
r9
unrelated to applications involving collective coordinates,
us apply these results to spherical polar coordinates, thus seeing

quantization in more general coordinates proceeds. One has
let
ds
Ar
+ r 2 d9 2 + r 2 sin 2 9d<p 2
how
=U
9z2
r\
g ik =
r2 sin
033
for
(86)
i
fc.
and
(On =
(ff-% =
i,
i
2
r
(ff~% =
r dr sin Sd5d<p satisfies
3r
r dr
sin
(87)
39
3<p
(81)
6.3. Solution
of the rotation-vibration Hamiltonian
fori#fc.
volume element
the wave equation (68) which is in our case
9, <p) defined with
the
sin
we proceed
angular
method
momentum) one can
is,
fM' -i0i
with
drdSd<p obeys the wave equation (74) which
is
the
volume element
2/
^ ,+^
ro
ib
it either in perturbation theory or by

method is advantageous because explicit expresand wave functions can be obtained. The second
treat
first
however, very necessary for high angular momenta.
(82)
2
defined
The
way. The solutions of
8 vih[at is a small perturbation (at least for small
Let us start with the solutions for
&(r, &,<p)
in the following
can be given exactly. Since
sions for energy levels
Q) =

=
ft
eqs. (40)-(43)
sin3 33
while the wave function
diagonalization.
Lor
e_ ft9
* 8
In order to obtain the solutions of the rotation-vibration Hamiltonian of
The determinant is g = r* sin 2 S.

Thus the wave function ^(r,
2
GT% = T^T-&
du k
in particular for spherical polar coordinates
dt
S<p
(85)
9 39
(80)
fl
2m
S,
Similarly
9,
sin*
In the second case they are given by the general formula (see eq. (75))
011
(79)
and thus
dt
3
l0
sin*
2
,
$i'
-h
16Bn
in our case
2
ft
/3
# + #,,,
t
+
+lc ' ,+c "'*)
2B \d?
-sG?
ib)
2
3n
;
w^
E$(Sj,Z, n ).
(88)
Using the ansatz for the wave function

\
2m
Idr
sin*
3 39
39/ sin* 9
+ V(r,
The operators of
the
momenta
9, <p)
r sin
+ VM - e)
are given in the
9 3^ 2
#(r, 9, ?)
first
*(,,{,
0,
(83)
case by the general
formula
(84)
i
3u*
n)-i>j*(a>tt.i)
(89)
as well as eq. (5.187) for the eigenfunctions of the symmetric rotator

obtain
(J(J
+ l)-K 2 )ft 2
2/
"
(K 2 -l) 2
16Bij
tf /3*_
2sW
+ic
e+
8M
we
2 3w /
2
2 .j
<p(Z,
n)
E<f>({,
i,).
(90)
ROTATION- VIBRATION MODEL (rVM)
144
This means that the unperturbed Hamiltonian,
The function
<p(, rj)
f} rBl
[ch. 6, 3
+ f} vib
is
diagonal to K.
We now
turn our attention to eq. (92).
(g'-t)ft'
ft
IfiSpr "
ZkW
o)
i
(~
Thus we obtain
for the
^l? +
^^^
45
= Â(E-E
)-(I(I +
Wk+i) = Kk
is
(98)
1)-K 2 )lel
x2
-i).
4BC,
(or -) vibrations* the solutions of the harmonic
and
in particular
tion operators of a -phonoos,
= K*-l).
**,.*,
(94a)
\2B(o
-l)ft /16tfi|
(99)
(93)
which we immediately exhibit in terms of creation and annihila-
oscillator,
where
(92)
and
(/L
^.iV-M+^H
,i
"(
5?
The term
form
written in the
2
2
145
(9i)
to the following differential equations for Xjc(v) an<* ff(0 :
is led
Mi+i)-K*)tf
I
SOLUTION OF THE HAMILTONIAN
3]
obviously a kind of "centrifugal potential" which affects the solutions Xk(*i)

very much. After some straightforward manipulations, eq. (92) may be
can be separated:
vfrti-M-gJ*
and one
ch. 6,
*><>
(100)
The eq. (98) for the a'2 - (or t}-) vibrations is formally identical with the
wave equation for the spherical oscillator. The rotational quantum num2
2
bers / and /: originate from the rotation term i(&t' - &'3 )l
o a nd toe
- -i^ (-A_) (-&+&)

\2B co
-iwBjK-W+AO.
(94b)
rotation-vibration term J&3 /16Bfj
tonian
U,,),.
/o =
These obey the boson commutation rules (see
$ofio$oPo
Hence #() can be
at
tj
3B/J
f^.-e-* A '
2
.
(101a)
t.( 17),
(101b)
wfo).
and with the substitution

confluent hypergeometric differential equations for v and
This, together with eq. (98)
1*
Hamil-
(94c)
eq. (2.46))
in the
justify the ansatz
%-$
which has been included
The aymptotic behavior and the behavior of the ^-vibrational
wave function
>-$-&-
hj
2
,
leads to
(95)
d2 v
written as |n >, where
-.dv
(102)
(96)
d2w
no i imei
and
|0>
is
the
phonon vacuum. For the energy
(o+i)fttt>
(j.
+i)n]/^ =(n +)E
fi
The a - vibrations are sometimes referred to as

known alternatively as y- or ^-vibrations
or
/?-vibrations
The
solutions are immediately given as (Ar-66,
(n)
] =
Mo- 53a,
".
(103)
Fl-52)
0,1,2,
(97)
tions are
-<,+-
of the a -vibrations one
has
Fo
dw
while the ^-vibra-
I^H-^.W**]
c, ,Fj
+c-
-. + '>
a g (-**+*- )
-f*+i*V
(104)
146
ROTATION- VI ORATION MODEL (RVM)
[CH. 6, J 3
SYMMETRIZATION OF THE WAVE FUNCTIONS
ck. 6, 4]
147
are the generalized hypergeometric functions.
The functions Xx(l) normalized
CW^
(/* + !-
>iF,
|]
Thus we obtain two

however, vanish for
^).^ + i AH
The wave
solutions for Xn(q)-
K#
at
tf
and therefore
(105)
].
fo(t)
in this
rs^,y ^'
function ^(17) must,
C2 = C2 =
in these
We remember that according to eqs.

which
2
is always an impenetrable potential barrier (K z ~ 1
)/t]
for
- 0.) Explicitly inserting !
Kl and lKl of eq. (100) into eqs. (104) and (105)
shows that both solutions are in fact identical. The result is therefore
t~*
,F t
[]
^+f- ^)
1,+f,
'
f '(-"'-'' + > ;
V]
^^
where
if
,K+t
' ii * ,
("iTU'it+J)
cases. (There
XM = C, n
fashion are
is
to be identified with
(110b)
2 {|K|-1).
(23) and (24) our
wave function Xk(i\
in eq. (24), contains the factor |a 2 |*
;|*.
write
(106)
(111)
where /K
(|ff|-
this case /
Ki
For
1).
/if
one must not put
C2 = C2 =
0, since in
and therefore v and w become identical. Also,

the function proportional to C\ and the function proportional to C
2 in
eq. (104),
K=
is
if
IKi
-{-,
inserted into eq. (101a), lead to the
already contained in eq. (106).
same
result.
The requirement
Thus
the case
The additional index n 2 on the function Xk.hi denotes the ^-vibrational

quantum number n 2
For the total wave function in eq. (89) we thus have from eqs. (91), (96)
.
and (111)
for the normaliza-
tion of z K (t)) yields the eigenvalues for the energies (see for
m>
example Fae-62)
where
E-E =
=
where n 2
The
This
is
0, 1, 2,
-,
(I*+2 + 2n 2 )fta> 2 +(/(/ + l)-K z )-e

fta> 2
ft
{C2 jBf =
(107)
"*a-
Jo
|(|jt|
- 1).
S n <
mls m
(b) m
a normalization factor for the

later.
The important point
total
+ iF r r( fl '),rf+in;(6');^
(108)
6.4.
The symmetrization of
We
have discussed in great
the
(a
(b), z]
+ m-l)
g|a 2 ---a J< 2

fci6 2 ---6 B 1!
^^
- ((b)B \nl
a (a,-H)a 2 (a 2 + l)---q,i (a j4 -H) z

1
+ l)ft 2 (*i + l)- *(* + 1)
in practice
achieved
shall
detail in section 4.1 the
symmetries which a
if
if eq.
come from
the requirement
expressed in terms of the laboratory coordinates
a task which
is
extremely
difficult to
perform
be a single-valued function of the a 2)1 This can only be

.
(112) obeys the symmetries of eq. (4.22).
R 2 symmetry of eq.
wave function of eq. (112) gives
Let us start with the

to the
6i(6i
wave function
a 2 ^ by means of eq. (2.22)
= A FB l Sl ,a 2 ,--;a A ;b ,b 2 ,-;b B ;zl=

t
be
and
A Fst(a)
will
that these functions
is
wave functions
Let us recall that the symmetries of eq. (4.22)
now
wave function given in terms of Euler angles and intrinsic coordinates must
obey. The wave function of eq. (112) does not yet show these symmetries.
that the
= a(a+l)(a+2)
wave function which
to realize
o.
where
{a) m
(H2)
ATDj*(9j)Xi [ .(l)l o>,
section 4.1.
iFMKaMfyKtlsFrtia'MWiK'Qdt
'*
is
have to obey the particular symmetries which we discussed quite generally in

1K
function Xk(*i) ca n easily be normalized in the interval

achieved by means of the formula (Sl-60)
ji
determined
n)
(4.22).
The operator & 2
applied
21
(109)
= Dl'(i. 9i.S+i")z. J-f)l"o>-
U3 )
'
148
From
D'MK (9j)
the definition of the
and from the wave function Xk(i)
in ecl-
'"DiiSQ,
3 3 ),
(114)
and thus
Uit,n,0)=(-l)"- 2K "V-
(116)
to even integers,
Thus according to
must also be an
integer, since
projec-
its
momentum cannot
be
less
-141*1+1, |*|+
We now consider the symmetry

on the Euler angles and we can,
^ of
v.
*i*i-(-tf*'-*.
(124)
(125)
K
K = ( \y~ DL M _**, this forms an irreducible tensor of rank
/ under rotations around the intrinsic axis and we obtain for eq. (1 19)
If
we take
The
eq. (4.22).
The , operator
ij/'
intrinsic x'-axis.
8,
wave function which
93 )
= D'hk*^ +%, n-B 2 -S 3 ).
(119)
*i*i =
invariant under
and
/t 2
\16tc (1
defined in the intrinsic
Euler angles (3,,3 2s
tat
12? )
+fiyib which
is
to be
= \iMK> X K.dn)\n
x'-axis can be
(ir,ir,0).
K (n,K,0)
*'
(120)
performed
in
terms of
The value of D'K K (n,n,Q) can be
2"
except for
= K,K+
The corresponding
0,2,4,
l t
for AT
K+2,
(129)
0,
for
K#
0.
energies are given by
(121)
2j+m-m' =
2v,
it
follows
.,.
(f(/ +
l)-K a )ie+(i|K| + l+2 2 ),+(n + i)^.
(128b)
The normalization has been obtained by means of the formula

*
**
_ lU + m)lU-m)\U+m')\(J-m')\n-t) 1J J
{m)
(i(-m-m'))!(i(m + m'))!(j+i(m'-m))!a+i(m~m'))!
<
Here we used the convention that the upper bound of the periodicity
exponential function belongs to the periodicity
(128a)
0,2,4,---,
= (-iy K '4. K {n).
where
found from eq. (5.145) to be *
Noting that (cos \nf i+m

from eq. (5.146) that
now
+ djro)/
K=
around the
I>L- K
/<! is
has been shown in
It
S *>(*. *, <>)#.,
since a rotation through n
D Kr
2K
corresponds to a rotation through Jt around the
Therefore a wave function
3)
invariant under
have thus determined the total wave function of
system transforms according to eq. (5.141)
,9
is
WK *(S;H(-ir
therefore, confine ourselves to the investiga-
This can be most easily computed in the following way.
Chapter 4 (see fig. 4.3) that
rotational
acts only
We
MJ*(9,
(-!)' *r-K
(us)
tion of
(TT)
projection \K\, one has
dj
Jt
eq. (120)
(117)
an integer. Furthermore, since the angular
its
the
both
(123)
if tf is restricted
2, 4,
0,
two factors in the denominator one concludes dj,- m (n) m

and for i(m+m') < 0. One therefore has
J(m + m') >
^ on 'y f r m + m' = 0. With this one easily derives
From
dm'm( K )
149
(US)
*#(%&*) -(-l)*#(l&^
Hence
SYMMETRIZATiON OF THE WAVE FUNCTIONS
ch. 6, $ 4]
(HI) one has
(-l) iK XK. n
XK,A->l)
one finds immediately
in eq. (5.143)
*>V(9. 9 2 S 3 +i) =
,
[CH. 6, g
strip.
'
J
8**
strip
of the
2j"
+l
Oi
Ji Ji\Pi Hz
toXh
h Ji\ m
mitts),
(130)
150
ROTATION-VIBRATION MODEL <RVM)
The
selection rules of eq. (129) for the rotational
[ch. 6,
quantum numbers were
obtained purely from the requirement that the wave functions must be
symmetric* under R t and 2 Note that for all

= bands only even spins
occur because for odd /the rotational part of -the wave function, eq. (128),
-
vanishes identically since D'M0 *%)
D'M
*(97 ). The angular
momentum
CH. 6,
SYMMETRIZATION OF THE WAVE FUNCTIONS
4]
K =
soon as
where
state,
shown
in
0.
Indeed the energy of |2200>
r =
fig.
1.
fi(C2 /5)*. Higher y-bands
It is
is
we show
fig.
above the ground
|/400> and |/010> are also
straightforward to extrapolate this figure to higher
energies where the rotation-vibration spectrum

In
E7 +e
151
becomes more complex.

- and a -vibrations.
2
the pictorial interpretation of the a
/can
also never be less than its projection tfand so the last rule in eq, (129)
very plausible. Note also that the symmetrization, eq. (127), under k is
2
only possible because the states of eq. (1 12) are degenerate for tfand
is
vibration
-K
according to the energy levels in eq. (128b).
Any set of quantum numbers K, n 2l n is called a "band". The various

quantum numbers lead to various rotational bands, since for a given set K,
n z n the angular momentum quantum number / runs from / = K,
; go.
/-vibration
Eq. (128b) shows that these bands follow the usual /(/+1) pattern. The
typical band structure of a deformed nucleus is shown in fig. 1. The ground
7*
6*
Schematic illustration of the meaning of the a o -0') and a'i-{y-) vibrations. The
vibrations shorten and enlarge the ellipsoid, while the y-vibrations lead to a kind of
Fig. 2.
a*
6*
s*
aV
pulsating stomach.
6*
5*
4*
i*
The
5+
S*
Km
K=0,
basic definition of the intrinsic

to eq. (2.3)
2 nd f-vibratim
0*
3rd /-vibration
V
V
Let us
and
0,
13- vibrational
n,
1v
0*
o,
/ -vibrational
1.
let
and
band
lies at
is
energy hco Q
ments indicate that

1.5
MeV
Ef
The
band
^-vibrational
is
given by |/001>
= h{CJBf = Ep
ss
above the ground state. Experi132

800 keV for
Sm, but may be even greater than
in the middle of the rare earth region.
described by |/200>. This state
is
The
y-vibrational
called a y-vibration even
band
though n 2
is
because the strong rotation-vibration term &'3 [l6Br, which has been
included in /?, forces the y-vibration to be present in an excited state as
2
We return to a discussion
along the symmetry axis
of R* below.
becomes evident if one remembers the

quadruple coordinates a and a z according
(4.4).
continue our discussion of the symmetries of the wave
us investigate the effect of the third symmetry operation
fui
ction
of eq.
This symmetry operation leaves both the original kinetic energy f'in
eq. (3)
and the potential energy V(a Q ,a 2 )
ltl
e 1- (4.28) invariant.
However
does not leave the ansatz of the rotation-vibration model (eqs. (41)-(43))
invariant. In the expansion of the rotationally invariant potential energy
Typical band structure for a deformed even-even nucleus.
given by |/000>.
and
now
around the
state
ellipsoid
(4.22).
it
grounds! ate
Fig.
and shorten the
the long axis. This interpretation
44
2*
^-vibrations enlarge
while the y- vibrations enlarge and shorten the ellipsoid perpendicular to
axially
symmetric minimum, eq.
occurring in the expression for V(a

the
minimum along
Therefore
One
V(a
a2 )
the a -axis (areas
is
(2),
one of the three minima
especially distinguished,
and 6 of fig.
in fig. 3, the rotation-vibration
namely
4.4; see also fig. 4.10).
model describes only the area
/.
can, however, perform similar expansions of the rotationally invariant

,
a 2 ) about the potential minima in areas // and
obtain the Hamiltonian in the

ii
where
full
plane of fig.
6% )+ti"(Z', >,')+'"(",
({, ij) is identical
///.
One can thus
3,
n"),
with eq. (40). The coordinates
(131)
{', ij')
and
152
(CH. 6, S
c.
ground
153
EFFECT OF THE ROTATION- VIBRATION INTERACTION
6, 5]
state.
In this case the "centrifugal effect"
is
purely due to the volume
element in the vibrational space, which for the function x(l) is proportional
to \a 2
axially
(see eq. (19)).
symmetric
away from the

Let us
diagonal
now
in
Thus even though we
ff-vibrator (a 2
origin
0),
start
with the concept of an
the dynamics pull the wave function
and make the nucleus
effectively dynamically triaxial.
investigate the effect of #,jb, tI eq. (43).
K and therefore
The
first
term
is
has nonvanishing matrix elements only within
K*2. n2 *0
The wave functions used in the rotation-vibration model are limited to area I
shadowed in the a -a2 -plane thus avoiding the necessity to impose symmetry requirements arising from /?,, The axially symmetric minimum in the potential energy at y = 0
Fig. 3.
is
repeated at
y=
(", n") are defined in fig. 3. If this
applied.
way
We
prefer
however to
distinguish the
in this
way
240.
done, the third symmetry
3 must be
and
in this
the a -axis specially. This corresponds
a a 2 -space just to area
3, and we can
wave function in
coordinates a and a 2
of
fig.
achieve a one-to-one correspondence of the
the laboratory coordinates

(see eq.
is
y=
retain just the ansatz of eq. (2),
minima along
effectively to limiting the
120 and
<x
(4.24)). Therefore,
2ll
and
in the intrinsic
no symmetry requirement concerning
R3
KmO, 02*0
is
necessary in this procedure.
6.5.
The
effect
of the rotation-vibration interaction
One very important part of the rotation-vibration interaction is already

contained in the solutions of eq. (128), namely the term J^ 2 /16Bj 2 It acts
3
.
like a centrifugal
term and pulls the (^-vibrational wave function away from

the origin. For example, fig. 4(a) shows this effect for the K = 2 band. It
should be noted that due to the term -h 2 fl6Bt} 2 appearing in /?
lb in eq.
(42) one has such an effect even for the ^-vibrational wave function of the
Fig. 4.
Examples of the "centrifugal
effects"
which push the x(t)} wave function away from

2
for a K = 2 band is shown, and in (b)
the origin. In (a) the effect of the term fo'SIWBi)
1
the consequences of the term ft / '6*1* are exhibited for the ground state
wave
function.
154
[ch. 6, 5
bands of the same K. It mixes, for example, the 0-band and the ground
state
band. The second term of eq. (43), however, mixes bands with
different
quantum numbers. We have found in eq. (5.125) that
&+D'MK * -
ht'+ D'MK *
EFF1CT OF THE ROTATION-VIBRATION INTERACTION
ch. 6, 5]
ground state band

band |/200>, and the ^-vibrational band |/001> only.
denote these three bands by the shorthand designation
the perturbation theory treatment the mixing of the
|/000>, they-vibrational
We
= WnJ+lJ-iefK-ljD^.,*,
m
=
?,
(132)

+*vK-i{(I+!0(I-K+1){I + K-l)(l-K+2)}*]S ira ltlt .,

where we have used
(133)
eq. (128), Similarly
one obtains with eqs. (108) and

(128) the matrix elements of the fj-vibrational functions
<9il^l9 3 >
<<f> 2
<
1

<?3)#I
2
l
+ (_n**'-K)+,
eqs. (132), (133)
and (134)
S Ii0i 2t4i ... [/(I
(m)
o, 2. 4,
|/200>,
is
a generalized Kronecker symbol which states that this
unity for /
or 2 or
4, etc.,
and otherwise equals
zero. Further-
more,
y (-"iUKi*'+*g+<*+2)L
5,
quantity
|/000>,
+ l)]ie(x 2 +3y 2 +l),

- a,;2.4.6,...[J(J + l)(J+2)(I-l)]*M-W6).
= ^0,2.*... ['(*+ l)-2]M-2jO,
= 6 I;2t3t4i ...[{I(I + l)-4}i8(2x 2 + 3y 2 + l)+E7l
- 5J Z 4 6 ,...[J(J + 1)(/-1)(/ + IJpfrxyjS,
= ô.2.*,-..[ r(J +lHe(^+97 2 +l) + ^].
<9t\&\9i> =
[(i+5IO )(i+Vo)] i
1S5
îfe.llAL,
"
/o
Er
= ]/ii =
Pq" Bo>2
2E,
M/_*_.( 13 7)
Po
" 2fla)
=o
x
With
We
a*i[-"2.KiK'+iK+*+2) + m;iJK'+l;l].
(134)
\IMKn 2 n ) the perturbed wave functions which emerge from

\IM Kn2 n }. They are obtained by
these
general expressions one can easily construct all matrix

elements
^Yibn* within the basis states of eq. (128). The a '-dependent matrix
elements are trivially calculated from eq.
in a
ofl
manner
(96)
similar to the
one which we used to compute the matrix elements

within the phonon
representation of a harmonic oscillator in Chapter 3.
To
denote by
the unperturbed state
obtain exact solutions of the Hamiltonian

(40) one has to diagonalize
shall here prefer to use perturbation theory which is
\IMKn 2 n
>
= \IMKn 2 n
OMK' n'2 n'
for
perturbation
small angular momenta.
becomes very
Tih ret
large.
For
large angular
increases proportionally to I 2 (I+
We will discuss
momenta
ibre(
\IM K
n2 n >
\IM K' n'2
n'Q y
(138)
K% jij', o'
^K.H], NO
and the corresponding perturbed energies Ei Kmihb are
*<- However, we
justified
EiKntiiQEiziiniQ
+ (f M K
n2
/i
|n lbra ,|IAf K n 2 n >
the
f and therefore soon
(139)
the results of the exact diagonalization
below.
The perturbation theory treatment has the advantage that explicit

formulas are obtained which are useful for recognizing
the physics which is
embodied
in the rotation-vibration interaction.
We
especially consider for
If only the
results *
ground state,
from
* Details can
ft-
and y-bands are mixed, one obtains the following
eq. (136):
be found
in
the literature, see Fae-64.
156
a).
[ch. 6, S 5
The ground state band:
CH.
6, 5]
c).
The
fi-band:
|JAf0O0> = AiVt+Azyz + Asyt,
with
157
- C^j + Cj^j + Cj^.
Af 001>
with
A =
t
ffZ
1,
C,
= -7(7+1)
,V2
(140)
c2 =
C3 =
1,
î^^y|^^+^+i)n/-j).
d44)
id
Erooo
= 1(1+1)^1 + 3- + ! iEr 2 E
\
Ef r -2e/
fi
-i 2 (,+ l) 2
fi
(!jL^ + !/\
Er Ey -2e
\2
The term proportional
EM / 2 (/+l) 2
to
Ejooi
+2- --\
/ (/+l)
is
E^
->,
/,
,/,
1+
+ 7(7
+ l)ie
27 e
+3,
81
2 E,
(141a)
2 \Ef f }
2
conveniently
abbreviated
\4 E 7 E ? -Ey + 2fi
fl
by
where
_^_
+/ . ( , +1)* t (
The term proportional to 7(7+ 1 ) in eq.
(141
Er
- E + 2e
,_ /e\
+121
1\'\ +6 (A)'.
1
2\E^/
(145)
\Ef f
shows that the effective moment
of inertia </ tff consists of the equilibrium moment of inertia

and a
correction due to the /J- and y-vibralions. Furthermore, the term proportional
b).
to 7
The y-band;
|7A7200> = Bi<2>j+B 2 <p 2 + B 3 p 3
(7+ 1)
in eq. (141
shows that the vibration-rotation
also to a spin-dependent correction to the
'
interaction leads
inertia,
A
B = "
moment of
^Tie l ^W2)V(/ + 2)(/ + l)/(/-l)5 /i2
= /o(l+7(7+l)-^
fr
(146ft)
//
4i6 ,..
where
>
B 1 = 1,
U
A/
(142)
(146b)
2 E,
B,=
E ? -2e
2\,/
This term has a simple physical interpretation.
nd
the nucleus
'
-27
moment of
E,
E,
E,-26
Ji2 ' 4,6
'
L-\
E.-E? -2b
E,
Et )
is
stretched as
it
rotates,
and
Due
to the centrifugal force
this leads to
an increase
in the
we have a term
2
2
proportional to 7 (7+I) in the expression for the energy. The centrifugal
parameter i?ie in eq. (141 b) can easily be computed and compared with
experiment. It leads to a lowering of the ground state rotational levels from
the values computed according to the simple /(7+ ) law' and was first
introduced as phenomenological parameter by Bohr and Mottelson (Bo-53).
Before we compare the theoretical predictions with observation, let us
inertia
which
is
proportional to 7(/+l). Thus
+i*(/+o/i
a __
12
Er E r -2e
-2,(1 + 6-1 + 1 -L\

\
E,
2 /
1? i.
4
E, E,
,-,-2e/
5
'
0,2,4,-
state clearly the four parameters of the rotation-vibration
(143)
model which
have to be taken from experiments. These four parameters are;
158
1).
the
moment of
mental energy of the

2). the equilibrium
inertia e
deformation 8
first
resonances, see Chapter

3).
# /</o which
is
taken from the experi-
of the nucleus which
is
obtained from
rotational state (or from the splitting of giant
EFFECT OF THE ROTATION-VIBRATION INTERACTION
ch. 6, S 5J
In
levels,
and
AH
transition probabilities are predicted. In table
adjusted quantities are presented for

'
nuclei.
i o*
some of
other
these
and transuranic
the rare-earth
1 1 ),
the y-vibrational energy

+
Ey which
is fitted
to the energy of the second
E/-C
state,
4). the ^-vibrational
159
5 the quantities taken from experiment are indicated.
fig.
energy
rotational state,
first
the B(E2)-value for the
excited 2
[ch. 6, 5
energy
E9
which
is
taken from the
first
excited
+
B(E2)
-3
state.
Table
Experimental values for the parameters used
Nucleus
2*
2+'
[MeV]
[MeV]
in
the rotation-vibration model
e
[keV]
*
[keV]
Ef
of how the four parameters of (he rotation-vibration model which are
taken from experiment,
0o
The B
factors can
ment. This
[keV]
is
shown
now
E,
easily be
Ef
and Ep, are determined.
computed and compared with experi-
in fig. 6. It is obvious that
both the general trend and the
The
individual values are given quite well by the theoretical prediction.
Sm
Gd
Dy
62
152
0.122
1.
086
32.31
6S5
1040
0.28
rising of the
Yb
Hf
W
Os
Th
Pu
values in the
Sm-Gd and
64
154
0.123
0.998
32.35
950
680
0.33
softness of the ^-vibrations (low
64
156
0.089
1.154
1122
1050
0.41
The
64
158
0.0795
23.55
1154
(1500)
0.46
64
160
0.075
25.49
22.31
957
(1800)
0.47
66
160
0.0867
6.966
25.34
934
(1600)
0.35
Sm
164
0.073
0.761
21.17
735
1764
0.41
68
166
0.0806
0.788
23.37
757
1460
0.33
68
168
0.0798
0.822
23.61
793
70
168
0.087
0.987
25.29
955
(=s 1500)
0.30
70
172
0.0787
1.093
23.24
1065
(sa 1500)
0.31
Os
region
and y-vibrations (low
is
due to the
) respectively.
and Os isotopes represent the transition area from the strongly
and 4,3
discussion in sections 4,2

66
E9 )
in the
deformed nuclei to quite anharmonic vibrators.

sition region the
fore the
Er
Bxc
/?-
(see for
It is
example
clear
from our schematic
4.12) that in the tran-
fig.
deformed equilibrium minima become rather flat and there-
and y-vibrations are quite
soft.
For such
very anharmonic vibrators, no satisfactory theoretical
transition nuclei,
model
exists
up
i.e.
to the
0,33
present (see Chapter 4)*.

It
72
178
0.0931
1.480
27.72
1447
(1700)
74
182
0.100
1.285
28.50
1224
74
184
0.111
0.904
31.17
863
74
186
0.122
0.730
33.02
76
186
0.137
0.768
76
188
0.155
0.633
76
190
0.187
0,557
46.22
1500)
0.24
It is
684
(es 1300)
0.24
the centrifugal parameter
36.85
716
(=s 1500)
40.45
571
1766
0.18
477
1585
0.16
0.23
0.20
0.783
15.29
764
634
0.050
0.790
14.58
770
725
0.25
92
232
0.047
0.868
13.86
S51
693
0.26
92
92
234
0.044
0.922
906
811
0.25
0.0447
13.20
238
13.67
1047
994
0.28
94
238
0.044
1.030
13.34
1014
937
0.27
0,043
0.942
E = AI{l+l)-B xt I
0.26
0.053
240
12.97
926
858
formula for the energy
in the heuristic
1122
230
232
94
straightforward to compute even higher-order corrections, such as

levels
0.31
90
90
is
C parameter
the
Finally
let
us give
very high angular
+ l) + Cl*(I+l) +
in fig. 7.
(147)
The same conclusions hold
as for
some
predictions of the rotation-vibration model for
momentum
The high
(I
states.
For
large spin
/,
ft, ibmt
has to be
members of the rotational bands in deformed

nuclei and of the high phonon states in spherical nuclei are systematically
observed in (a, x n)-reactions pioneered by Morinagaand Gugelot (Mo-63b).
We refer for experimental and theoretical details to the literature (Mo -65,
U-65, St-65b, Fae-65a,b,c). In fig. 8 the ground state bands of 160 Dy, 166 Er
diagonalized.
0.28
compared with experiment
Recently, Gneuss et
spin
ai.
(Gn-69) developed a prospective method for treating arbi-
trary collective potentials. This
method
within a spherical oscillator basis.
is
based on the diagonal izat ion of the Hamiltonian
160
[ch. 6, S
5)
EFFECT OF THE ROTATION-VIBRATION INTERACTION
_ g
c "v
= ?
ch. 6,
r~
13 oa,
ill
*a *o
.2
2 o S
.2
= 3
3o .2
S
% s
at
-o
g.1
^ a E
JO
^ n
u a
ago
3
go*
JS
.y
D.
r.
il"
- S
3 -2
c.
t
.a
-g
>
*
-a
'
S S
-a a
ej
"I
O. T3
60 jC
.2 I-
2 3
OT
T
I
-i
3 "^
c>
Q
o
*;
> o
v.
"
\o
3
-a
Hug
.
.2 9u,
-o
-J
162
[ch, 6, 5
CH. 6, 5]
and
,86
Os
shown with
are
163
the theoretical predictions of the rotation-vibra-
model and the simple /(/+ 1 ) rule.

discuss the B(E2) transition probabilities between the levels of
the various rotational bands. The quadrupole operator has already been
tion
We now
2 *
given in the laboratory system in eq. (3.57). Using eq. (5.2)

5
"8-5
E|
it is
transformed
to Euler angles and intrinsic variables,
3ZR l1
Q\7 =
[/>2oW/.(i+?J/5j9
4k
7
c 3
'3
il
V c
::
!
1 ri
(H8)
2
+^V(9j)^]/; - V)
+DU\M ( +\]/l^)
2-g
! >
We have included second-order terms in the collective variables because they

are of importance for transition probabilities between different bands.
E2
reduced
The
transition probabilities are defined as
*
2
B(E2;/,
i
j=
.ts
"3
2/|
ll'c>|
(149)
where A = 3ZR J4n

The reduced matrix element
.
ll
M V
e
o
"
.
si
i%
tJ
c
-J
p-oWiWrXW |000)(1 ++/- a

fl
2
)
5
o B
a(7) are identical with
depending on whether the
il
+ a 2 (I )a i (I )(l 2I \022){-2xyx)
+ a 3 (r )a (/ )(/ 2J |000)y(l+2a)
+ a 3 (I )a 2 (l r){I 2IA2-2Q)(-2 ayx)
+a 3 (/ )a 3 (/ )(J 2/ 1000)(l+a + 3a/-ax z )}.
The
^
with the wave functions
ff
ja
T3
explicitly calculated
+ a (/ )a 2 (/ f )(J r 2i |2-20)x(l-2a)
+ a (/ )a 3 (/r)(/ f 2/ |000)y(l+2)
W.).('r)('r2/ |022)x(i-2a)
+a 1 (I )a 1 (It )(I t 2i \202)(\+oi + zv 1 -2xx 2
</||iey"l|/r>
-I
is
of eqs. (140), (142) and (144):
A v Br
,
(150)
or C of eqs. (140), (142) or (144)
initial state is
the
ground
state band, the y-band,
or the jS-band respectively. Furthermore, the following abbreviations have
been introduced
o
5
3
I
E
Let us
first
Er
discuss a few simple transitions for the case
2Ef
where the rotation-
164
[CH. 6, 5
off. Then x = 0,^ = 0, and also a r (I) is either

on the particular state under consideration. For the
B(E2) transitions within the various bands we thus obtain
vibration interaction
turned
is
unity or zero depending
B(E2;J
î
t ) gsbtnd
=a
^+1 p
+1
2/.
B(E2;
-I
/,
t ) rbaai
= A2
- !,),.
(i f
J,
0f(l +)
o (It
= A 2 ?i
2ij +
2
(/,
For the inter-band transitions one obtains
/,
in the
0) (1
+)
Jj
seen that the rotation- vibration interaction leads effectively to a
Bmih
(152)
if)
= h\-
-}
2
(/r
0)" 2 (1
2 /,|0
+ ay 2
(155)
denotes the quantity involved in the bracket
2I,|20 if (1 +x)\
165
spin-dependent change of the deformation of the ground slate band,
where {
in eq.
(154).
experimental efforts to measure the angular-momentum
initial
dependence of the deformation by multiple Coulomb excitation (deB-64)

have been made. However, due to the difficulty of such experiments no final
conclusions can yet be drawn.
2
.
Let us
absence of the rotation-
now
discuss the inter-band transitions under the inclusion of the
rotation-vibration interaction. Again the formulas for

straightforwardly
B(E2;
It is easily
Some
î
2/j
B(E2;
ch. 6, 5]
-> JrV^p-tand
- >2 ^L0 o 2 (/f 2/ |O22)V(l-2)\
- / f
= A l2f}
from the general expression
literature (Fae-62, 64, 65).
them can be derived
eq. (150)
and are found
in the
We discuss here the final results*. Fig. 9 shows the
(153)
B(E2;/
It is
V. KSb nd
,
noted that in the computation of the
&'3 2 /l6Bri 2
very important term
to be included, otherwise the
first
first
B(E2) value
in eq. (153) the
of the quadrupole matrix elements which
transitions can only be calculated
For
2J |000) 2 y 2 (l+2) 2
of the rotation-vibration interaction had
occur would give a quite different
treated consistently.
(It
We
result.
if
thus see that inter-band
the rotation-vibration interaction
the transitions within a rotational
is
band the B(E2)
values given in eq. (152) correspond to those of a symmetric rotator with a

static
deformation
vibration
formula eq.
state
The corrections
to these values
due to the rotation-
interaction are straightforwardly calculated

(1 50).
from the general
For example, the transitions within the rotational ground
band under the inclusion of the rotation-vibration
interaction in
lowest-order perturbation theory leads to
B(E2;
J,
-+I t )*
A'^Bq*
""
2
(af 2/ |00 0)(l + + a /-x )
Grf
6rf
K*
IU
ay Er"
ft/" Dy"
Er
Dy
Yb'
WJ wJit
Hi" W~
Os
nT_JSU23tU_*
Pu
ISO
Oi
Qj"~
Th'~
W"
Pu"
Fig. 9.
B(E2) branching
^ (is/2)y/(h+2)(I + l)l
E
t
(It
compared with the rotationand with the asymmetric rotator model (dashed line) discussed
in Chapter 7. (From Fae-65c.)
ratios for various nuclear transitions
vibration model (solid line)
E y 2e
Er
17/
Yb
- 1)(/,2/,|2 -2 0)x(l-2a)
in
3^)/j-(4V2)V(/ +2)(/ + l)/

i
Ey 2e
(/ I
-l)(/ l 2/ |022)x(l-2)
1
^|/^/
(Ji
+ l)('f2J |000Ml+2a))
i
from the decay of the 2 + y- vibrational state to the

and 2 states of the ground state band. The transitions are also indicated
the figure. Without the rotation-vibration interaction one would obtain
B(E2) branching
L/ f('f + l)(Jf2/ |00 0)y(l + 2)

^l/^
f 2E
E
p
f
(154)
ratio
for the branching ratio the value (see eq. (153))

A detailed analysis of experimental data and of the predictions of the RV-model can
be found in Ab-67, 68a, b.
166
B(E2; 2+' - 2+)
B(E2;2
which
known
is
+ '-+0 +
(22 2|022)
2|02
(0 2
as the Alaga rule.
[ch. 6, 5
0.12
The band mixing due
well the trend of the experimental results
Other branching ratios are shown in

the agreement with experiment
experimental data
is
surprising
it is
0.10
how
B(ei,
s'f-t-ift)
0.06
j*
I-
__a
V n
/?
N.
O04
.-/=-
these cases
all
and the trend of the
r,-*2'3 >
-i
006
10 through 12. In
quite well reproduced. This certainly indicates that the
Even
s
6/ei,
I'z-fO'Bl
to the rotation-
0.O2
-T
B (2,
predicted by the theory.
is
figs.
within 10 to 20
is
only of the order of 10 to 20
is
167
r- i-i
vibration interaction leads to the results indicated by the full curve.
though the agreement
REFERENCES
(156)
'
2)
CH. 6]
10
w
i
Dy
Er
Yb
,.
Gd
Grf
Hi
L_l
^* m
Os
u"
Th
Os
130
Th
Pu*
Pu
i
i
Fig.
12.
B(E2) branching
rotation-vibration
if
f^^r^^^T^-
'
Sm
i$
Gj
10.
Er
dynamics
ratios
for various nuclear transitions
compared with
1.0
"I
the
(From Fae-65c.)
must mention
that they probably lead to an im-
feature of nuclear collective dynamics:
probabilities
<
The
and
oscillate in
Up
discrepancies mentioned above, as well as

the lowering of the rotational
to the fact that protons
may
oscillate
until
now we
phase with the same
Ml
transition
gR -factors from Z/A, point
with smaller amplitudes than neutrons
(Gr-65b, c; see also section 9.7).
0.6
OA
0.2
*
_
-t-
J _^-r ii ^ T r T
::
rrS
'"
Vj""6"
Gd
M
m
IS?
lit
Gd"' G</
11.
new
amplitudes.
r
BtES. fVaffl
BIE3, >-f<ra >
Sm
Fig.
portant
0.6
0.1
these effects here, but
have considered the protons and neutrons to
There occur, however, larger deviations from the
model when one studies such fine effects as the

change of the mean square radius in excited states. We shall not discuss
rotation-vibration model (solid line) and with the asymmetric rotator model (dashed line)
discussed in Chapter 7.
satisfactorily.
predictions of the present
B(E2) branching
compared with the

and with the asymmetric rotator model (dashed line)
Chapter 7. (From Fae-65c.)
rotation-vibration model describes the main physical features of the nuclear
ALAGA -rote
ratios for various nuclear transitions
(solid line)
discussed in
Wf" W>" W Os"' Th tf U Pu*

Jst "'"* "M * "-'*' "-"
>'" "
Yb'~ Hf"
W'" OS Os""' Th'" U"' ttu'-
G<T D/'
Gtl* Gd"* Dy
Fig.
.^
model
DyÊr"'
Yb
w" *To" r "D *f* u^pJ"

Hf W Os"" Os Th U nt Pu13t
7
ft
B(E2) branching ratios for various nuclear transitions compared with the
rotation-vibration model (solid line) and with the asymmetric rotator model (dashed line)
discussed in Chapter
7.
(From
Fae-65c.)
References
Basic for the discussions in this chapter
is the Hamiltonian first introduced

by A. Bohr (Bo-52). Us properties are also reviewed in Bie-65, Da-65c,
He-68b and Ke-59. The rotation-vibration model is discussed and reviewed extensively in Fae-65a. Octupole vibrations can be incorporated
in the dynamical treatment of deformed nuclei as considered in Da-62
and Do-66, Pl-68.
ch.
THE HAMILTONIAN
7, 1]
a*;
/?=;
CHAPTER
and
second-order kinetic energy
Such a model, which

implicitly
The Asymmetric Rotator

Model (ARM)
(i)
where the moments of inertia Jfk are
169
identical with those derived
are exhibited in eqs. (5.72)
(5.73).
neglects the shape vibrational degrees of freedom,
assumes a quite peculiar collective potential energy. Since
intended to describe, in general, an asymmetric rotator,
one must have a 2

very pronounced
(see fig.
from the
and
0.
Thus the
minimum
in the
it
is
^ $\ ^ j? 2
collective potential energy
must have a
a a 2 -plane at
of a
minimum should be
Actually this
1).
i.e.
finite values
and a 2
extremely deep, so that an
expansion of
V(a Q ,a 2 )
= iC Q (a -a Q) 2 +C 2 (a 2 -S 1 f
leads to very large stiffness parameters

Historically the rudimentary Bohr-Mottelson
unable to explain the parameters
BIC and C
model (Bo-52, Bo-53) was

in the energy level formula,
and
C2
for the shape vibrations.
In this case, the surface vibrations will occur at very high energies above
the ground state
and therefore
their influence
can be neglected.
eq. (6.147), or the
sometimes very large (by a factor 2 to 4) deviations from

the Alaga rule for B(E2) branching ratios (see figs, 6.9-6.12). This led
Davydov and
the
Fillipov in 1958 to take a quite different path in extending
collective
Davydov and
that
is
of spherical
vibrations
nuclei
to
the
deformed
region.
Fillipov postulated (Da-58b) the existence of triaxial nuclei,
nuclei with fixed
and a a -deformations. They calculated the energy
spectra and B(E2) transition probabilities resulting from the asymmetric

rotator *. Although
thesis
on
Fillipov
data.
model have
We
interpret
some
physicists have
theoretical grounds, the fact
will
it
is
been skeptical ** of such a hypo-
that calculations with the
led to quite impressive
Davydov-
agreement with experimental
discuss here the asymmetric rotator model
(ARM)
also in terms of the rotation-vibration theory. In addition, the
extension of the
ARM
by Davydov and Chaban (Da-60)
is
Fig.
1.
Schematic picture of the collective potential energy of a
Inserting the
moments of inertia from

ft
Davydov and
Fillipov
the
ARM
assumed in
where
their first paper
J?
and
The suggestion of the asymmetric
rotator
(Da-58b) that nuclei can
168
was made earlier (1956) by Marty (Ma-56),
a2
Thus
eter
the
ARM
B and
V sin
(2a)
(j-k*)'
y determine the triaxial equilibrium of the potential,
be described as asymmetric rotators, eq. (5.183),
but was not calculated in detail at that lime.

** See for example A. Bohr (Bo-60).
one obtains
4BJS
The Hamiltonian of
eqs. (5.73) into eq. (I),
presented in
section 7,3.
7.1.
triaxial rotator.
and
=
=
jS
cos
\y/2
y,
JS
(2b)
sin y.
Hamiltonian depends on three parameters: the mass param-
the fixed values for
/?
and
parameters enter, namely the product
of B(E2) transition probabilities
y.
Actually in eq. (2) only two real
Bp and y. However for the calculation
also has to be
known
separately.
The
170
ASYMMETRIC ROTATOR MODEL (ARM)
fixed values of
The
$ and
[CH.
y lead to definite expressions for
solutions of eq. (1) are obtained
from
eq. (5.187)
kt
7,
CH.
1
(A*'
- *n 2 ) (i/r'+iA""
2
(i0i
and the symmetry
-An )(i/ -'-i/ 2
i(/-
'i)+( ~
of (|/+ 1) states with spin /if / is even, and a

/ if / is odd and larger than or equal to 3.
r
(3)
lW
(6)
total
of
Schrodinger equation
))
yi6^^ ^**
total
-,
1) states with spin
- /( *i)X
^jtjwj
U^2Ar
This
is
left
0.
achieved by simply multiplying eq. (7) with
and inserting
(4a)
(7)
the
M K> =
In order to determine the coefficients A' (y) in eq. (5) one has to solve the
K
and the solutions of the symmetric rotator which are properly symmetrized
under R k and 2 are g" ven by (see eq. (6.128a))
11
|J
Hence we have a
^r
171
M0>, |/ M2>,
|/Mi),
odd/(/S3): |/M2>,|/M4>,--,|/M/-1>
even/:
1,2,3.
requirements, eq. (4,22), in a straightforward manner. Eq. (1) can be split

up into the Hamiltonian for a symmetric rotator plus a remainder term
#=
THE HAMILTONIAN
7, I]
(IMK\
for all
K from
eq. (5),
(IMK\ \i $--E\ ZAUlMK'y =0.
(8)
where
K=
/=
0, 2, 4,
'
= I4tMUMK>,
where the coefficients
A K depend on
K=
term in eq. (3) vanishes!) The index
0,2,
y.
indicates that in general several states of given spin /
over
total
K in eq.
angular
(5) runs over
momentum
no odd spins occur if K

one obtains the ground
basis state, eq. (4), the
which
is
/.
even integers
For odd
/,
less
some straightforward
4,
--,/,
(For y
may
ij/
(5)
The determinant of
K=
is
the coefficients of the
ground
^'s must
be zero for a solution
E of the degree (/+ 1) for even / and

of the degree \{I-l) for odd / with / S 3. For example, for / = 2 the
to exist. This yields an equation for
the third
IM1 in eq. (5)
occur.
equations are
The sum
4V6(</a-/.)/3 +v4 2 [6(/ + / 2 )/ 3 -4(/ft 2 )/

^l[2(/i + / a )/3 + 8î/2-4(^ 2 / /2 / 3 ]
1
excluded since
<
) i
and one obtains two
states
/ /]=
2
0,
+ Al^6(jf 2 -/
in eq. (4). In the particular case /
K=
becomes
than or equal to / for a given
however,
this
calculation
AUz(<?2-ft)f 3 \_(J-K){l-K-\){I + K + l){I+K + 2)Y

+ ^[2(/i + / 2) af 3 {/(/+l)-/C 2 }+4 af /- 2 IC 2 -8(E/fi 2 )/i/2/3]
+ ^K-2(/2- f )J' 3 i(I+KXl + K-l)(l-K+l)(I-K + 2)f = 0. (9)
of
= 0, K =
state |000>. Since there exists only one / =
solutions of eq. (3) will yield only one / =
state
identical with the
Furthermore, since
all
in the basis set
on the wave function
after
asymmetry
the
(4b)
Then the third term in eq. (3) must be diagonal ized

eq. (4). The most general solution thus has the form
*jwi
Using the matrix elements of A?; 2 , eqs. (5.185) and (6.132),
K+l.K + 2,-- forKÔ,

to, 2, 4,
for K = 0.
(X,
/ =
0,
(10)
whose energies are the roots of
0, 2, 4,
state.
and
since the spins / are restricted
no / =
no / = I
to the values given in eq. (4b) there occurs
Hence the solutions of
state. Similarly
eq. (3) will contain
state in the basis.

it is
immediately seen that the only / = 3 state in the basis set of eq. (4) is given
by 3 A/2>. This state is diagonal and is therefore already a solution of eq.
with the solutions
(3),
a fact which can easily be checked
In general one has to take

for the total angular
eq. (3). Therefore
all
momentum
we have
explicitly.
possible basis states, eq. (4), which can occur
/ in question, and one must diagonalize

8
for
/iV:
(12)
172
For an
axially
these
is
/\
symmetric nucleus one has
3ft
)/(/+
1)
limit the roots of eq. (11) are
the solution
2
(fi
/2/
//
and
1=2,
for
[ch. 7,
and Jf^
2
2fc / <
/3
ch.7,
the hamiltonian
1]
Table
- 0. In this
.
The
first
eq. (5.187), for the
of
sym-
+ )+
173
>-C3 + /(,(2 + )+E7 (2 + )) and {41 (2 + )+J (2 + )-(5+))/

+
(4,{2 )+3(2*)) for all nuclei with two measured levels / = 2and at least one measured
J = 3 or / = 5 level. (From Da-6Sc)
The ratios {
(2
1 (2
The second one

As mentioned above, for / = 3 the system of eqs. (9) reduces to just one
equation for A\ which is determined by normalization. The 7=3 solution
is identical with |3M2>. Inserting this into eq. (7) one immediately finds
2
J
the energy of this state (note that J&V |3Af 2> = X?'_ |3Af 2> = 0),
goes to infinity as Jf 3 - 0.
metric rotator.
(3
^^
+
+
1
1
*-*
2fi
*(-L + _L + _L)
(13)
this result together with eq. (12), one thus finds that for the energy
+
+
state of an asymstates (there are only two) and the one 3
levels of all 2
Using
Nucleus
metric rotator the following relation holds
this
can
+
1
(2
+
) + E 2 (2 )
"Mg
="(3 + ),
(14)
easily be tested experimentally (see below).
1.475
2.094
70
0.770
1.524
1.850(?)
2.730
19.3
41
l01
Ru
0.475
1.105
1.525
106
pd
0.5116
1.1285(7)
1.5575(?)
2.7569(7)
1.168
1.760(7)
1.167
1.508
*Ba
*Gd
right-hand side.
1.248 (?)
1.049
0.0806
0.0798
0.0787
0.788
0.861
0.822
0.897(?)
1.4675
1.5502
0.1001
1.258
1.331
2.0
0.111
0.904
0.730
1.006
0.89
1.215
1.27530
Th
"2U
levels are indicated at the
13*y
13tp u
2s
Cf
"*Fm
1.154
0.91033
as functions of the
0.68
-0.47
-2.2
-0.71
-0.40
0.966
1.085
Po
13
0.0867
0.76738
0.63307
128
5.0
0.089
1.622(?)
0.2057
0.3165
0.3285
0.356
0.368
0.609
0.058
0.047
0.044
0.044
0.85(?)
1.001(7)
1.575
1.776
1.281
1.544
0.5572
0.4891
0.6129
0.6220
0.689
0.78999(7)
0.755
0.6909
0.9208
0.9227(7)
0.38
0,55
-0.41
-0.64
-0.24
-0.5
+0.56
0.92
2.9
4.2
8.6
IS
1.023
0.913
0.22
0.922
0.965
1.087(?)
0.10
1.030
1.071
1.032(?)
1.074(?)
0.692
0.734
-0.26
0.868
0.041
-7.4
0.92
0.969
0.044
34
3.5
1.236
0.13715
0.15503
0.1867
114
17
1.129
0.125
Hg
30
1.087
"Os
l6
0s
1M Os
Joo
17
0.998
0.122
Pt
The angular momenta of the
0.604
0.334
0.122
0.123
l*6^f
'"Pt
"*Pt
in degrees.
6.9
0.777
"Os
'"Os
deformation parameter;,'
3.97(?)
"Kr
96
Mo
lS*^y
5.22
2.97
3.84(?)
ISIy^
/4J9/3
4.24
3.445
"*Yb
1.368
1.83
tf
2.751 (?)
'"&
ft
[MeVj
tf
(5 + )
2.660
of
[MeV]
2.42(?)
'"Gd
io
Dy
Er
in units
(3*)
[MeV]
1.52
Ca
,5
of the asymmetric rotator
^(2*)
[MeV]
0.845
*2
Sm
,SJ
Sm
levels
+
+
"Fe
Mg
,io
Energy
.(2 + )
26
l3
Fig. 2.
tS
+
+
and
E, =J .
js
+ 3.1
0.39
1.0
-0.093
0.27
0.28
174
[CH. 7, $
CH.
case
<e
pattern of the ground state band. As the asymmetry

"abnormal" rotational states which lie at infinite energies
become more and more comparable in energy to the corre-
$2 =
sponding members of the ground state band. A slight departure

of the
energies of the normal 2 + ,4 + ,6 + states from the
/(/+1) rule is
predicted by the asymmetric rotator model. This
model is in its effect
c
o
Q.
we have the /(/+!)
increases, those
if
similar to the centrifugal stretching predicted by the

rotation-vibration
Also, the relation of eq. (14) is approximately fulfilled in
the
el.
model.
Ss"S
\JTB
175
The general solutions of eq. (9) depend on the parameter

y. They are
obtained numerically as a function of y by the diagonalizatton
procedure
outlined above. The result for the energy levels is shown in
fig. 2 in units of
h 2 /4B0 2 . The case y =
corresponds to a symmetric nucleus. Indeed in this
"4
:*.
THE HAMILTONIAN
7, 1J
mod-
dynamical
recent compilation of data is given in table 1. This

table shows
+
+
+
2 (2 )- (3 ))/(,(2
and
(2*))
in
addition
the
3
(4I (2 ) + 2 (2 + )-(5 + ))/(4 t (2 + )+iT2 (2 + )) which can also be
proved to be zero for the asymmetric rotator. From table
1 it is possible
to see that the relation of eq. (14) is quite well satisfied within
the deformed
!S2
190
regions (
to
0s and beyond Th), but in general is not valid outside
of them. Another characteristic of these deformed regions,
evident from
the ratio (, (2 +
+
ratio
}+
)+
Sm
e
E
table 1, is the fact that the lowest 1

2 level rises rapidly at the edges of
these regions, being quite high outside of them.
In table 2 we present the coefficients A'
Kt (y) of the expansion in eq. (5)
for various values of y and for /
2 and /
4. Although
is not a good
^
o:
a A
g~-
Table 2
Coefficients A'MI (y) defining the
i
7
1
A
"01
jt
2t
A l*
AU
A*
""01
with spins of
10
20
25
30"
0.866
1.000
0.996
0.974
7.8X10" 3
0.0872
0.227
0.500
-7.5X10- 3
-0,0867
-0.226
-0.500
1.000
0.996
0.975
0.866
0.999
0.955
0.852
0.739
0.030
0.296
0.522
0.66!
io-*
0.010
0.043
0.125
-0.030
-0.296
-0.523
-0.559
0.999
0.954
0.842
0.500
0.004
0.043
0.128
0.661
4Jt
A*
^02
AU
AU
states given in eq. (5)
AU
wjjfcpu;.
wave functions of
2 and 4
176
quantum number,
there
is
[CH. 7, 2
ch.
177
ELECTRIC QUADRUPOLE TRANSITION PROBABILITIES
7, 2]
only small admixture for small y~ values. Even for
larger values the lowest energy levels for each / are predominantly
K=
0.
and Bfi D are usually fitted to the energy of the second 2

state (which is termed a y-vibration in the rotation-vibration model), and
+
state, respectively. A rough plot of y as a function of A is
to the first 2
+
+
shown in fig. 3. y can be simply obtained from the ratio i(2 y)/2 (2 y),
The values of
ll
T3
.2
is
asymmetry
maximal
is
(y
7.2. Electric
The reduced
of the asymmetric rotator
is
described by the expression

re
J-
A =
2ij
+1
where the quadrupole operator

3ZR
.-a
3
(16)
shown
in figs.
seen that the
ARM
If
and quantitatively the same

as the rotation-vibration model. The same
true for the energy level predictions. This
is
seen particularly in
fig. 4,
can be
I i.
describes qualitatively
trends for the branching ratios

is
lines. It
isotopes*.
It will
aO
For the experimental
Boe-69).
investigation of
Os
isotopes
we
refer to the literature (Era-62,
__:
.2 XT
i]
s-s
at'
ARM are much the same and in quite
This shows the importance of the accurate treatment of the rotation-
u
E S
be noted that for these soft y-vibrators the predictions of
good agreement with experiments, while the predictions of the /(/+1) rule
even with heuristic centrifugal corrections do not describe the experiments.
-p
<~
si
'1
where the predictions of the simple 1(1+1) rule and the heuristic centrifugal
2
2
corrections / (/+l) are also shown for the transition region of the Os
the rotation-vibration model and the
<=
5 | -
have already been
by dashed
are indicated there
03
straightforward to compute the reduced matrix elements in eq, (15),
6.9-6.12. They
fc
S E s
Since the wave functions, eq. (5), have to be obtained numerically by

diagonalization, no closed expressions can be obtained. The results for the
ARM
S 6
3
M.I 2
s s
of eq. (3.57),
various B(E2) branching ratios according to the
4i 21
given by the transformation to the
.2
It is
,~,
o x
(15)
= AptDtf&j) cos y+{Ol 2 *(9 })+Dl. 2 *(9j)}(^2) sin y].
Jm
U5
o
4jc
is
Ms
a -
two
(see eq. 6.149)
B(E2;/i
i fe
v
I g
quadrupole transition probabilities in the rotational bands
states, eq. (5),
quite small for strongly deformed nuclei, while it seems to be

76
1I4
30) for vibrators such as
Se,
Cd and I9d Pt.
probability for an electric quadrupole transition between
la
o o
a function of y due to eqs. (12) and (5.73), by adjusting it to the

+
experimental ratio of the first and second excited 2 states. It is seen that the
which
[A*Q3
,_

178
[CH. 7, 3
vibration interaction and also indicates that both the rotation-vibration
ARM
model and the
are
quite equivalent
for
treating
the
rotation-
vibration interaction, at least for the lowest rotational bands (see the next
section).
'
assumed thata 2 Z <S. P a i.e. the static asymmetry and the dynamic
^-vibrational amplitudes about the equilibrium are small compared to
Here
it is
This
the deformation
j8
deformed
The
nuclei.
is
generally the case, especially for strongly
We
have seen that the
the
ground
asymmetric rotator
ARM
On
state.
the
other
many
nuclei at least
one excited
as a ^-vibration. Thus
one
which
is
state exists; this
The
ao = o
is
V(a Q ,a 2 )
Po,
<*2
o 2 (see
= $e Q (a -a
2
)
fig.
1), is
static
parameter denoting the
We
have
^1
16^(1 + ^0)
{^/(9/)+(-l) r D rM-xW}(o!)"*?S_J5,|0>. (2D

Elmo
no
and
EiK,
3K 2 e
+ W+l)-K ne+
2
{no + l)Ef
nQ
0, i,
2,
16(Si'A>)
(22)
around the
triaxial
minimum
of the form
Here
/}J>
&
assumed that
C 2 ^>C a
(17)
The most important feature is that C2 is very much larger than C i.e. the
a 2 -vibrations are assumed extremely stiff and can therefore be neglected for
nave a mca!Jing equivalent to that defined earlier in
and
(6.129).
The
stiffness
of the ^-vibrations
is
described
When C is infinite, the nucleus is rigid and

shown in fig. 2 is unaltered. As C decreases the nuclear surface becomes
more elastic and the rotation-vibration interaction of the asymmetric
rotator described by the ^-dependent terms of eq. (20) becomes more
by C
it is
&t an<*
eqs. (6.96), (6.97),
+ C2 (a 2 -a 2 )\
where
=V
based on the rotation-vibration
collective potential energy, if expanded
>
'
ARM
give here a simplified version (Fae-65)
of the Davydov-Chaban treatment which

Hamiltonian of eqs. (6.40>-(6.43).
|/MXn
was there interpreted

model to include at
This was done by Davydov and Chaban

(Da-60) who assumed that the triaxial nucleus is still rigid against y- vibrations
We
in fact
least the ^-vibrations consistently.
but not against ^-vibrations.
is
are immediately obtained from eq. (6.128a).
ff
state
hand we know from the extensive

model in the previous chapter that in
desirable to extend the
it is
a2
deviation from axial symmetry. The eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of
predicts only
discussions of the rotation-vibration
a dynamic variable representing the
-coordinate is
/(-vibrations, while the coordinate
7.3. /{-vibrations of the
179
^-VIBRATIONS
ch. 7. f 31
the rotational structure
important. This
is especially
The Davydov-Chaban
true for soft ^-vibrators.
version of the
asymmetric rotator model
the low-energy spectrum. Therefore a can be replaced by the equilibrium

2
value a 2 everywhere in eqs. (6.40)-(6.43) and no dynamic a degree of
2
freedom need be considered. One
rotation-vibration model. Both models also have the
is
thus led to the Hamiltonian
as far as the lowest rotational bands are concerned
parameters, namely
" Hq+H
(18)
where
Hn =
2/o
*,'
l6Ba 2 2
-^hs+ic,?,
2B d 2
and
Ef
+'
is
equivalent to the
same number of
model and
O for the rotation-vibration
,,
ARM
with ^-vibrations. These parameters are
fitting the
same experimental
quantities, viz, the
and the value of B(E2; 2* -+ 0*).

It is therefore necessary to understand in some more detail why these two
models are quite equivalent for the lowest bands and where they differ in
energies of the
(19)
e,
a 2t 0 for the
obtained in both cases by
e,
2\
and G*'
states
their predictions.
2
d'
J& -ift 3 2
2/o
2
Jft +
+jft-
2/o
Po
Po*
Pa
We have already found in section 6.5 that the vibrational volume element
2
2
and the rotation-vibration interaction contained in the term &3 ll6Bt)
(where rj
a2 ) both serve to pull the ^-vibrational wave function away from
(***-*&)
(20)
the origin. This
is
indicated again in
fig. 5,
where the probability
shown for the ground state (K = 0) and the y-vibration (K =
2
|i?>x(f )|
ls
2) as predicted
180
[ch. 7, 3
181
^-VIBRATIONS
ch. 7, 3]
be described by a change of the asymmetry of the rotator,
As outlined above,
there are also expected to be
by
the introduc-
two-phonon vibrational
state band and the
ground
in deformed
one-phonon vibrational bands. These correspond to
vibration model in which one of the basis vectors /
nuclei, in addition to the
bands
|/A/20 1> predominates.

would predominate are
In the
0>, /
|
2> or
ARM the corresponding basis vectors which
\TM 40>, |/A/02>
interesting that in
states in the rotation-
M4
It is
i.e.
an additional parameter.
tion of
or
\TM2
+
the Os nuclei there occur
1>.
and 4
states
which
+
can be naturally interpreted as being these higher-phonon states. The

,88
level at 1086 keV in
0s is too low in energy to be the 0-bandhead. This
is
r~TI
to be expected instead at about 1700 keV. In the rotation-vibration
model calculations
it
has been assumed that the
1766
level at
keV
(RV)
is
the
member of the /f-band. The RV

|000 1 0>. The RV model predicts this state at
(within 5 %). The initial assumption and the agreement between experiment
keV
1142 keV
theory suggests that the 1086
lowest
level is the state

Fig. 5. The probability fo 0j)| J for the ground state (K 0), the first y-vibration (K = 2)
K
and the second y-vibration (n 2 = 1, K 0) as predicted by the rotation-vibration
model. The AR-model approximates the first two wave functions by delta-functions at
and theory
is
further supported by the reduced branching ratio for
from the 1086 keV
transitions
photon
+
state to the 2 y-bandhead and to the 2
experimental value
3.5. This
too
level
of the ground state band.
large
by a factor of about 100 for the 1086 keV state to be the O 0-band.
Its
is
is
RV
by the rotation-vibration model. It is seen that the ground state and y-vibration probabilities have slightly different maxima centering around rj = a
2
Using the
The
expected in
1086
keV
is
rotation-vibration model therefore predicts a dynamical asymmetry
centering around
rj
Now
in fig, 5.
comes
agreement of the ground state band
the important semi-quantitative
In
conclusion; the asymmetric rotator model essentially replaces the dynamical

probability distributions \<p(n)\
that the energies of the first
rj
two 2 +
rj.
Since
and
states agree with
ij
distinct
surprising that both models give practically the
same predictions on the

and ^-vibration bands. (Ef is actually exactly
the same in both models.) They should differ strongly, however, in the
higher vibrational bands. For example the second excited + state [000
0>
with n 2 = 1, which is a second y-vibration band * with K 0, would have
ground
the 4
level
with
K=
RV model. The RV
Davydov model with

2084 keV. The dynamical
at
not
it is
Os
In the
are adjusted such
experiment
190
state of the
for the ground state and the y-vibration by
delta functions d(rt-rj) centered at
theory a branching ratio of w25 is computed if the level at

assumed to be the two-phonon y-vibration. No 0* state can be
this region according to the AR theory unless the relatively good
seriously worsened.
11 63
keV
model predicts
is
it
probably the |4
at
^-vibrations the lowest /
RV
M 4 00>
194 keV (within 3 %).
K=
4 state
lies
model would therefore seem to have a
advantage in explaining higher-phonon vibrations*.
It is in
state, y-vibration,
is
4 at
fact particularly gratifying that the
the few experimentally observed
RV
two-phonon
model
is
able to describe
states so well, since these
states are expected to be particularly sensitive to anharmonicities in the
a probability distribution as
is
indicated by the dotted curve in
fig. 5.
potential energy.
It
In
must also be
number of
two maxima occur which are displaced considerably from the

(K =Q,n 2 = 0) and (K = 2, n 2 = 0) maxima. In the ARM this could only
this case
see
At approximately the same energy
there occurs also a y-vibration
band with
however, that at higher excitation energies a great

become important, such as the mixing of
collective states with single particle excitations, the Coriolis-anti-pairing
(CAP)
said,
additional effects
K = 4,
fig. 6.1.
effect
(Fae-65,
if
the
rotational
angular
momentum
states of the Os isotopes have been investigated experimentally

by Kane and Emery (Ka-67) and Boehm and Stelzer (Boe-69).
The higher phonon
via neutron capture
Mo-63b)
182
ASYMMETRIC ROTATOR MODBt, (ARM)
becomes very large, and
finally the
of the vibrational states
blocking effect (Fae-65)
[CH, 7
if
the collectivity
may cause appreciable

deviations from the simple model predictions and
make a microscopic
approach necessary. The value of the models lies therefore in their
is small.
All these effects
CHAPTER
simplicity,
their great "Anschaulichkeit"
the nuclei for low
and
their nearly quantitative description

of
excitation energies.
Models
Single-Particle
References
The properties of the asymmetric rotator are reviewed in Da-65c

and presented extensively in the original papers of Davydov
and collaborators
(Da-58a, Da-60) and of Bosch et at. (Ab-68b,
69).
The
or
have up until
collective effects in nuclei
even-even
more
only been investigated for
model to the case where one
particles are treated explicitly in addition to the collective
we now
It is
now
nuclei. In order to generalize the
discuss briefly the spherical
and the deformed
shell model-
clear that the complete description of nuclear structure
in the correct total
wave function of the nucleus.
modes,
It is
is
contained
also clear that
it is
practically impossible to determine theoretically the behavior of all degrees
of freedom of a dynamical
heavy nucleus. Even
many-body system of such complexity
plicated
nuclear wave functions explicitly,
it
desirable
and necessary
model containing
to develop a simplified
features of the nuclear
as
were possible to obtain such detailed and com-
if it
would
still
definitely
all
be
essential
dynamics and thus making the nuclear behavior
understandable in easy terms.
Up
to
now we have developed some
purely collective aspects and
it is
necessary to incorporate the other extreme of nuclear dynamics, namely the

single-particle aspect, into
discussed so far contains
our picture. The collective model which we have
little
reference to the
number of nucleons present
and could hardly predict the discontinuities associated with the magic
numbers (see Chapter 1).
In the single-particle shell
model the individual nucleons are considered
move in stationary orbits and are paired offia such a way that the values
of many nuclear parameters are determined solely by a single unpaired
nucleon. The single-particle model thus contains no collective motion of
two or three nucleons. It is however the basic model which we can later
generalize (see Volume 3 of this series) to contain such correlations.
to
183
31NC LE- PARTICLE MODELS
184
[ch. 8,
8.1. Spherical single-particle orbits
very often useful in physics to try to apply the methods used in a

familiar field of physics to an as yet unknown field of new investigation.
ch.
8,
that the
most
which
somewhere
is
185
SPHERICAL SINGLE- PARTI CLE ORBITS
11
energy levels correspond to a well
realistic single-particle
between the oscillator and the square
in
well.
It is
The
early days of nuclear theory have in fact followed this pattern. In the
problem of atomic
structure
it is
well understood that the electrons
primarily under the influence of the

central nucleus
and
that this
between the electrons.
It is
motion
common Coulomb
is
perturbed by the
from the
attraction
Coulomb
move
8.1.1. Infinite
For the
r
>
square well single-particle Hamiltonian and wave functions
infinite
square well, eq.
approximation.
different.
There
In the
for r
R.
The Schrodinger equation
no
is
is
central field
then treated in a
are
it
wave
Au =
found by assuming that the motion of a nucleon

other nucleons
("2M
V2 + nr)
W(r)
jE
" (r)
(3)
"
first
Putting
rather
is like
motion
in
in the
a central
central potential the spectrum could then be calculated.
(4)
does not seem
too unreasonable to suppose that a zero-order approximation
all
is
produced by an external source; one has
only the strong attractions between nucleons. Nevertheless
attraction of
for a single particle
repulsion
therefore possible to take as a zero-order
nuclear problem the considerations
eigenfunctions must vanish for
R> so that one need consider only those interior solutions which vanish
function for the system the antisymmetrized product of wave functions of
each electron. The electron-electron interaction
(1), the
may
be
one obtains the radial equation for the central
field
problem
nucleus under the

field.
The central
contains the interparticle forces in zero order. This average
R(r)
Thus from a
field is
ar
dr
l_n
0.
(5)
potential
nowadays
In the case of the square well
we
use the substitution
calculated for light nuclei by Hartree-Foek procedures. In the early days
of the
shell
model,
it
Because of the short range nature of nuclear forces
must have sharp boundaries whose nature

of the nuclear matter distribution
wells should also be
V(r)
and the
practical reasons such
We
shall here discuss the
for r
for r
<
>
R,
0)
R,
to obtain
d'R(p)
at
The single-particle energy levels

scattering experiments indicate
for heavy nuclei
and
-K
+ iAfa>V
for these
(Wo-54)
two wells are very

that the former
(2)
similar,
Nucleon
more
realistic
is
model
the latter for light nuclei. However, the greater sim-
calculations.
for both potentials, but for
dp
much resembles
the Bessel equation. Indeed, R(p) can be
by (Mo-48)
*(p)=;i(/>)
= |/^--Wp).
(8)
where J denotes an ordinary Bessel function of half-integer order. Similarly
of the harmonic oscillator potential has led to a preference for
shell
This equation very
expressed in terms of the spherical Bessel functions j,(p) which are regular
infinite oscillator well
F(r)=
wave
For
dp*
= - VQ
= oo
(6)
this potential well
governed by the boundaries
in the nucleus.
amenable to calculations.
V(r)
most
is
-*r-y!
square well
infinite
plicity
12ME
was, however, merely postulated.
it
the irregular solutions of eq. (7) are the spherical
in
We will give here the single-particle solutions
n (p)
l
= (-ir
^J-
- i ()
Neumann
functions
(9)
most of our discussions we shall use the oscillator
functions. It has been pointed out by
Mayer and Jensen (May-55)
One can show (Wa-45)
that J, ++ (p) where
is
a positive or a negative
186
SINOLE-PARTICLB MODELS
integer or zero, can be expressed as a
and
v
Jo(p)
JAP)
few
sin
p and cos p
CH. 8,
sin
The following
sin
properties hold for both the/'s
explicit expression for the
Ji~i(p)+h-n(p)
SPHERICAL SINGLE- PARTICLE ORBIIS
n's are
<
m -
n. (p)
[CH. 8,
sum of products of
with polynomials of odd order in p~*.

/'s
p
COS
,-[p'
dp
and the
n's:
J>0,
J"i(p),
21
+1
/ 1 (p)]
p'
+1
Wi- i(p) -o +i);I+ W].

.
+1
1>0,
;,- 1 (p),
(10)
m=(^-l)*np-L cosp,
2
The asymptotic behavior of
Up)
[p~'j&p)] =
dp
= -
2 (p)
they's and n's
(2.
P*
I) cosp
pt
\jitp)<ip=
l>
often needed
is
nip)
m-n
1-3-s
(11)
(p)p dp
ip
p-t<D
p-*a>
indicate
some
(p)
where
- sin (p -*(/+!.
P
-h-Mk*iU>)l
>0.
properties of
the/s and
n's:
p=kR,
__
(15)
We
list
well
(16)
2M R 2
XKt are the zeros of the transcendental eq.
only be obtained numerically.
and
for
__ K
2M
Thus the normalized square
we
D,
case of the infinite square well yields the energies
^cosfp-K^+iH
(12)
j 1 (p),
Ji(p)
in the
->
The boundary condition
n'+l
and
n,(p)
'(21+1)*
fi-tQ
Up)
-Up),
dp
; (p)p
p-o 1-3-5
(14)
-P"'jj+i(p).
rsinp.
In addition
187
dp
cos p
f
P
+
21
dji(p)
,
P
p
(15),
These can in general
a few of tbem in table
wave functions
are,
1.
with eqs.
(4), (8)
(16),
ui m (K*r)
= A at j (K ia r)Ylm
i
(17)
where
2
(p)/>
Jjo
2
o (p)
dp = iP 3 Mp)+oCp)JiG>)l
dp
A rl = (2R~ 3 f r
= *p 3 [o 2 (p)-/o(p) i(p)],
The
(13)
"i- i{p)Ji(p)-i(p)/,- ,(p)
= ^-
J,(p)^n (p)-,(p)^j,(p) =
ap
dp
>
0,
and fourth columns
in table
give respectively the
(18)
number of
nucleons in the various subshells, N s , and the total number of nucleons up

to the last filled shell.
Here we have employed the usual convention and

by the quantum numbers n and
called a single-particle state characterized
i.
p
third
a shell or subshell.
sections.
A more refined definition will
be given in the following
188
SINGLE-PARTICLE MODELS
Table
The
The
column
single-particle states
[cm. 8,
of the
square well.
infinite
ml
gives the state in the infinite square well,
for use in eq. (16) to determine the energy eigenvalue.
JV
Xn>
EJV*
2(2/+l)
3 or
there occur
nl
from
n
5,
these
2,
3.142
IP
4.493
Id
5.763
10
18
2s
6.283
20
If
6,988
14
34
2p
7.725
40
8.183
18
58
2d
9.095
10
68
Ih
9.356
22
2
90
3s
9.425
2f
10.417
14
106
11
10.513
26
6
132
10.904
U.705
2g
8.
a).
.2.
Harmonic
oscillator single-particle
Spherical representation.
dr
ft
The
The
for
odd
4,
or
solutions. If JV
JV
6,
0).
odd,
is
Thus
with
for even JV
can take on
all
odd
if JV = 5: / = 1, = 2 or / = 3, n = I or
one has i(JV+l) degenerate solutions. In
is
not yet included. For every /-value one
different m-solutions. In table 2
single-particle states
we
list all
the various
of the
infinite
harmonic
oscillator well.
column gives the number of particles which can be placed in the corresponding
orbitals and the fourth column gives the cumulative number of particles
third
Orbitals (n, />
JV
2(2/+
1)
problem
eq.
Is
IP
2s,
Id
12
20
2ft If
3s, 2d. Ig
20
40
30
70
3p,2f, Ih
42
112
4s, 3d, 2g, li
56
168
in
(2),
Cumulative
number
ftta
becomes using
level
Table 2
Hamiltonian and wave functions
g + Sfi + {aj5_*p!,_Sff|*)_
dr
energy
specific
possibilities [cf. table 1).
156
spherical representation, the radial equation (5)
numbers the m-degeneracy
138
oscillator
2 or
Thus
For the harmonic
for
i,e.
to JV (for example,
0).
92
18
2n + l,
iJV+I degenerate
has in addition (2/+

Is
3p
h(a(N+i), a number of degenerate eigenfunctions occur. If JV is even,

to N (for example, if JV 6: / = 0,
can take on all even values from
values
Orbital
JV
and the second column gives

The third column gives the
number of particles which can be placed in the corresponding orbital and the fourth
column gives the cumulative number of particles (Fec-55)
first
number
quantum
189
SPHERICAL SINGLE-PARTICLE ORBITS
CH. 8,1]
,9)
Cartesian representation. Especially for the case of a deformed oscillator

which will be discussed in Chapter 9, it is often convenient to work in a
b).
Cartesian basis instead of a spherical one. Let us, therefore summarize

these results briefly.
The normalized
u m!m (r,
solutions are*
* *) - (~ If
E,
where X
The Schrbdinger equation
]/^ f
hG>(2n + l+i) t
= Mmjh. The
+ +i
He"*" lFl (-n, /+*, Xr 2 ) Ylm
)
;
0, 1, 2,
-,
in Cartesian coordinates
harmonic
oscillator
(20)
'^H^-i'Â-o.
J
.oz
phase convention (- If
elements of r 2 are positive.
We
is
chosen so that
all
matrix
note especially that for a given principal
where
JC
for the three-dimensional
is
These are obtained for example
in Fl-52.
z
J
fC I
+ K2' +
2M
Mco
(21)
190
The
MNQLE-F ARTICLE MODELS
[CH. 8,
ch. s,
leads
Table
equation for/(;e)
is,
2
1
solutions of this equation are well
E=
ha)(n l +{),
an
is
integer.
Thus
the total energy
E=
Let us
now investigate a
Yl0
is
if
nt
if
n,
m In is even,
= 2n+l is odd.
+ i) + ft (n 2 + i) + fid) (n 3 + ).
(25)
spherical solution of eq. (19)
with n
and
2.
We
and find out to what

choose as a typical example
1-4AV+JA1 **
a-2AjKJ Ml-2Az 2 )
j-ztl-jAy1 )
]-4Xy 1 + t k 1 y*
According to eq.
(20),
it
has the
xz(l-|JU*)
Factor
(1-24**) (I -2iL**)
j* (1-2 Ax1 )
~T5 A
(l-2JLx l )(\-2Ay*)
-1-
xzV-tXx
factor e"*'1*
corresponds in Cartesian coordinates.
the solution ,
(23)
E is
ft {!
Cartesian eigenfunction up to the
"3
F i(-. i. lx 2 )
f(x ) m
1
Ue""*** ifif-n, |, Xx 2 )
f
n3
gen functions in Cartesian coordinates
4
O.
known (Fl-52). The energy

The wave functions are
*~***
The
ei
common
-A 2 x J )/(x) =
The
n,
oscillators.
oscillator
for example,
0+(X
where
Harmonic
(22)
to three completely analogous linear harmonic
differential
191
spherical single-particle orbits
ansatz
u(x,y,z)=f(x)g(y)h(z)
it
it-'
2
)
xy{l-ikx*}
+^"
l-4Hx 1 +fX1 x*
energy
E=
fto>(4+f),
(26)
and with arbitrary normalization the eigenfunction
"uWô
=
=
is
easily
different
ways which are indicated
that the condition in eq. (28)
have to construct linear
e~***
J^-1,1, Xr )P 2 (cos9)
1
r e~*^(l-4lr 2 )(icos 2 S-i).
r
show
One can
(27)
achieved by
r
satisfied in
15
15 solutions
we
can be
From these
combinations such that we obtain
in table 3.
eq. (27). This is
expressing eq. (27) in terms of x, y, z:
(l-4Ar 2 )(ico S 2 d-i) =
(|z
-ir ){l-f A r
This eigenfunction must be a linear combination of those

/,(*) 0,,,GOMz)
for
which
(30)
rtj
+n 2 +n 3 = (2+0 =
4.
(28)
obvious that each term in (fa h) contains the factor e"*^ =

e
occurring in , which we can therefore omit in the following.
Furthermore we have explicitly
It
Since only even powers in x, y, z occur here, one concludes that of the 15
is
F(Q,i,Xx
2
)
Xx 2 ) = x
xF(-l,$,Xx 2) = x(l- 2-Xx 2),
xF(0,
J,
in x, y, z,
The
factors
which are to be multiplied with the various Cartesian eigen-
functions are listed in the last
l,
n-Ui,Xx 2 )=l-2Ax 2
F(-2,} Xx 2 = l-4Ax 2 +U 2 x\
f
can be dropped which contain an odd power

Le. where at least one of the quantum numbers n lt n 2 n 3 is odd.
possibilities in table 3 all those
eigenfunctions are
left
column of
corresponding coefficients of the terms

as given in eq. (30)
the six
unknown
and
table 3. Since only six Cartesian
for the superposition,

4
4
in table 3.
One
one proceeds by comparing

1
2
2
2
x2 y2 v2 z2 z 2 * x y z
z*,
,
,
,
,
y
equations
for
thus obtains ten linear
,
coefficients. Therefore, in
a consistent calculation four of
the equations obtained must be linearly dependent
on the six remaining ones.
192
This procedure
serves
and arbitrary
generalized
as
an example.
[CH. 8, 2
ch.
SPIN-ORBIT COUPLING
8, 2]
Sfluoi* writ trrtts
can be straightforwardly
It
exiUatcr
tttrts
spherical solutions can always be expressed in
terms of the Cartesian eigenfunctions
*.
In Chapter 9
we
will find
it
con-
(li.ts.X.**)
ISS)
ttni
(la/iniit
therefore important to recognize the equivalence of both sets of
wave
roa
ifnoei ..-" !fwa
if
i4i)
aNtJHLje"*
(is.&.w
<x)
u _i2L|,::..jissi
The spin-orbit coupling
8.2.
, Ji
'Via
Thus
far
we have
studied two kinds of shell models. However, neither the
pure square well nor the pure harmonic oscillator

shell
model
potential.
been pointed out in Chapter
1,
from
fig.
8, 20, 28, 40, 50, 82, 126.
we
1.6
m-JML
(if.ip)
IX)
(in.ii)
la) 2**
suitable as a realistic
"t .
As has
20
*-p!L a(m
.9t
Mm
^ 2flm
HM
~*
see that nuclei having either
'201
j
it
see section
12.6).
distributions.
have a
It
-*>
2s
IK)
has also been
relatively large binding
tm
energy
lift one nucleon out of the nucleus,

Both empirical observations indicate that the magic
is
it*)
to
Such nuclei therefore have spherical charge

that such nuclei
xi
Iftffl
number or a neutron number which coincides with one of these

magic numbers do not possess quadrupole moments in the ground state.
per nucleon (energy which
m x)
-i
a proton
shown experimentally
(X)
tsa^
should in fact reproduce the
realistic potential
experimentally observed magic numbers 2,
is
lp IB)
^Hff .**..
(ih.2r.3fi)
functions as a basis.
mint
/
M5
-.JffJMJ
|i'{
venient to use either representation in discussing the deformed shell model.

It is
193
a) ote-LM.
!iM
if*L,
(2)
necessary to
numbers correspond to closed
and the shell model must be

way that the above-mentioned
(filled) shells,
constructed phenomenologically in such a
Fig.
I.
Levels systems for a pure harmonic oscillator well
(left),
a pure infinite square well
and a potential (fig. 2)" interpolated between these extremes (center). The magic
numbers for each case are shown in brackets. The square well spectrum is in units of
(right)
= 2ft*/ MR 3
the oscillator frequency
is
Tim
*>/{Va ). (After May-55.)
magic numbers are reproduced.

In
fig.
we show
graphically the shells of the pure harmonic oscillator
as well as those of the pure square well.

interpolated potential between these
One might
expect that perhaps an
two extremes, as shown
in fig.
2,
might reproduce the magic numbers. The qualitative spectrum for such an
intermediate shape is indicated in the middle of fig. 1 Also the numbers of
.
nucleons which
indicated. It
is
in all the three
the shells of such
fill
an interpolated
clearly seen that the lower
models discussed so
far,
shell
model are
magic numbers are reproduced
but the higher magic numbers are
clearly not obtained in this way.
In order to reproduce the higher magic numbers a phenomenological

spin-orbit potential
is
added to the harmonic

of the form
oscillator.
The improved
single-particle potential is thus
F(r)
= -V +iMot 2 r 2 - -Jhs),
h
*
in
The solutions in cylindrical
Appendix D.
(3D
coordinates are also of importance later on; they are given
Fig. 2.
pure harmonic oscillator potential, a pure square well potential, and the interpolation between them (dashed line).
SINGLE- PARTI CLE MODELS
194
[ch. 8, 2
CH.
8,
SPIN-ORBIT COUPLING
2]
and those
and
r-5
where )
= I+J
a
2
2
= H0+S) -^-S }=Kf- -9
2
the orbital angular
momentum
\j m> = Rjr)
momentum
(I
constructed as the surn of
S of the nucleon.
and the spin
functions \jm} of the total angular
).
positive.
I
momentum
the total angular
is
(32)
The
eigen-
for
The
3 coupling:
parallel to 3 (j
There
(2j+
(33)
t+i)
still
exists
From
eq. (32)
it
easily follows that
S is
is
= 2(M-J)+1 2(/-) + 1 =
m> =
2
ift
(j(j+l)-I(J+l)-s{s + i))|jm>.
levels in eq.
states for
2/
states for
= I- ,
is
f+f,
for the energy level E

u
-(/)2(/+l)+(M-l)(2/)
diagonal for the functions |/m>
and thus
l-l|y
is
not shifted by the
2(/+l)
the radial wave function.
and one has
is
an m-degeneracy of the jm>
and therefore the center of gravity

where %im, denotes the spin function, and R
are shifted to lower energies if
We have
(2/+1)
YJmi XiKl.
center of gravity of the energy levels
(33).
are
i j m, m, m)
195
(40)
is
0,
(41)
unshifted.
In table 4 the various single-particle states for the oscillator and spin-orbit
(34)
Table 4
For the two possible cases/
M||>
= l\ one
therefore finds
States for the Hamiltonian of eq. (31) involving a
Ujm>
fcf/-tr+fi
-**{'
-(I+l)
far j
1-1,
parameter Jko and a spin-orbit
(35)
IgiOl
harmonic
splitting
oscillator potential
with energy parameter
State
E*tj 004.
4*,
btlm
of energy
Wj
J
For
the
coupling vanishes, of course. With eq. (35) one obtains
immediately for eq. (31)
V(r)
m -VQ +a
')
+*Mo)V,
for ;
= lf
3d!
6lto 2a
2gt
fitUu 4a
10
6ft<o
6a
14
lh,
5ftcu+6a
10
2f|
Sftu>+4a
3P|
5fta+2a
6
2
4
is
are changed
(36)
taken as a constant with no radial dependence in the ansatz for

the spin-orbit coupling, the oscillator eigenfunctions are not changed by
the presence of the 1 3 term. Only the energy eigenvalues , of eq. (20)
Since a
by additive terms dependent on
and j according to eq.
3 P|
SAeu
2f*
5/to
Ih^
12
in
5Jto Sa
4A<u+5a
2d,
4Jko
+ 3*
3s,
4ftai
2d,
4fta> 2a
Ig,
4fla>
4a
10
so
"
40
2p,
2m
2
4
i%
3Jko+4a
3fto+2a
3to
3fta> 3a
28
id,
2fta>+3a
20
2
6
4
1
2
1
or explicitly
*.i
In particular
-*<*+!++
we have
(38)
Z] - !-!)
for the energy differences to the
ground
state
2
E.u+i-Eoo*
EKtt -i-E 00i =

Thus the degeneracy of the
for states with
hm(2n + l)-at,
(39)
hm(2n + l)+a(l + l).

1
oscillator levels is partly broken.
anttparallel to 3 (/
/-) are
The
energies
shifted to higher energies
3a
82
*i
2/ku
Id,
2ftai 2a
IP,
*ko+2a
IP,
fta>
is,
126
(36):
(37)
196
Ich. 8, 2
SPIN-ORBIT COUPLING
ch. 8, 2]
quantum number N = (2n + l) characterizes the various harmonic oscillator shells. The number of nucleons
in a given /-shell is denoted by NJ} and N = /Vf denotes the total number
coupling model are tabulated. The
of nucleons
if all shells
(N =
shells
earlier
0, 1,
below the given one are
filled
up. For the
first
i'3-splitting is quite small. It is seen,
-(2)
GA&i
2a
-(12)-
-t*j
-ii
magnitude of the spin-orbit
splitting.
however, that for
N and Z.
quantum number n and on
-fW-flWj3p-
which determines the
In general a as well as
parameter) can, of course, depend on

principal
a,
(the oscillator
to
momentum
somewhat with
increasing
/.
nuclei.
The
-(<)-
-2<
-(a)-[xx
-rw-(10)-
odd
/.
It
Ih
This empirical observation stems
'Aim
f 34-
single-particle states in various
-<2>-(*)-(B)-
-*te'
-(a)
'2dv,-
4t
-(W-
-at,
-3s
values for a listed in table 5 have been obtained.
126
-Jft,
-It.,
Sfxit
has been found empirically (Co-62) that for a fixed value of n, the parameter
a decreases
-( 2}
-3fiv,
2f-
In fact a can depend on the
the orbital angular
from a careful examination of the excited
-*tm
;/
higher shells quite a substantial regrouping of the shells takes place. This
regrouping depends strongly on the magnitude of
-(a)-
3d-
2) one has practically the same oscillator level scheme as
because the
-31,,
4s-
-(ts)-(mj
"fc
three
197
82
[32}
[St]
-lgTable
50
-(10)- [501Empirical values of the spin-orbit splitting parameter a as a function of shell
<"
odd\ir
2
1.15
0.93
0.76
0,46
0.44
0.68
0.58
0.26
0.39
0.19
clear
from
0.28
wwl id
It is
further clear
from
numbers occur as closed

major closed
shells.
will usually
reach the group of levels beneath.
observed magic
this table that the experimentally
subshells but
This
last
goal
do not
is
yet appear as clearly separated
achieved, either
if
fig.
fig. 2).
made more
shown in
3 which reproduces the experimentally observed magic numbers
The
radial
wave functions of such a
mediate between oscillator and square well cannot be given

is
is
In the latter case one reaches a shell scheme as
20, 28, 50, 82, 126.
a disadvantage which
struction of a
more
will
2, 8,
potential interexplicitly.
This
be overcome in the next section by the con-
realistic shell
Fig. 3.
23
model potential which tends
:...
-ld
.(4)
[10].
20
-Wfca-
-f 6)
&
f KJ
preferentially
-(2>- [a]
-(4)- [S3
is.
.(2)- [2]
The single-particle level sequence for a Hamiltonian
consisting of a central potential
intermediate between harmonic oscillator potential and square well potential plus a spinorbit splitting.
the a-values are
adjusted appreciably from shell to shell or if the oscillator well
square (see
[2S]
[33]
table 4 that the highest /-values will always be depressed
by the spin-orbit coupling and
-(a)
2Pu*
>-
2fiJ- 2 *
Mia
It is
[40}
-ta-
See Co-62
\'
~(2)-(e)
-(*)-
-*
(ni).
The number of particles in each shell is shown, as

number of particles. (After May-55.)
well as the cumulative
to lower the energies of the states with higher orbital angular
Some
discussed.
which in
For completeness we
fact ranges over
briefly
summarize most of
For
details
we
this evidence,
a rather wide variety of data *. The magic numbers
are evidenced in:

*
momentum.
experimental evidence for the magic numbers has already been
refer to the literature
(May-55).
SINQLI-PARTICLB MODELS
198
[CH.
discontinuities in the plot of binding energy against
1 ).
magic numbers
(see section
peaks in the
2).
relative
N and Z
8,
at the
ch.
abundance of isotopes and isotones at the magic
when a harmonic oscillator potential of the same depth as the square

used. The interpolated potential gives the appropriate depth at larger
distances for these states of high orbital angular momentum.
is
Nilsson (Ni-55) showed that one can also achieve
numbers,
the increase in the energy of the
3).
first
excited state as one approaches
term proportional to
a marked drop
4).
in neutron capture cross sections near the
magic
C~
The constant
magic nuclei
(see fig.
moments of
nuclei in the
neighborhood of
,6),
With the systematic measurement of nuclear spectra and nuclear mo-
-2ot/h
The
More
oscillator
and the square
single-particle potentials.
well potentials are
are generated only

is
if
used with an additional

1
1 * 3
term.
An
(42)
characterizes the strength of the spin-orbit
simulates the deviation of the oscillator
oscillator potential,
potential
on the other hand
would always be
In
fig.
eq. (42).
it
4 we show the spherical
is
always negative. For the square well

positive.
model according to the potential of

The magic numbers are clearly reproduced. The left-hand side of
shell
magic numbers
alternative procedure
can be given
Z2_
,-
would
"w
very desirable. Moreover for practical
is
purposes a simple heuristic shell model potential

explicitly
whose singlestructure more or
called for,
is
and whose
shell
w%
N'2
'--
'tf
J/i
reproduces the magic numbers.
We
have seen in table 4 that the various closed subshells already yielded
the magic numbers.

shell separation
What
orbital angular
between
For
required there
that a
is
if
more
clear
major
In
fact, the interpolation
and square well potentials discussed above has exactly
its
N-Q
large / the oscillator shells are energetically too high while
the corresponding square well shells are too low. This comes about because
for large
*-f
realizes that this
those subshells of the oscillator model with high
momentum / are lowered in energy.
oscillator
this effect.
is still
be achieved. By inspection of this table one
can be accomplished
of
+D
= - (0.056 0.043) Me V/fc 2
term which varies appreciably from shell to
shell. Clearly neither approach
particle solutions
fact, the
a potential intermediate between oscillator and square
have been to introduce an
less
For the
two extremely schematic
We have seen in the last section that neither one can
properly reproduce the empirical magic numbers. In
well
= $M m 2 r 2 + C t
*.
from a more realistic potential. For light nuclei, D is approximately zero. For the single-particle states of 209 Pb one obtains (Mu-62)
for example
Z>
realistic single-particle potentials
by adding a
potential
ments, the evidence for shell structure became overwhelming*.
8.3.
this effect
to the oscillator model with spin-orbit splitting
coupling and the parameter
very small quadrupole
5).
2
1
V(r)
a magic number,
numbers,
199
force
well
12,1),
MORE REALISTIC SINGLE-PARTICLE POTENTIALS
8, 31
the angular
momentum
barrier causes the nucleon to spend
time in the region near the edge of the square well in
experiences too deep a potential in the square well
and too
fig. 2. It
little
Fig. 4.
thus
* Recently the
(/'
model as generated from the harmonic oscillator potential

an 2> term (middle) plus spin-orbit splitting (right).
spherical shell
(far lea) plus
most
attractive
The
lN(N+3)),
term proportional to 1 * has been modified (Gu-67) to

i.e.
the deviation of the I* operator from
has been introduced instead of the operator

* There exist extensive experimental studies on she!] model orbits for light nuclei
(Se-63b, Pe-66, 68, 69, Gi-68, Ri-70), for medium nuclei (Co-66, Hi-66, Er-66, io-66,
Ne-66, Bj-67), and for the lead region (Hi-65, Li-67b, Mo-67, Br-68c).
oscillator shells
is
its
fl
mean value
<rV \t* tf
|
in the #-shell
itself. In this way the center of gravity of the

conserved and one circumvents the readjustment of the shell model
parameters for various
shells (see
Appendix C).
SINGLE-PARTiGLE MODELS
200
the figure
shows the pure
oscillator shells.
obtained from the splitting due to the

finally
2
1
[ch. 8.
The spectrum in the middle

The right-hand spectrum
-term.
obtained by the additional splitting due to the
en.
8,
DISTRIBUTION OF NUCLEONS
4]
IpfrJ
is
is
term in the
potential.
Recently Rost (Ro-68) has given an extensive study of a realistic shell

model based on a Woods-Saxon potential, which was originally introduced
(Wc-54) as an optical potential for nucleon-nucleus scattering. It is of the
form
V(r)
-Vn
l+e (r
Here c
is
(43)
"' w *
the nuclear radius (the radial distance at which the absolute
value of the potential has dropped to one half of

surface thickness of the potential
parameters
is
c a A*,
50
its
central value).
characterized by a.
is
MeV, a
0.5 fm, c
The
nuclear density for various
4
in the
filled shells
-.
harmonic
oscillator shell model,
The
typical set of
as 1.1
Fig. 5.
is
the
mean square
radius. This
mean square
radius
is,
for
a uniform density
distribution of nucleons,
fm.
R=
A*
as 1.2
A* fm,
(47)
8.4.
The
distribution of nucleons
An approximate expression for the sum J^=l E
We
briefly discuss here the spatial variation
known
that the density
is
of the nuclear density.
can
It is
approximately constant throughout the nucleus
and has a rather sharp cut off at the surface. The spherical oscillator potential yields a density which drops more smoothly to zero at the nuclear
surface, as is shown in fig. 5, where the total nuclear density
PMIMr)|'
i=i
(44)
quantum number
it
is
of interest to find out what value of the constant
yields the correct nuclear radius,
For the harmonic
and potential
The sum of the
N N
from the Dottom of the
single-particle energies of all nucleons is
well.
are filled by protons
and neutrons. One then has
No
+ t)(N+2),
A=2Z(N
jv=o
and according to
(48)
eq. (20)
No
E, -
M>
2(tf + l)(tf+2)(N+}).
(49)
Straightforward summation shows that
A K
oscillator the expectation values of kinetic
energies will be measured
ground state
(see the consideration following eq, (20))
empirical nuclear density can thus not be reproduced with a harmonic
a>
in the nuclear
(Mo-57). Consider nuclei with equal numbers of

protons and neutrons, and suppose all oscillator states with the principal
has been calculated for oscillator wave functions. Although details of the
oscillator potential,
easily be obtained
where we assume large
then
Wt+2y + O(N
and smaller powers
(50)
),
in
NQ
have been neglected.
Similarly
E = M coo i=i
<'
2
10
M ,
l,E,
ha>
[i(N
(45)
+2)î(N + 2f].
Keeping only the terms of highest order

of (N + 2) from eqs. (50) and (51)
where
<T*>-A- Z(i\r 2 \[>
in
(N +2) one
(51)
finds by elimination
(46)
Bi = i (I)*
fioi
A*
OJB6ha>
Al
(52)
202
and
Inserting this
harmonic
eq. (47) into eq, (45)
[ch. 8, | 5
CH.
PAIRING
8> 5]
AND THE EXTREME SINGLE-PARTICLE MODEL
one obtains for the spacing of the
oscillator levels
ss41>r*MeV.
ftto
We conclude
this section
by mentioning
(53)
that recently calculations of nuclear
i
(
t?
charge distributions have been performed (El -66, Sw-66) using more
realistic
shell
model
There are also indications from recent
potentials.
<5
deuteron scattering data that the charge radii of the various subshells are
independent of A (Hi-68a, b) which would
make it necessary
on A,
of step function dependence of ha>
instead of the
to
adopt a kind
smooth ^-depenFig. 6.
8.5.
shell
model predicts the single-nucleon
m = 2 and m =
One
connection
in this
is
total nucleus.
One of
the essential
(either protons or neutrons, see section 12.6) is approximately given
by
(Wa-58)
Thus
for the light nuclei 3
5 as 0.75
MeV. This
11.2
x A~* MeV.
MeV
model potential there
short-range residual force between nucleons.
Two
acts
a relatively
always be in that two-nucleon state which has lowest energy.
\jmy and |/m'> pair off to a
[00>
total
angular
momentum
momentum zero,
(55)
the state ineq. (55) will have deepest energy for short-range residual
density distributions for the states \jm)

the density distribution for
range,
and
it
is
is
and
\j
a single-nucleon
indicated. If
we have an
m}
state
a given magnetic substate, and schematic
very small. Only if the nucleons have the same \m\ docs a
overlap. That
is
* =
\j-m)
will
have the largest
to say, the interaction energy

<0".
m) L
(/,
-m) 2
V{i, 2) (j, m),

|
(/,
- m) 2 >,
(56)
where V(l, 2)
is the residual two-body force, is much larger than the

corresponding interaction energy between two nucleons where one is in the
state |/m> and the other in \jm'} with m' ?* m and tri ?* -m. Thus it
becomes clear that there occurs a pairing of nucleons in states |y/n> and
|/ m>, i.e. their angular momenta combine to total angular momentum
zero (May-50).
We
can therefore conclude that by rilling up the single-particle shells of

model with nucleons, there will usually occur a pairwise coupling
off to zero angular momentum, and only the last odd nucleon will have a
spin different from zero. This is then taken to be the total spin of the nucleus
the shell
ground state. It also follows that all even-even nuclei (even numbers
of protons and neutrons) should have angular momentum zero in the ground
state. This rule is completely fulfilled in nature and, in fact, first led to the
idea of the pairing of nucleons. The pairwise coupling of nucleons is referred
in the
= X(j;0|mm'0)L[m>|/m'>.
forces can be qualitatively understood in very simple terms. In
both
220)
nucleons in the same shell
This turns out to be a state where the two nucleons with angular
That
ss
pairing energy can be roughly understood from the
fact that in addition to the average shell
will then
(54)
while for heavy nuclei (A
evident that the overlap of nucleons in substates
described by \jm} and the other in the orbit
found experimentally that the pairing energy 2$ of two equivalent nucleons
&
is
in
strong interaction between both take place.
One has
that of the pairing of nucleons.
or
It is
mi*A2l t t
there-
fore has to find out under what circumstances the single-particle orbits
assumptions
orbits in a nucleus. Experi-
mentally one measures, however, the states of the total nucleus.
can be taken as representative of the
Density distributions for a nucleon
overlaps of these distributions.
Pairing and the extreme single-particle model
The
m(;*2,if
mf**2
dence in eq. (53).
fig.
6 the
to as the seniority coupling
scheme or sometimes as the Mayer-Jensen
are shown. In addition
coupling scheme.
with m' different from
7 shows predictions of angular momenta and parities as given by the

model for odd-neutron nuclei. The predicted /-values (the
parities of the ground states are (- 1 )) are also given at the bottom of the
interaction of extremely short
obvious that two-nucleon states with one particle in the orbit
Fig.
single-particle
204
[CH. 8, 5
ch.
8,
fi
PAIRING
5]
AND THE EXTREME SUVGLE-PARTICLE MODEL
tin
m
A
im
ta
-*
groan/ stats
at
~9~
ttcited states
a}
odd system
7t2
3/1
1/2
V -
A A
ffl
grand statt
1/3
î
K'oJM
rtdttd statu
XV
even system
Fig. 8.
20
6
Fig. 7. Spins
26
62
SO
of odd-neutron nuclei as predicted
by experiment.
-:
in the single particle
O:
mode! and
it is
clear that the
Observed spin which disagrees with the single
model gives a very good overall account
Moreover, many of these discrepancies are systematic. There seems to be a

reluctance on the part of nuclei to produce a large spin after having just
shell
which both
When
this
of low spin. This

fill
was
after a.j
first
is
especially seen in the h^.
shell. It
and
If shells
also occurs in the h 4 and gj shells.

rule was postulated to the effect
well be excited into the last partially filled shell or other

unfilled shells as
indicated in fig. 8(c).
In even nuclei a
excitation as
energy
h^ has
It is
Si(h*f.
Other discrepancies from the predictions of the single-particle model
occur between closed shells
82 and
N=
126. It
is
significant that this
which we know that large deformations of the nuclei occur (large quadrupole moments-see fig. 1.6). Being far
from closed shells, it is certainly the region where the single-particle model
is just
the rare earth region (A
may be
region
is
least reliable, while
as
170) in
a thorough
shell
model calculation
shell
model and the
collective
model
(see
Chapter
9).
This occurs most likely only
shown
in fig. 8(f)
if
MeV). Otherwise
where a complete pair
an
the excitation
there occur
is lifted.
many more possibilities for such states as shown

Therefore, in even-even nuclei one expects relatively few excited
is
nounced
low excitation energies and very many

larger than the pairing energy S. This
in heavier nuclei.
As a
is
states if the excitation
indeed especially pro-
typical experimental
example (Ke-64) we
9 the excited states of 15 Sm as seen in a (d, p) reaction. The

pairing gap at as 15.8 MeV proton energy, which corresponds to about 1.8
show
in fig.
MeV
excitation energy,
8.5.1. Predictions
for this
most laborious and involves much configuration interaction due

is best described by the deformed
to the residua] forces. Such a situation
pair has to be broken in order to achieve
clear that there are
binding energy than
energy
bound
in fig. 8(e).
larger than the pairing energy (as
is
states for
less
shown
excitations as
that the binding energy of a pair of particles increases with their j- value,
(s )
i
odd and even
we show schematically in fig. 8 how excited states come about

odd-even and even-even nuclei. For odd nuclei the odd particle may be
lifted by one or more orbits. But a particle from a filled
shell may equally
in fig. 8(e).
so that for example the configuration
states in
Finally
an empirical
noticed
and excited
in
of the spins there are nevertheless an appreciable number of discrepancies.
filled
state
as given
Observed spin which
particle model. (After El-59b.)
Although
of the ground
illustration
nuclei according to the extreme single-particle model.
Spin predicted by the single particle model.
agrees with the single particle model, x
figure.
Schematic
The
electric
is
clearly visible.
of quadrupole moments
quadrupole moment measures the deviation of the nuclear
charge distribution from sphericity.

of an
odd-Z even-^V nucleus
We derive here the quadrupole moment
in the seniority coupling scheme.
The expectation
206
Ich. 8, 6 5
CH.
PAWING AND THE EXTREME SINGLE-PARTICLE MODEL
8, 5J
207
value of the operator
(57)
1=1
to be obtained for a state of Z protons described

by a properly anttsyminetrized product of single-particle functions
$mlJm given by
is
*jm -
/U0 Z (I i /
/i cr
m) 7fc .
(58)
We assume for simplicity that all Z protons are considered to be in the

/shell,
i.e.
number
have the same quantum numbers
IJ.
same
The magnetic quantum
takes the values
,#
*i*a
The restriction
filled/-sheUs
to onej-shell
is
shown
*t
mz
no loss in generality. In fact we shall show that
wiU have a vanishing quadruple moment and therefore

we can
always restrict ourselves to the

easily
n,
incompletely
last
that the expectation value of
filled
shell.
It
now
is
any one-particle operator (such
as that in eq. (57))
<5
!>('*)
(59)
in the antisymmetric state
IS
'z{,,m 3 ,---,m z)
= (Z0-*|;(-i)^^ (i)^ j(2) ...^(z)
(60)
just the sum of one-particle expectation

values
symbol P permutes the particle variables which are
is
We prove
<PzOt
1 ,
The
jfr
2 "^
that
m2
mz )|c7
<F2 ( mi
m2
-,
m E )>
-XXÔMMlMi)).
-o
o
3
in the states
designated by
(61)
"I
o
rf/tfIS
WtU
d/;
tfjtf
SNOlOHd
u.
where the sum goes over all v. This relation

is most easily proved by writing
a determinant. Then eq. (61) becomes
eq. (60) as
SIN OLE-PARTICLE
208
[CH. 8, 5
MODELS
PAIRING
ch. 8,8 5]
Since
AND THE EXTREME
SINGLE- PARTICLE
A m no longer contains the argument v in
MODEL
209
the single-particle functions,
we have
D
E
CM
V
8
5
f*
at
-3-
-3
-3
I
N
N
N_
N_
,,
s
E
^.
^T-Ct-
-3--3-
-3.
3--3-
N,
'^'"S ...
E
E
-3 -ft.
N N
^>^.
I
44
8
-3-
E
E
-3- -3.
E
3-
+ +
ii>
N N
ISH
-3-3
i.
'"S
E
-3-
N
E
-3
I
-3.
...
*;*~^;
-a
>
3-
^ -3
*3-
-3
-3
the computation
is
proven.
of the single-particle quadrupole
required according to eq. (61 ). This
is
moment
is
done in a straightforward way through
wave functions in eq. (58) and the expressions for ClebschGordan and Racah coefficients which can be found in the literature (Ro-57),
5
C7 =
3.
a.
-a
Note
that
in.
O m|(*)*r
the special case
= jU +} }
T\J m>
m = j we
- <|'
(67)
[>-
obtain the result of eq. (1.5). The
sum
E
-3.-3-
-3-
-3
-*
Â
-3
Now
the use of the
-3-3
J*
-3-3-
E
-3-
so that the relation in eq. (61)
S
o
> i
-3
()
1 )).
t I
O) (N
J*
KijiJI^WlW
-3-3
-3-
Z(Z-l)!
Z!
-3-
of eq. (64) becomes
side
-3 -3
N N
(65)
ej>
we have immediately
+ +
JJ
and therefore the right-hand
-3
-3-3-
"3
5
t-
-3-3.
CM
*~&
44
G"
JSN
Because of the orthogonality of the single-particle functions contained in
Am
>
-3-3+
2IQ7
(68)
J)
-I
gives the quadrupole
E
-3.
-ft.
moment of
the
shell.
full
By means of
the relation
2
Z m =ijQ+ 1)(2; + 1),
(69)
Z Q? = o.
(70)
one easily obtains

N
3-
E
-ft.
-In
-In
ii
-In
Therefore, our earlier statement that the total quadrupole

full shell
vanishes
is
proved. This
is
moment
what we mean when we say
nuclei (full shells) are spherically symmetric.
that
of a
magic
210
SINGLE-PARTICLE MODILS
The wave function of
Z protons. However,
except in the case of a
shown
the type
does not
it
in general
full shell,
[CH. 8, 5
in eq. (60)
is
antisymmetric in
all
momentum
momentum is zero,
have a definite angular
where the
total
angular
Z = (one proton only in the shell), where the total angular

momentum is /. We therefore have to determine the appropriate linear
combinations of the functions "P(m,
m z which will have good angular
or
in
the case
momentum. This
PAIRING
ch. 8, 5]
others. Notice also the
The quadrupole moment
coupling) by always coupling two protons pairwise to spin zero so that the
spin of an odd-proton nucleus is given by the last unpaired proton (Sa-53).
The argument
In order to understand the procedure of such a coupling let us first

consider two particles may-shell coupled to spin zero. Their wave function is
*l% = (J j
m - m 0) ^1) *, _ M (2).
(71)
in
The upper index

is
(2) denotes the
not yet antisymmetric.
*<!%
number of
particles.
(i J2)
m - m 0) y 2 (m, - m),
is
is
then
<i/r
3 (m,
-m,j)]Q 20 \ilf 3 (m, -m,j)>.
(76)
2;-l m =i
0(3) indicates the number of particles. The cross terms

vanish because the one- body operator {J 20 can change only one proton at
a time while in the wave functions W^m, -m,j) which appear in eq. (75)
the m- values of two protons always change. For the evaluation of eq. (76)
we
in
use the relatioa (61),
<^ 3 (m, -m,j-)lQ M !>,(>. -*/)> = QJ+2Q7-
This wave function
The properly antisymmetrized wave function
can be
in the seniority coupling
in the normalization constant. This
occur with equal weight.
Q(3)
done
change
211
understood by realizing that the terms with m = j vanish identically

because W 3 (m l ,m z m 3 ) is totally antisymmetric, while all other terms
scheme (Mayer-Jensen
is
77 )
Inserting eq. (77) into (76) yields
0(3)
(72)
= Qi+ r4r IG7 - (=rt)

V
2/ 1/
2( 1 111=4
( 78 >
of.
where we have used

where we use
eq. (60).
The Clebsch-Gordan
coefficient occurring here is
(-iy
(Ji0|m-m0) =
(73)
'
V2H1
and we can therefore write, suppressing the common factor (-1)* for the
normalized wave function of eq. (71),
which follows from
eq. (70).
We now consider
the next
proton pairs are

particle is
P2 (m,
-m).
(74)
more complicated case, namely
now coupled
to angular
momentum
again in a single-particle state with
symmetrized wave function
*& = ]/-?- i (-1)"
( 79 >
E Q7=-Qi>
>"=i
just
C3> _
Tn =
is
m = j.
5.
Two
zero and the odd
The properly
anti-
now
E(-ir + 'ys<m,-m,m',-m',j).
"'-*
(80)
V(2/-l)(2/-3)=*
The factor
v/2/ N/(2/+ 1) coming from the vector coupling coefficient can be

reinterpreted as the proper normalization coefficient while the factor (-1)
The normalization
attends to the coupling to spin zero.
The latter states vanish identically because of the Pauli principle.
We now consider the case of three protons, two of them coupled to zero
and the third one with m = j. The total wave function then has total angular
momentum; and
the z-projection of the total spin is also/,
occur with equal weight except those with
quadrupole
0(5)
by
factor can be understood
moment
=j,
realizing that all states

rri
=j
and
m=
m'.
The
in this state is then
=
(2;-l)(2/-3)
j-
E' <s(m, -m, m,

Each term occurring
in this
sum
is
normalized and orthogonal to
all
the
For even
-m'J\Q 20
.
Z the construction of the wave functions
is
rather straightforward-
(81)
212
SINQLE-PARTTCLE MODELS
The
indices
m and
m' run from { to J- 1. The prime on the summation sign

= m' do not occur. With eqs. (61) and
indicates that terms with
we
[ch. 8, 5
(67)
find
<!P 5 (m,
PAIRING
ch. 8, 5]
If this is inserted into eq. (81)
6(5)
= Qj+
-m,m\ -m'J)>
= 2Ql+2Qf+QJ.
number
with
shell and at any magic proton

The quadrupole moment of a nucleus with only one
(full shell).
Z=
(one proton hole) can be readily obtained
2j.
Q(Z
one gets
= -Qj.
2j)
(87)
For a detailed discussion of the experimental information on quadrupole
moments we
T (Q7+Q7)
(2j-l)(2j-3) m ,%4
..
full shell
(82)
,.,
the change
.,
refer to section 1.1.
from
From
fig.
1.6
it is
positive to negative quadrupole
magic numbers 50 and
for the
82.
noted in particular that
moments
(83)
model concerning the quadrupole moments

do with the crossing of the various proton-neutron
particle shell
that there
eq. (79)
one
is
no prime on
the last
summation
has to
signs.
Making
use of
finally obtains the result
e(5)=
[
is
relation to eq. (83)
e(z)
now
quite clear
Z=
2v+ 1
190,
and for the
actinides,
also occur. This
subshells for the
220.
discussed in section 1.1 these large deviations indicate that for these
model is not adequate since these nuclei are

deformed. The deformed shell model will be discussed in Chapter 9.
nuclei the spherical shell
-^]^
clear. If there are
^ A <
rare earth nuclei, 150
As
The general rule
is
Also the influence of other magic numbers
can be seen. However, strong deviations from the predictions of the single-
= QJ +
Note
213
change sign in the middle of any proton

proton missing in a
-m,m', -m'J)\Q 20 l<F 5 ( m
(84)
protons, the analogous
is
8.5.2. Predictions
of magnetic moments
The magnetic moment ft

= 3 of the operator
is
defined as the expectation value in the substate
- qj+
(2/-l)(2j-3)---(2J-2v+l)
I1]
= MoIIp+Zfc* B +lMp.
/>
J-
(85a)
where the m, have the values ,-., (j-\). The prime on the
summation
symbol indicates that no two m, are equal. With the help of eq.
(79) one can
again easily show that
where
/* P
= ehjlMc
=
is
2.793(eft/2Afc)
momenta
angular
and
(i
the nuclear magneton.

l
0* 8 )
~\.9l3(ehf2Mc). The unit
The
first
sum
jr
goes over the protcn
only since the neutrons are uncharged and therefore
do not contribute to orbital magnetic moments. The Pauli spin operators

6 have eigenvalues 1 One may unify the description of protons and
.
-[M fcfj*
This
neutrons
z = >.3,5,.., 2.
the formula of eq. (1.7) which has already been used

in section 1.1. It is seen that
is
fi
Thus
<0
for
in the
forZ=j+i,
g>0
for/+fZg2/.
the single-particle model predicts
moment
operator by writing for eq. (88)
(85b)
(89)
t=i
and discussed
where the g-factors have been introduced,
Zg/-,
2 =
magnetic
that the quadrupole
gf =
1,
a =
(86)
<*>
"p
ft
moments
Clearly
fi
is
0,
^
^0
fo
eh
(90)
2Mc
a vector operator. The expectation values of
its
x- and y-
214
StNGLE-PARTfCLE MODELS
components are
zero.
The magnetic moment
ft-
<jm
=j\fit \jm
In order to evaluate this matrix element
an
is
we
[CH. 8, 5
CH.
therefore
it
= j>.
vector operator
^1
known
= ?+S
At
use the general theorem that for
Tt
m
W
{0+\)8 -U )n
for J
= t+h
(97)
/-i.
can be written
momentum
the total angular
is
2
<j\3 \jm>
(92)
'
operator. This theorem
is
as the projection theorem (Ro-57, p, 94) and states, very plausibly,
that only the component of A parallel to/ contributes to a matrix element.

The component of A perpendicular to ) is averaged to zero (see fig. 10).
Fig. 10,
= (a-i)3 +is (J, )A*o

(,,
(91)
z-component m, the expectation value of any
Qm\A\}m> = <jm\}\jm)
where }
215
follows from eq. (94) that
A*
isolated system of spin /,
PAIRING
8, 5]
Components of a
vector operator
momentum
t \J
total angular
^b mT~i
M7. -W
} of the system are averaged to zero.
Taking the z-component of eq. (92)
<Jm-J\A
which are perpendicular to the
I I.
m m jy .
in the
case
m = j one
-J <j m ~j\A-)\jm =
JO +
.57
Os.
0-
has
-o
Jit
/>.
T-
(93)
I'
J'0'+1)
Replacing
by
fl
we
find
- (jiB^Jlft \j m =j> =
If only the last
odd
-Qm= Hfi-}\j m =
-Be'
j>.
(94)
a 91
model, the sum in eq. (89) consists of one term only.
We then have
Fig. 11.
identities
Schmidt
r-
Experimental magnetic moments (data

limits for
<*>A
9-He
r
Using the
,7
particle contributes in the simple single-particle shell
from
odd-neutron nuclei, as functions of the
El- 59b,
Bo -62b, Gr-68b) and
total angular
momentum j. The
dotted lines in the upper figure are the Schmidt lines based on the magnetic
bare nucleons.
moments
for
216
[ch. 8, 5
ch.
1).
PAIRING
8, 5]
The moments of most
217
nuclei deviate from the Schmidt lines
by
amounts varying between about in and $u

mostly inwards from the
2). The deviations of the magnetic moments are
.
-6
Schmidt
Only the
lines.
light nuclei
H,
He,
n C,
l5
provide exceptions
to this rule.
-5
are drawn which represent average deviations from the
3). If lines
Schmidt
lines,
these lines are roughly parallel to the Schmidt lines, as
by the dashed lines in the upper part of

For odd-proton nuclei the average deviation
indicated
4).
<
-4
(about 20
is
fig. 11.
%)
somewhat
is
larger
than for odd-neutron nuclei.
These nuclei are

Only very few nuclei deviate by less than 0.2 fi
39
41
17
all
and
are
=
=
K,
K
0,
1 and A
p* nuclei.
3)
(apart from A
between
correlation
qualitative
These features indicate clearly the good
the single-particle predictions and the observed moments, and also the
.
5).
deviations which occur. Several factors can give effects in the right direction
in order to
-2
account for the observed discrepancies. For example, several
authors (Mi-51, de-Sh-51, Bl-51) have suggested other choices for ft, and
Up then those given for the free nucleons in eq. (88). It is clear that the "bare"
J)
= 2 and the "bare" neutron
proton (without meson cloud) should have#
p
The deviation of the ^-factors, eqs. (90), of the free nucleons from
these values is due to the meson cloud which surrounds the bare nucleons.
Similarly it is then expected that when nucleons are brought together the
strong nuclear forces which arise from the coupling to the meson field and
g =
0.
the effects of the exclusion principle will both lead to changes in the virtual
-0
meson currents and hence to changes

effect is called
more
in the
magnetic moments. This
quenching of the magnetic moments.
If the
meson cloud is
we would
spread out for a rjucleon in the interior of the nucleus,
moments to lie between the Schmidt lines and similar

magnetic moments of bare nucleons. The latter are
on
the
lines based
represented by dotted lines in the upper part of fig. 11. For protons they are
quite close together. For neutrons they even coincide. Thus there seems to be
no good confirmation of such an effect *.
collective
It may be more realistic and reasonable to assume that the
expect the observed

Fig.
12.
Experimental magnetic moments and Schmidt limits for odd-proton nuclei,

as functions of the total angular momentum /",
These values of the magnetic moment for a given / are referred to as

Schmidt limits. Schmidt (Sch-37) predicted these relations by using the
model long before the discovery of the shell model.

and 1 2 show the experimental values of the magnetic moment
as a function of/ for odd-A nuclei*. The solid lines indicate the Schmidt
limits of eq. (97). There are several general features to be noticed:
single-particle
Figs.
1 1
For the techniques involved
motion can be admixed with the pure single-particle motion, thus leading
part
to stronger deviations from the Schmidt lines. Suppose that some
nucleons.
other
of
motion
collective
of the angular momentum is due to the
Arenhdvel and Danos (Ar-70) suggested that the quenching effect can also
be described by the admixture of excited nucleon configurations (N*) * the nucleon in
Recently,
the measurement of magnetic moments and a

rather complete list of references, we refer to the review articles of Bodenstedt
(Bo-62b, 64) and of Grodzins (Gr-68b).
in
its
ground
state (N).
218
The
typical ^-factor of collective
motion
is
[CH. 8, 5
relatively small, of order
ZfA,
since only the protons contribute to the magnetic
that admixtures of collective motion could to
the discrepancies.
The
situation
is
moment. It is clear then

some extent account for
not completely clear, but
it is
certainly
reasonable to suppose that one important cause of the deviations

over-simplification involved in the use of single-particle
We
see that collective effects
magnetic moments.
On
finds about twelve
several isotopes.
The
the
functions.
well be of importance for nuclear
the other hand, one also has evidence that the
particle in a nucleus plays
One
may
wave
is
an important
odd-Z elements
odd
role in determining this quantity.
in the periodic table
characteristic feature of these elements
is
which have
that
all
the
oh,
PAIRING
8, 5]
quantity
is
(Ms-^Vt^s-ô)
odd. Here
\i is
N or Z
plotted against
is
the observed magnetic moment, #$
219
MODEL.
is
depending on which
the Schmidt
moment.
The quantity fe-ft,, where nD is the Dirac moment (ft, = 1

for a neutron), is divided into the deviation /%-/* merely
and fiD =
for a proton
to give a dimensionless quantity. It
odd-JV nuclei and one for
odd-Z
noticed that the two curves, one for
is
nuclei, follow
each other closely over the
Z < 50. This is even more

masses are being compared. For example, at the value 25 the two
surprising since nuclei of quite
whole range N,
different
S5
(Z = 22, N - 25) and Mn (Z - 25, N - 30).
Both have the same spin, namely , because, of course, the spin is always
found to be determined by the number of odd particles. This example shows
nuclei in question are
clearly the
* Odd proten nuclei t
AND THE EXTREME SINGLE-PARTICLE
moments
47
Ti
importance of the odd-particle configuration for the magnetic
as calculated in the shell model.
we draw attention to the fact that a small correction to the

moments
comes from the presence of the spin-orbit force (Je-52).
magnetic
Finally
Any
velocity-dependent force, such as a spin-orbit force
/(r)(S-!)
= fi-VW(S*[rxe.
gives a contribution to the effective magnetic
For an uncharged
particle this effect
is
(98)
moment of a charged
particle.
zero.
Let us investigate this somewhat more. The interaction of a charged

particle with the electromagnetic field, described by the vector potential
I
A(r),
<n
is
obtained by making the replacement
P-P--c A{r)
way one
in the Hamiltonian. In this
Fig.
3.
A plot of (t>s-^)IUhMoy for odd-proton or odd-neutron nuclei. (After May-55.)

same
from each other by an even number

of neutrons. For these elements, the magnetic moments are nearly equal.
Exceptions to this rule are lsl Eu, ,S3 Eu and 8l Rb, 87 Rb and 69 Ga, 71 Ga.
One also has three cases of two odd-^V isotones where the magnetic moments
spin, but differ
have been measured. These cases are
N=
65,
85 and 117, For these odd-iV
moments are nearly the same. One can therefore

conclude that for odd-Z nuclei the even number of neutrons has a minor
influence on the magnetic moment. Similarly for odd-W nuclei the even
number of protons also has a small effect on the magnetic moments.
This can be seen more systematically in fig. 13. There the dimensionlcss
isotones the magnetic
ensures that gauge invariance
is ful-
occurs in
filled. This replacement has to be performed everywhere where P
potential
in
the
the Hamiltonian, i.e, not only in the kinetic energy but also
energy
isotopes have the
(99)
if
it
depends on
p. If eq. (99) is
introduced into (98) one obtains the
additional interaction energy with the electromagnetic field
-i-/(r)-(rxM).
(100)
he
Usually in measuring magnetic moments a constant magnetic field
applied.
this,
The vector potential
for such a magnetic field
is
is
A = b[H X r]. With
the interaction energy of eq. (100) can be written in the form
- H
where
(101)
2nc
220
SINGLE- PARTICLE MODELS
One easily
[CH. 8, 6
moment
sees that the contribution to the single-particle magnetic
is
2
H=_ A
<r f(r)\, 2/ + 1
h
Here <r /(r)> Bl
is
2/+2 2Mc
IM
for /
P*~Pi doublet with a splitting of several MeV indicates a strong spin-orbit

force, which confirms the predictions of the shell model for the ground
state
= ;f
(102)
the average value of r f(r) in the particle orbit
\n,
/>
221
STRONG SPIN-ORBIT COUPLING
ch. 8, 6J
and
first
excited state of the
Li
and
He
nuclei (see fig. 3).
shown even more clearly by the

experiment of Hensinkfeld and Freier (He-52). They used an unpolarized
proton beam of 1.8 MeV energy passing through a slit into a *He gas
The
existence of a spin-orbit force
is
16,7
16J
This can be easily estimated with the result
/,^2+iJ*.
2;
fori-/i.
+2 2Mc
(103)
6(K9V
\Gt
8.6. Experimental evidence for strong spin-orbit coupling
He**N
We
have seen that a strong spin-orbit term had to be introduced in the

shell model potential in order to reproduce the magic numbers and hence
1,8
He"*P
.5
Mr'
Fig. 14.
Resonances in"the
a+o
(*He) system and in the
a+p
( Li)
system. (After Aj-55.)
the proper single-particle level scheme. In the early days of the shell model
was done as an ad hoc hypothesis. Today, however,
this
it
can be shown
directly by experiments that the spin-orbit force exists in finite nuclear
matter.
The
spin-orbit coupling thus has to be understood as a theoretical
prediction of a property of nuclear matter.
The two
nuclei
He and
Li are quite useful for
tion of the spin-orbit coupling.

fifth
by
nucleon
is
bound to the
One has
an experimental
*Mf
verifica-
Hit
to imagine in these cases that the
spherically symmetrical core
which
is
provided
the a-particle. In the main, the a-particle produces the shell
\Jandt
model
The a-particle is a doubly magic s-shell nucleus (N =

the odd fifth nucleon could be only very weakly bound
a matter of
both
Ofitiparotttl
tt
potential.
As
He and
fact, the
s
odd nucleon
is
Li are unstable. These
in this case not
two
2,
Z=
in the next
bound
nuclei can only be
d*ttctor
2) and thus
at
shell.
all,
since
produced as
and s
parallel
dtttCtOf A
Fig. 15. Double-scattering experiment to confirm tbe existence of a spin-orbit force.
quasi-stable nuclei (resonances) in a scattering experiment of neutrons or
(After May-55.)
protons on "He.
Indeed, these scattering cross sections
show pronounced resonances at

0.95 MeV ( He) and 1.80 MeV ( Li), as is shown in fig. 14. One can show
by a phase shift analysis (Ad-52) that this resonance is due to a p state and
4
s
that approximately 3 to 5
occurs which
MeV
above
this
resonance a second resonance
due to a pi state. The latter shows up as a flat resonance in

the 6 Li(n, d) 5 He and 6 Li(y, n) s Li reactions. The occurrence of such a
is
chamber
1
(see fig. 15).
x p, which
is
ing occurs at 1.8
The proton
scattered at
a has an angular momentum
perpendicular to the plane of the figure. Since the scatter-
MeV
one concludes from
fig.
14 that
it
will
be pre-
dominantly p$ scattering. In this case 1 and S are parallel, since j m /+ = \.

Thus 3 is also perpendicular to the plane of the figure; in fact 3 is pointing
out of this plane since
1 is.
After the scattered protons pass the second
slit
222
[CM. 8. | 7
one has the scattering of partially polarized protons on *He. Just as in the
scattering one determines I and finds that more protons with S parallel
first
to
to
should occur at the detector
while more protons with
should be found in detector B. This
since
true
S antiparallel
one assumes
that the
not changed during the second scattering event. Furthermore,
are dealing with elastic scattering the second scattering in fig. 15
direction of S
we
is
if
is
MeV
CH.
is
characterized
by
the electrical
know, however, that interactions between

charge e of the particle.
elementary particles can also occur due to forces which do not depend on
the electrical charge. For us, the most immediate example is the nuclear
interaction between nucleons,
with the
meson
Similar double scattering experiments have also been performed at very

high energies (above 100 MeV) and on heavy nuclei. Fermi was able to show
particle in
I.
interaction in this case
We
neutrino field
to
The
automatically.
and thus takes place predominantly with 3 parallel

Therefore, many more protons should arrive at A as compared to B.
This indeed has been found to be the case with a ratio of 2 to 1.
also occurs at 1.8
223
MOTION OF A SPIN-J PARTICLE
8, 7]
field.
may
which
The weak
is
caused by the interaction of nucleons
interactions of nucleons with the electron-
also be mentioned in this connection.
The
latter leads
to the transformation of nucleons in nuclei.
We
are thus led to the study of the general case of motion of a spin-i
an arbitrary external field. The most general Hamiltonian for
such motion
is
(Fe-54) that the spin-orbit interaction observed in these experiments has

the
same
and magnitude as the one introduced in the shell model.

n-p and p-p scattering between 50 and 150 MeV the two-
sign
Finally in
nucleon interaction exhibits a spin-orbit force (SI-57,
58). This
indeed
C
j,
Here the J are the Dirac y-matrices which are related to the & and $ by
is
suggested by the basic interaction terms possible for a spin-i particle

(nucleon) interacting with other fields as we shall see in the following
f--iJ =
"*),
i(J
fc
=A
(107)
section.
where are the three Pauli matrices and

8.7.
Motion of a spin-J
>--,)
particle in an external field; relativistic contributions
to the spin-orbit interaction
In this section
we
more closely the occurrence of a spin-orbit

moving in an external field. Since nucleons have
investigate
force for a spin- particle
unit matrix.
The a occurring
in eq. (106) are
operators
characterizing the various types of interactions of a particle with external

fields.
spin | they obey the Dirac equation
2x2
/ being a
1).
The
The
following possibilities might occur:

interaction with
an external
scalar field.
The operator of the
interaction energy then equals
(104)
&=
or
(108)
V{r).
where
8 = flD -el&>A(r)-A
8 D = <:(&$) + mc 2 $.
2).
field for
potential; e
is
which
is
the vector potential
and
the charge of the Dirac particle, which
neutrons, and p
is
the
momentum
interaction with
an external vector
field is
of the form
(105)
Here 8D is the free Dirac Hamiltonian, & and $ are the usual Dirac matrices
and 8 contains the interaction of the Dirac particle with the external electromagnetic
The
(r)l
A
is
(r) is the
Coulomb
where
we have
is
a four- vector.
As a
special' example
mined by
is
deter-
the potentials
4,-(Mo).
zero in the case of
vector.
The reduction of eq. (104) to a Schrddinger equation in the nonrelativistic

limit is well known (see for example Da-66). The spin-orbit coupling occurs
of this type of interaction,
discussed the electromagnetic field in eq. (105). This field
Comparing
eq. (110) with eq. (105)

zJ-
we
(HO)
find that
c A-
(111)
224
3).
The
interaction with a tensor field
MV
[ch. 8, 7
of the form
is
an interaction
order v jc
from the
Putting
eh/lmc,
3x
In the case of electrons
g =
We now consider the case

scalar
and a vector
0,
(U4)
is
g &
* * = C& '(*[
and (110) into (106) and
we
+*(
(r)] *.
into
eq.
(120a).
We
component function
step
is
(US)
can either be done very elegantly by use of the Foldy-Wouthuysen transformation* or in a more elementary fashion in the following way. We make
(*
(*
and write
Me-'W"
2mc 2
and
are two-component spinors,
jj(r)
two components. Let us
2m
*)/(*
just retain V{r)
and
column vectors with
fi
(A
[-B
See Volume 2 of this
E--B
(r)- (mc* - F(r))] p(r)

(r)
+ (mc - n0)] x(')
- e(4
= c(*
p) X (r),
(119a)
#)<p(r).
(119b)
(*
P) y(r).
(122)
B)+i(* {A x B]),
(123)
(* P)~'M* V)(*
w
(124)
[V/xfl)].
>(r),
(125)
W -noijL +Bo(r) _ n
J
2m
,)
ft(*[yy(r)xfl)
4m
and (117)
(126)
ift
ift
2 2
(VBo-W-
In order to have the theory consistent
an extensive discussion of this technique in the theories

of weak and electromagnetic interactions of nuclei.
series for
2mc 2
4m
2
R (fr-[VB xfl)
(r) in eq. (115). Inserting eqs. (116)
relations
(118)
into (115) then yields
[-B
f
2mc
= /(*
0,
~ K(f)
with
,
i.e.
r)
eq. (122) can be written as
also choose, for simplicity
B(r)
and
(117)
E ~B
= /(0#*-iA[(V/- +!(*
Then
for the four-component spinor
<p(r)
(121)
<p{r)
2mc
'
fl>(r)
where
-B Q (r)-V(r)
(l-
A){d B)
(116)
*.-($)
order in
and
the ansatz
first
namely
to determine the nonrelativistic limit of this equation. This
r(r,l)
(120b)
c(* p) <p(r).
then find an equation containing only the two-
<p(r),
We now make use of the

The next
- F(r)] x(r) -
calculate x( r ) UP t0 terms of
X(r)-[l~-
obtain
-F(r))+B
(120a)
p) x(r),
and substitute the expression
(E>-B {r)+V(r)Mr) =
- B(r)
(r)
0.
of a particle interacting simultaneously with a
separating off the time derivative in eq. (106)
(E'B (r) V(r))f2mc
- c(*
V{*)~\ <f>(r)
we
the last equation
a coupling constant.
while in the case of nucleons
Inserting eqs. (108)
field.
find
fW +E'-B
From
mass and g
the electron
is
consider the motion of the spin-J
we
['- BoW +
C^ = ign F^,
/i
We now
exact.
(r) and V(r) retaining terms up to those of

E = E'+mc 2 that is separating the rest mass energy
total energy,
field
In this case
where
still
particle in the external fields
(IB)
9jc
225
MOTION OF A SP1N-J PARTICLE
7]
(112)
given by the interaction of a non-Dirac
is
magnetic moment with an electromagnetic
8,
These equations are
0r = ??> C-
An example of such
cb.
4m 2 e 2
(VK(r)-J>).
up to terms of the order
to be careful about the normalization of (p. In the Dirac theory

izes the
o jc
we have
one normal-
charge density
tf-tfyv + x'x)
(127)
SINGLE- PARTI CLE MODELS
226
(CM. 8, 7
CH.
where
to unity,
f Qdr
1.
(128)
ft
MOTION OF A SPIN-J PARTICLE
7)
8,
/i
is
Using the lowest-order term of eq. (121),
i.e.
.
(129)
2mc
and
eq. (123),
we obtain
-A_\
ft'
2 2
8m
c /
"
l+
e<Rt
?)
V 9
4m
This
is
/c
(i-
by
8m 2 c 2 /
+
- +rf0-^r)
* LE^) - * ***) + *
4mc
8m
8m
(130)
>
Here we have made use of the
the proper normalization
^ one
p V{r)-V{r)p
integral
(138)
relations
for <p(r).
On
= -h 2 V 2 V(r)-2ih{VV(r)- p),
and
1
(131)
E'-B
(r)+V(r) \
p2
the other hand
for a
wishes to have the normalization
JV^dr =
V 2 ,(r).
"! v '{ i+ S?) vi "
Schrddinger wave function
and thus we have for the normalization
t>
i'
given up to terms
227
The first
three terms of eq. (138) are
Hamiltonian. The other terms are
pl _ ['
(r)]
- V\r)
what one usually calls the

terms of order
relativistic
write these relativistic corrections in the
(m)
nonrclativistic
2
t>
/c
2
.
We
can
form
(132)
1.
(140)
therefore convenient to use another
It is
wave
The
function,
first
term,
2
V =
instead of
tp,
Vi
(133)
8<p,
JV^dr =JV(f0g>dr =
(134)
1.
due to the Coulomb
(Da-28). For the
and one thus
Note
that
v vM
rn
8mV
ft
8m 2 c
2\<t') +
(141)
so that
is
one
--
can be an
operator.
By comparison of eq.
potential,
Coulomb field B
(r)
and was
first
= + Ze 2 fr,
introduced by Darwin
one has V 2 r
_1
-4jr<5(r),
sees that in this case
(134) with eq. (131)
tft
(UiU.,
finds
r,
rr^r).
-
2m
v
(142)
2
1
from
the
left
and
Ui= _
8m'
Id order to find the Hamiltonian corresponding to

with
The term
(135)
rc z J
^ we
lE'-Bo(r)T-V\r)
2mc 2
(143)
multiply eq. (125)

corrects the kinetic energy
find
mass.
The
last
due
to the velocity-dependence of the particle
term
(136)
or
8$
E'$,
jja
(137)
ft(-[VBo(r)xfl)
4m
2 2
ft(-CVF(r)xffl
4m 2 c 2
{m)

228
[CH. 8, 7
the spin-orbit interaction. In spherically symmetric fields one has
is
229
REFERENCES
CH. 8]
References
A good general introduction to the shell model is given in the book of Mayer
(145)
dr
and Jensen (May-55) and

(El-57).
in the
of de-Shalit and Talmi (de-Sh-63).
Remembering
S
-J* is
that h\
[rxj)]
is
momentum
the angular
operator and
the spin operator, and inserting eqs. (145) into eq. (144) one
obtains
V*
The
and
first
term
is
the last term
much
term
dflo(r)
(3-1)
dr
ti
2m
dr
c r
2m
(146)
c r
the spin-orbit interaction due to the electromagnetic field,

is
due to the nuclear
field.
larger than the electromagnetic

in this
b22 dV(r) (s>l)
one
Since the nuclear interaction

at small distance, the
equation will give the main contribution. This
is
is
second
the origin of
the relativistic contribution to nuclear spin-orbit coupling. Let us estimate
the magnitude of
dV/dr
= Mto 2 r,
it
for the oscillator model.
and thus the inclusion of
ail
There V(r)
= M(D z r 2
the factors of the second
term in eq. (146) yields

dF(r)
ft2
dr
Thus
(J.I)
2m z c 2 r
the spin-orbit force
central potential (arising
(a>)
'z
sb i
2mc
which
is
(6
2
MeV)i-
present,
meson
as
2000 MeV
induced by
directly
,,
0.02 MeV.
relativistic effects
from meson exchange)
account for the strong spin-orbit force of the
must be brought about
is
much too
(147)
from the
small
to
model *. The coupling

through the mesonic field of force. At
shell
theories of nuclear forces are not sufficiently developed to
confirm or to exclude such a term in a completely convincing way. The

spin-orbit coupling in the nucleon-nucleon interaction leads to a corre-
sponding term
in the auxiliary potential
nucleons present (El-57). This
is
in
which increases with the number of
agreement with the empirical fact that
the spin-orbit coupling appears to be stronger in an almost completely

filled shell
than at the beginning of a new
sion of the types of nuclear interactions

series,
shell.
we
More
is
that
Mayer, Jensen and Kurath

model calculations. The role of
recently,
(May-65) have summarized spherical shell

the shell model in the general framework of nuclear physics is described in the
dr
encyclopedia article of Elliott and Lane
very complete presentation of the shell model formalism
For a more
detailed discus-
refer to the third
volume of this
dealing with microscopic approaches to nuclear structure theory.
See also the discussion of this problem by L. Rosenfcld in Ro-48.
books of Davydov (Da-63) and of Preston
(Pr-62).
DEFORMED SHELL MODEL - UNIFIED MODEL
CH. 9]
231
degrees of freedom has to be of the form

(3)
CHAPTER
where higher-order terms in a 2 have been omitted. One way to determine

the strength and the radial dependence /(r) of this interaction
We
The Deformed Shell Modelthe Unified Model
first note that the nucleon
40
MeV
needs to pass across the nucleus
2R
while the typical time for a
from
discussion of the shell
The
related.
nuclear
and
We know
symmetric.
was
10~"sec,
period of a surface vibration
is
obtained
2,
sec.
MeV
surface period the nucleon can cross the nucleus about
Thus during one

100 times.
cVsO MeV/Mc 2
^-^*9xlO-
7; Brf.
that the average
deformed nuclei occur, depending on the
static
full
0.5
however that slow nuclear
fm
MeV to be
model has been carried out without any

nucleus. The two are, in fact, closely
basic assumption in the last chapter
surface vibrations
ha> ss 0.5
modes of the
field is spherically
collective
is
10
nucleon
V2Ekln /Af
reference to the collective
the following.
motion. In fact the time which a nucleon having a typical kinetic energy of
The previous
is
motion is very rapid compared to the
One can
thus assume that at every instant the nucleons "follow"
structure of the potential energy surface. Clearly, the single-particle orbits
the collective motion. In other words, the average nuclear field undergoes
should depend on the form of the nuclear surface, that
the
distribution of all nucleons. This leads to
and
an
is
on
the spatial
interaction between collective
single-particle degrees of freedom. This coupling
is
expected to be weak
for nearly spherical nuclei with very small surface vibrational amplitudes.
We
then speak of the weak coupling
very strong;
we then speak of
From now on we
collective
shall
limit.
For deformed nuclei
it
may
Now,
if
a spherical
we again
is
so!l
"coll+".n + n
will therefore
be of the
restrict ourselves
(1)
inl
to collective quadrupole variables
given by eq. (3.18) or by eq. (6.40) depending whether
discuss spherical or deformed nuclei.
Hamiltonian
#, p
is
particle.
is
shell
model potential
an equipotential for
clearly has
^ = 1^+^.1^
the kinetic energy
and
in terms
{r, I,
field.
S) is given, the potential
*Km
r,
V(Q,
r, 1,
n(as)+?
(2)
(l
+ M 2 * YitD- One may

first-
|)+
(-^-J
\a //
,*+
(^)(^ iT^)., +
Ê^^+
...
(5)
the shell model potential of the ith
Because of rotational invariance, the interaction with the collective

230
= R= R
= K (r,l,S)-r
V
of the collective parameters, obtaining up to
order terms
given by the shell model
an equipotential surface of the nuclear
(4)
expand eq. (4)
a 2 only, then
just
the strong coupling limit.
motion simultaneously. The Hamiltonian
If for simplicity
is
have to discuss the single-particle motion and the
"
where
^)
nuclear surface
be
form
we
same deformations as does the nuclear matter distribution. If the

one can assume that this
is given by R = J? (l + X a 2*
nuclear shape
where
VQ {r, I, s) =
V(0
r, 1, 3).
Hence we obtain
for
the
interaction
232
precisely the
form given
in eq. (3),
and
in particular
[CH. 9,
we have
for the strength
and radial functions
when we
but the
sum
R=
rt o
in eq. (3) is
0+E;i. a ;iji*
I%,)
really
is
/(')
is
still
given by eq.
by |/m 2 > (see eq.
different
rd
1,
Woods-Saxon form,
/dr represents a surface coupling,
In the special case where
R we
radius
and
nuclear surface.
is
= R a V 5(r-R
The question
is,
identify
surface.
(l
it
is
just
+ X a i^* Y2 M
)-
the half-value
We
and
see,
with
is
the
Co(l
of the
radius
Woods-Saxon
+ Ea *y
2(l
2(J )
with
square
well
type one
may
the
angular
the state with
M)|tfJ'ni>l./'M2>.
(12)
no quadrupole phonons present
(JV
0)
00 J
JM> = |0>|;M>.
(13)
fll mi
|0>. It corresponds in the odd-^4 nucleus to the states
12 jJM>=
(2jJ|m m 2 M)^, |0>|jm 2 >,

1
(14)
where the
total angular
momentum
= (0+2)
1(2 + j)-
is
0-2)
forj
-(2-j)
for /
>
<
2
(15)
2.
In
fig. I this
situation
is
illustrated.
The one-phonon
Sn[
this multiple!
is
degenerate. Fig.
>
2) or
state of the
2j+ 1
(if/
even-even
<
shows the case where
2) states.
/? int
coupling
collective
vibrators).
is
(j;j|m 1 m a
nucleus has thus become a multiplct of 5 (if/
As mentioned before we
and
2mj>
If
Weak
total
nuclear
however, that no unique definition of the surface can be
given.
9.1.
The solutions of fl cM + #sp with
We
and the
the precise definition
simple for square well distribu-
potential of the
radius
is
respectively.
The corresponding adjacent even-even nucleus has just the phonon vacuum
+
one-phonon state
|0> as its ground state. The first excited state is the 2
(7)
).
of course, what
identical
For a
state
a Gaussian-like function centered around the
of the nuclear surface? The answer to this
where
INIm^
and 8
(see table 3.1)
is
weak coupling.
depth
and with the odd shell model particle in the state \JM},
have
In less extreme cases /(/)
tions
the gradient
r ) is a square well potential of
f(r)
R = R
io general a
is
functions by
of the nuclear surface. Hence
vicinity
by perturbation theory.
as the unperturbed Hamil-
known from Chapters
(8.33)).
|NJ/JM> =
from zero only in the
8 ean +fl in
(6),
then
S) usually has a typical
treat
JM are then
momentum
The ground
Since V^r,
weak one can
denote the collective wave

latter
also allow for higher multipole deformations in the
233
solutions of the total Hamiltonian are obtained
SM
tonian. Their solutions are

(6)
dr
nuclear surface
The
If
/(r)--r^>.
In general,
WEAK COUPLING
ch. 9, SI]
motions
expect that the interaction between single- particle

relatively
is
The Hamiltonian
weak
|jm>
for spherical nuclei (quadrupole
for odd-even quadrupole vibrators
" n CB n + n, B + H
is
then
j*2
int
>
where
"soil
sltal'+KZi-u
o*.
*#
1.
2-j
m>
in a case where a single nucleon is coupled to a surface

an interaction between the particle and the phonon. The various
angular momenta for the one phonon muttiptet are indicated.
Breaking of the degeneracy
vibration
Oflff-Ffjn Nvcltui
rtn~ Ertn Nuclful

Fig.
2*J
or
and there
is
234
[ch. 9,
ch. 9,5
and the degeneracy is broken. Similar multiplets also occur for 2 + and 4 +
two-phonon states, but of course not for the + two-phonon state.
When
the
the interaction i? inl
is
same spin and parity mix
taken into account

in general. This
is
all
especially the case
if
is
If the
interaction
is
weak enough,
Le. if
|ac 2
J =
(5ft/2jB 2 o>2)*
very small, then only those states in eq. (12) will mix which differ by one
quadrupole phonon. This
so because the interaction in eq. (11) contains

the phonon creation and annihilation operators only linearly. In this case,
for
|
example,
2/ J My
is
ground state has admixed

which the matrix element
the
for
to
all
it
those
states
<12fjM\f} lsl \00jjM>
<"'*'!\Mco 2 r 2 \nl>ir\\Yz\\J>
If the
coupling to higher multipole phonons a Xlt (X
account the
sum
polarities X. It should be noted that

state.
O"
The various
possible
^2llj) so that \jj'\
I!
that, in the
radial functions, eq. (8.20),
-t2B
typical oscillator
state
and of the
integral
2, 1, 0. It is clear
from the energy denominator
UT3
113?
1125
^1S32
am
Vs*-
formula in eq. (6.108), one
0.094
l/2~
X7.
3h
Fig. 2.
Low-energy spectra of three nuclei with 60 neutrons and
respectively.
l<n
Ag
The two even-even
46,
47 and 48 protons,
nuclei exhibit vibrational spectra while the spectrum
of
can be viewed as arising from a proton in the 2pj shell coupled to a one-phonon
state. (After Nu-66.)
element
The admixture depends on the particular shell model

as well as on the collective properties of the nucleus, i.e. the
i'
= n,
= n-l
= w,/-2,
drastically revealed in the experimental results. Fig.
/+2n+f
for n
>/2n(2n+2i + l)
for n
l'
W(2+2(+l)(2n-t-2/-l) for n
/,
l,
V(2n+2)(2n+2(+l)
for n
i,/2n(2n-2)
for n
/'
= n-2,1+2,
quantum numbers, say n
wave functions are calculated
bation theory to be
now occur in the ground
.1,309
O'liniL/Xi'l'IMaiViB^,
elements are roughly of the order of 30 to 40
ground
taken into
determined by the matrix element
12*)'
2 co i
-f-l,/-2,
otherwise
For
is
0.423
easily obtains for the radial matrix
\nl}
2)
If:
where the reduced matrix elements of the spherical harmonic 2ll are
2
indicated by double bars. The quantity (k/2B2 co 2 )* =
(tV 5 )0o where 8
is the mean square deformation (see eq. (3.73)). By use of the oscillator
admixtures of/'
are
(16)
(17)
<n'l'\Ma
>
main, states of low energy are admixed.
in eq. (16) can be calculated in a straightforward way.
<I2/';M|fi inl |00;jM>
(19)
occurring in eq. (19) must also be extended over the multi-
nonzero. Thus the only states admixing to the ground state are onephonon states with the odd particle in a shell of the same or different j.
12 j']M>.
fu02 + Er -Ej
\2B 2 toJ
is
The matrix element

The result is
235
lBl
contains higher order terms in a 2li as well as the first-order term given in
eq. (11).
-y
the multiplets having
WEAK COUPLING
l]
3 and
MeV. The
2, these
(18)
matrix
corrections to the
in standard second-order pertur-
mation S
configurations
effective defor-
(5hj2B2 <Oi)* and the collective frequency. This

l
is
most
2 shows the low-energy
'Âg, %%&\. These are nuclei with the same

number of neutrons but an increasing number of protons. According to
the shell model level scheme, fig. 8.3, the ground state proton configuration
i06
of
Pd is (lgj) 6 The proton pairs in the gj shell lower the g$ configuration
below the 2pf configuration. The odd proton of 107 Ag is thus in the 2pt
I07
shell. The \~ and | "states of
Ag are suggestively interpreted as the
+
one-phonon state (2 ) coupled with a pi proton to $~ and |~ respectively.
spectra of the nuclei 'SiPd,
236
Fig.
[ch. 9, 2
30
3 shows similarly the low-energy spectra of
Ti,
sl
V and
52
Cr.
Again the neutron number is the same for all three nuclei while the proton
5l
number increases. The ground state proton configuration of V is obviously
(see fig. 8.3) (lf4 )
3
.
The
excited states of
SI
could be interpreted as the
x i~Y one-phonoa configurations. They are obviously split by a large

amount. The J = i phonon state is missing. Since it will be repelled by the
ground state one can expect this state to lie at energies which are even higher
(2
than 1.8
MeV.
STRONG-COUPLING HAMILTONIAN
CH. 9, 2]
the collective Hamiltonian
while the core

vibration
Of
4*.
model in
V.
same
results,
we
will prefer the
Hamiltonian,
eq.
(6.40),
160$
however, consists of the angular

1.43*
in
Chapters
dynamical approach of the
RV
this context.
momentum
.
rotating according to the rotation-
asymmetric rotator model. Since we have seen
1.813
(56
and
that for the low-energy collective excitations both models give
RV
The
V-
vibrating
itself is
(RV) model.
nearly the
2,370
by the appropriate collective
given
course one can also think of other models for odd nuclei based on,
6 and 7
2.76
now
Hamiltonian for a deformed nucleus, namely the rotation-vibration Hamiltonian, eq. (6.40). The physical model we adopt is shown pictorially in
fig. 4 where one or more nucleons are moving around the deformed core
for example, the
4*
is
237
momentum
A2f
contains
of the core. The total angular
momentum
of the outer particles } (see
0lS30
/*
fig.
the
rotational
momentum
angular
of the system
J,
of the core and the angular
5)
*,
(20)
-0.220
where ) v are the angular momenta of the individual

52
SO
22
Fig. 3.
23 28
28
A case similar to
that
shown
lh
Cr
24
28
Ti
in fig. 2,
but now with
N=
28. (After Nu-66.)
These examples show the importance of phonon-particle coupling and

also exhibit that the actual situation is probably never very clear, i.e. pure
may
single-particle hole states

nuclei. In the last
example,
fig.
also
3,
mix with the phonon
the single particle
states in
may be
nn-rj'K =
Those of
the
components of J along the
The
We draw attention
and
For
nuclei with
permanent deformations the interaction of eq. (3) between

modes becomes quite strong.
the individual nucleons and the collective
perturbation approach
is
now no
longer adequate. Instead one treats
the coupling to a deformed core exactly. This win lead us to the deformed
the single-particle shell model for deformed potentials.
shell
model,
total
Hamiltonian again has the general structure given in
-ii'KX ,.
(22)
intrinsic axis are
i.e.
The coupling of hole
in the lead region by P.
states to
eq. (1).
The
However,
total
angular
(24)
to the different signs
(23). This situation stems
momentum
on the right-hand sides of eqs. (22)

from the fact that the components of the
generate rotations about the rotating axes, while
the operation of )'K does not change the rotating frame. (See the detailed
discussion at the end of section 5.2.)

1ft = If, into the rotation-vibration Hamiltonian, eq.
one readily obtains /? coll in the case of deformed nuclei where a few
Substituting
(6.40),
particles are treated explicitly. It is
octupole phonons has been investigated experimentally
von Brentano, W. He ring and collaborators (Gr-69a,
however
(23)
jtf*-ii&-<.
strong-coupling Hamiltonian
the system along
Since } and I operate in different spaces () in the single-particle space and

/ in that of the Euler angles), one has
necessary*.
9.2.
(21)
#-;!-&*
lifted to the
Thus *
ifif+|ft.
The components l'K of the total angular momentum I of

the intrinsic axes obey the commutation rules
even
2p*> ^h' ^P* aQ d lg$ orbits, which could give rise to $~, $~, J" and J~
states respectively. In each case a more detailed special investigation is
particles.
"soil
b. So- 69),
*
Note
that the operators
K 2,
r + " vio -|-dribrol
A and h] denote angular momenta.
(25)
238
tCH. 9,
fi
ch.
9, 5
later just
where
STRONG-COUPL1NO HAMILTONIAN
2J
by replacing the
sum over
the appropriate
2f
h
8 vib
ra
l6Bn
13M
(f-jyaMft-fi)
The
1 *'
roi
.,{
4J? n
TV
(27)
sJ
ft,
2
r't
[a
+ and a 2 =
,
Y2a (i) + a 2 {Y(t)+Y2

tj.
_ a (i))],
Here we have referred
Hence the
Y2
all
8^
[l
2/o"
""
-(n-)i) ]+ T^K'i-Ja)*-!]
16V
(30)
,p
+iMm 2
2Af
2
r'
+ CV f +Dl' 2 -Ma) 2 r' 2 ft, Y2Q
(31)
particle outside the core.
in this case.
The
(28)
fig.
single particles treated explicitly.
from now on to only one
which
4)
We
is
related
sum over
i is
iir-*Hr-nr-fc M gHii + g]
ft
restrict ourselves
The sum over
in eq. (28)
- [r+ +iL +n +j: -2(n n+;: y.y\
4 So
general case can always be obtained
-Mo> 2 r' 2 {ZY + n (Y21 + Y2 - 2 )l

2(i
Po
Fig. 4. Physical picture appropriate to the strong-coupling situation.
are
particle coordinates
to the laboratory system through the Euler angles Bt . The
one term
(29)
is,
occurring in eq. (28) are
also denned with respect to the x'/z'-system (see
consists of
now, for convenience,
where
to the rotating coordinate frame.
all
will
and
-Mo. 1 1
extended over
lnl
8 = 8 0cM + H 0sp + 8',
,,']
Y2M
ft
8 = 8t0 + #, + 8
be regrouped into three terms,
in the oscillator shell model,
Hamiltonian
total
ft
and the volume element in the collective space is dr = d3ddj.

From eqs. (10) and (11), the Hamiltonian for the additional particles
where a Q
Hamiltonian by
particles.
single-particle operator in the
the various operators of the explicitly treated
(26)
239
shown moving about a deformed core
core with respect to the lab-system (z-axis
in the orbits fli

is
shown)
is
and by the double arrows
and
7.
Here two nucleons
The
rotation of the
indicated by the Euler angles &j

=
(32)
Po
Fig, 5, A diagram of angular momentum vectors for the strong coupling case. The angular
momenta of the extra-core nucleons add up to a resultant/, and this adds to the core angular momentum
to give a total of /. The projections of/ and I along the z'-axis of the
nucleus, which
became approximately constants of motion

are O and K respectively.
in the
strong coupling limit,
240
[ch. 9, g 3
Here the well-known definitions l' = l\il 2 and j' =)\ ij 2 have been
used. f 3 is the component of the total angular momentum operator along
the z'-axis of the rotating frame.
in fact
it
becomes
identical with
S nl + S vib of eq. (6.40). A rotation-
contained in the term proportional to
/ 16,6V
which is due to the third moment of inertia. The additional nucleon obviously
changes the total angular momentum, eq. (21), and thus also modifies the
is
ft
rotation-vibration interaction.
/J 0ip
axially
shell
is
the shell
model Hamiltonian for a
model Hamiltonian,
particle
moving
It essentially consists
symmetric nuclear potential.
eq. (8.42), with
an
in
a deformed
of the spherical
additional nuclear quadrupole
%
potential proportional to $ r Y2{) The latter originates from the nuclear
deformation and is, indeed, proportional to it.
.
&'
is
consists of various small terms.
The
one, proportional to }*,
first
we shall see, it is not diagonal in the

we have included this term in Si'. The
a pure single-particle term. Since, as
single-particle solutions of Si 0ap ,
second term
21''}'
is
the rotation-particle coupling (RPC),
(/'+)'_ +l'-3'+
+ 2/3)3).
It
and
is
interaction,
function has been replaced by
They
since,
in eq. (32) describe the rotation-vibration
originate
Hamiltonian, fi 0MU +fii
we
and a rotation-vibrationfrom the change of the moments of
We first discuss the solutions of the unperturbed
,f
itt
in the fj-vibrational
sections 9.3
shall briefly study the influence
K Q,
and
(34)
(6.42),
one
realizes that
Q is
the eigenvalue of J3
which
is
the projection of the angular
because this Hamiltonian describes the rotations, vibrations and single-
motion of an axially symmetric nucleus, where the symmetry axis

is the z'-axis. Indeed, this is the case for ft eoll as we know from our discussions in Chapter 6. From eq. (31) one confirms that the deformed potential
is also axially symmetric (those parts which disturb the axial symmetry are
particle
contained in the
last
terms of #', eq. (32)). Thus the solutions of iJ 0)p in

j' is a good
3
general do not have good angular momentum /, although

quantum number. Hence we can write
( 36 )
#o.pPo= &*o9*a>
where
<p in
and
$ta
wave functions and

respectively. The subscript
are the normalized single-particle
energies for the deformed shell orbits, eq. (31),
section.
The
total
wave functions of the unperturbed Hamiltonian
0p
+n
o = #oii
0coll"**
and
(37)
are therefore
$ = ND'M K *%)xK-a
*ln) o>
I
<Pa
solutions of
According to eqs. (6.128b) and (36) the corresponding energies are given by
&KM. - U+0Ci + l)~(K-Qf)ie
of Si' on the unpemurbed spectrum.
S 0cM
*(
. n)
The wave function
can immediately be taken over
fromeq. (6.112)
= NBuAj)ZK-a
(38)
9.4. Later in section 9.6
and symmetries of strong-coupling wave functions
The unsymmetrized
momentum
of the particle along the symmetry axis of the nucleus (z'-axis-see fig. 5).
We immediately see that is a good quantum number of
ii+#o. P
+(i|A:~G| + l+2n 2 )ET +(n -l-i)E p

9.3. Structure
wave
and thus the strong rotation-vibration interaction of the third moment of

inertia is now determined by the eigenvalues of ftJ, namely K- 12. Here
due
with the surface vibrations.
that
eq. (30) with (6.41)
by comparing
to ^ and n surface vibrations.

the
last term in Si' contains the interaction of the valence nucleon
Finally
inertia
is
K -* K Q,
the particle-vibration interaction
particle interaction.
eq. (6.112)
a denotes additional quantum numbers which are specified in the next
the angular frequency of the rotating frame.
and fourth terms
from
241
corresponds classically to the Coriolis
mechanics the potential energy of the Coriolis force

of a particle moving in a rotating frame may be written as to ifr where m is
third
difference
proportional to
force, since in classical
The
The only
corresponds the quantum number K.
To 7 3
The corresponding operator for the odd nucleon isj^ with the corresponding
quantum number (i (see fig. 5).
# 0eo describes the rotating and vibrating core and corresponds closely
to ft rot +8 vlb of eqs. (6.40) and (6.88). If the terms proportional toJ 3 are
deleted,
STRONG-COUPLING WAVE FUNCTIONS
ch. 9, 3]
o>.
(33)
in eq. (38)
(39)
has to obey the symmetry relations under
of eqs. (4.13) and (4.22). Let us investigate the symmetries A^

,
and & 2 in the same way as we have done for the even-even nuclei in section
6.4. Again we start with the symmetry operation R 2 . which corresponds to a
& lt
8. 2
&3
242
[ch. 9, 8 3
rotation around the z'-axis by in
and a simultaneous replacement of a 2

by q). We know the action of the 2 operator on the
Dmk*(8j) and on the z K _o(i?) from eqs. (6.114) and (6.115), respectively.
We have
~a 2
by
(or
ch. 9,
243
STRONO-COUPUNO WAVE FUNCTIONS
31
the expansion
jj
<P*a
Y,
C%
(47)
Psar
solutions of the spherical shell model (without the term

iQ are
2
1
r Y20 in eq. (31)) and etgenfunctions of J
f} o
We now determine the value of R t q>ja by remembering that <pJQ is
where the
t?
- UJhASi
&2 J>m**(Si S 2 S 3 )
,
**'*"
Xk-s
*a
S 3 +in)
V(Si,S 2J S 3 ),
(40)
and
^2Zx-
(*)
J-n) -
(-i) MK
'x-
(41)
(*).
Furthermore, since the components of ) with respect to the body-fixed

system fulfill the usual commutation relations, eqs. (23) or (5.82a), incontrast
We
first
system x',y', z.
defined with respect to the intrinsic coordinate
laborathe
to
respect
express <pJtl in terms of the <p'Jm which are defined with
is the eigenvalue of),, the ztory system x,y,z (see fig. 4). Here
we have
component of J in the laboratory system. According to eq. (5.141),
to the corresponding components of / which have commutation relations
analogous to eqs. (22) or (5.82b), we conclude that the dependence of qt^

on the azimuthal angle <p is
system,
on tp'Jm (x) since the latter is denned in the laboratory
wave
laboratory
the
axes,
and no matter how we choose the intrinsic coordinate
Since
the
on
Di, a
function will always be the same. Hence &i acts only
Q
that
from
eq.
follows
(46)
=
it
(- iy~ Di m _
/y^*
î has no
effect
PflO%3,e)
= <PM)e~ ,n,\
(42)
and hence
&i 9n{r,
The
total
9, <p)
wave function
=
is
ftnO", *,
?+*)*
e'^^r, S, p).
therefore invariant under
(-i)* (-i)*<*- >(-ir*
= (-t)
R2
K~
provided
= u
(44)
The complete symmetrized wave function
K-Q =
is
0,
1,2,
(45)
symmetry operation
investigate the
eq. (38). This operator acts only
odd
through
particle (see eqs. (4.13)

it
/?!
on
the
wave function
on the Euler angles and the coordinates of

and (4.22)). It corresponds to a rotation
around the x'-axis of the rotating frame. From eq. (6,126)
obtained by constructing
"<
where we have used (-1)*
contains a potential which
and thusi 2
simpler to deal
is
Rt
applied to (?,&,
we
(46)
and have also written out
not spherically symmetric but
not a constant of motion. Since in
is
axially
"o>.
(51)
explicitly the
on^.
when
ft'
of eq. (32)
is
taken into account,
numbers. The complete

K, a, ,, n and a are no longer good quantum
case
properly symmetrized wave function is in this
(52)
recall that eq. (31)

K, a,
sym-
many problems it
with states of constant angular momentum, one introduces
is
11
In the most general case,
0*/(s, +*. *-s 2 , -so
^(-irÎr-ASi.S^SOIn order to obtain the effect of
Ion
+(-!/" "DL -*(j) I (- tf C%Vj- a) 3|-m J*)
action of
<i dL*(*i $2
is
is
in
we have
metric,
t + Ritj/ where ^
is
finally
given in eq. (38). After normalization one has
the analog to the relation in eq. (6.117).
Next we
the
2v,
(49)
and therefore
this leads to
This
= (_iy +M (-iy--D{. 1BO* - (-lyDi-o,
(43)
where the admixture
m, no, a
coefficients
A KaniKQi
theory or by the diagonalization of
ft.
are determined
by perturbation
The wave function
in eq. (51) is
244
quite general in the sense that <p xS}

If
it
may also be a
many-particle wave function.
describes only a single particle one can also
representation for
[CH. 9, | 3
work with an
in terms of single-particle functions
<ptQ
the constants of the motion are the orbital angular
ponent A on the z'-axis, and X, the component of spin on the
DEFORMED SHELL MODEL
9, 4]
9.4.
The deformed
shell
245
model
alternative
for
<p lAQ
momentum
ch.
/,
z'-axis.
which
com-
its
One
has
Thus
we have
far
established the structure
and the symmetry of the strong
coupling wave functions. For the further development of the theory
it
is
necessary to obtain the solutions of the single-particle Hamiltonian, eq. (31),

for a deformed well
I = Q-A,
(53)
#o, P <P.n =
and, instead of eq, (47)
(^+$Ma> 2 (l-2f}
<>
Y20 )r ,2 + CV-r + DV 2
'}
q>
(61)
where the prime indicates that these operators are referred to the rotating
(intrinsic) system.
This was
(55)
anisotropic harmonic oscillator well with spin-orbit coupling.
a.i
and therefore
proportional to
flfto
= I(Ji;MZO)C#.
(56a)
V2
interpolates between
potentials (see section 8.3).
are exactly ellipsoids. This
or
C3 = ZVlj\AZQ)a<%.
(
(56b)
A.I
we prove
Oi-A~a-
(57)
Qx
we
hh\m,m 1 m
find with eqs. (57)
3)
(-l)''*''"''^,
l3
-m,
~m -m
2
cai
Since
(-
1)'
is
,+ *- /
the parity of the state
C,_ fl
<pjn
1/
MKQn
>
sum
(62)
ca
(63a)
(l+(lir)-*^),
(63b)
(58)
z'
symmetry
axis (see
fig.
6)
if
the deformation
fi
is
Moi
-Y r'(59)
one obtains
positive.
Introducing dimensionless coordinates
one
(64)
gets for eq. (61)
f*o, P 9* a
2
2
(ihw Q (-\ + r )-hcD
^r 2 Y2a + CV-r+DV 2 }^ Q
(65)
We
""l>L-/(J )^ft-
single particle oscillates faster in the jc'-/-equatorial plane than
= j/^l {D,/(9>
+(-l) ,+i
2
ftj,
in eq. (51)
2
2
2
H<)y' +(^ )^l+cV-r+DV
w 2 = m 2 (l-2(^y i ^).
one has alternatively
CJ0 = (-1)*--'%CJ .
Inserting this into the second part of the
and
Thus the
(-l)
The equipotentials of the anisotropic oscillator

most easily seen by substituting Y10 in terms
where
along the
The term
and square well
3 ),
and (56b)
C,
oscillator
is
^+im(Û'
2.M
2
use of the property of the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients that
harmonic
of Cartesian coordinates, eq. (2.19),
the important result that
a tAQ
Then making
achieved most extensively by Nilsson
Eq. (61) describes the motion of a single particle in a three-dimensional
9ja-I.0tJ\AZB)9iAa-
In the next section
first
(Ni-55) in 1955, and also by Gottfried (Go-56) and by Moszkowski (Mo-55).
,}z . 0|llJ ( 9)|iio>.

l
(60)
then define the operator

(66)
246
[ch. 9, 4
.*'
of eq.
(62).
of equipotential surface (an ellipsoid) for the single-particle potential

figures represent cuts in the *'-*'-plane and in the y'-z' -plane.
The two
for the spherical
wave functions
harmonic
oscillator,
(see eq. (8.20))
\NIAE> =
and we can immediately specify
its
energies:
JM-ljVe-^t-M+ir )!^,
1
{2r(n + l +
E Hl = ho>(N+$),
We
and
(67a)
(67b)
N=
2n + l,
0, 1, 2,
have here added the spin function %i- The solutions
then obtained by diagonalization of
Q 0tv
-.
<pttS)
in the basis, eq.
(68)
of
# 0lp
(67), of
are
#,
The eigenfunctions of /? 0ip can be classified according to the 3-component

of the single-particle angular momentum, which is a good quantum
number because of the axial symmetry of the nuclear quadrupole field
fl
contained in
Q 0tp
In general this quadrupole
field
or
F2O
mixes the
quantum numbers N of eq. (67). However, in the rare earth region where
0o ranges from 0.15 to 0.35 this mixing is small and usually neglected. Thus
N can
be used for the classification of the deformed
\NQa} = Y,a?Z\NlAZy
I,
The matrix elements of the
states.
We
write
(69)
nuclear quadrupole force within the basis states
ntial
'8- 7,
The energy
levels
of a single particle in an axially symmetric deformed well with spin-orbit coupling. The energies are given in the units liw (Po), see eq.
label for the orbit
which
just
counts the
levels.
The
ff-value for each orbit
is
given at the right.
(75).
The number
at the left of each curve
is
CH,
9,
J 4]
247
of eq. (67) are
<N'
I*
A' Z'\r
Y20 \N A I> =
I
where the radial matrix elements are

given in closed form by
iN'lYlNiy =
/'
<Af'
2
1
JV
i>(A'\Y20 \A>& rx'
listed explicitly in eq. (18)
d Nltl . 2 {h/{N+l+l)(N+I-l)S,
+y(N -l)(N+l+l)&,
and are
t .
^ {N-l)(N-t-2)
(70)
+ &.{-J(N-l+2)(N +l+l) 8 rt . 2 + (AT+4) 6,,
S, (+2 }
,
+V(iV-/)(JV+/+3)5 ri+I }
+ &K +2{b/(N+l+l)(N +l+3)5 vl _ 2

-
+hJ(N-l+2)(N+t+3)Svl
+W(*-0("->+2)a
The angular
( ,,
+2 }.
integral is
<rA'\YM \iA>-(-if-*Q,
and
is
nonvanishing only
if
l+l'+2
does not change sign
eq. (72)
(71)
inverted (A' -*
- A', A
-*
if
)[(2r+l)(2/+l)]*,
even. Therefore the 3/-symbol in
the direction of the angular
- A).
Hence
(72)
it
momenta
are
follows that for the coefficients
(73)
u-f-4SnQi are obtained by diagonalization
These coefficients and also the energies

of the quadrupole
both
a
afj,
and
These energy
&HQa
levels
The frequency
field
ho)fi r
Y10
of the deformed
fta>
occurring in
shell
# 0ip
Appendix C). In
this
way
the deformation parameter
O.
(see also
become functions of
model are shown in fig. 7.

is dependent on the deformation.
This comes about because of our belief that nuclear matter

incompressible, so that
we hypothesize
during deformation. This condition

flIf
is
that the nuclear
most
is
volume
is
relatively
constant
easily slated in terms of to, , <o
eq. (63), as
0,(0,03,
constant (during deformation),
(74)
so that
o{A0
The
and
= "oolXi+t^rWO - W*AB"*-
single-particle energies in fig. 7 are given in units of
parity
quantum numbers
are indicated
on
fio
< 75 >
(/J
).
The Q
The
the individual levels.
248
Table
fi
eq. (69) (Ni-55)
the
|533|>, |554|>. The first row gives the energies in units of

The next three rows give the expansion coefficients uia of eq. (69), The deformation q
= -
is
-4
related to
2(ji)-*Aifto o (0 o )/C
2
-15.493
-14.007
0.583
r]
-2
-16.090
0.615
by
0.485
0.723
-11.400
0.214
0.000
0.954
1.000
8.393
0.094
0.994
5.255
0.144
+ 00
0.987
0.210
0.000
-20.498
-18.153
-16.194
-15.000
-13.961
-12.885
-11.757
0.372
0.321
0.086
0.111
0.717
0.692
-27.812
0.784
0.432
0.254
0.082
0.856
0.905
0.924
0.941
0.953
-26.755
-26.199
-26.000
-26.046
-26.260
-26.S8S
0.837
0.936
0.066
0.114
0.501
0.378
0.333
0.712
0.220
0.876
0.905
0.092
0.000
0,473
0.426
0.924
[514]
[Nn 3 A]. Here N

and n 3
the z'-axis, eq. (9.62).
is
the
gives
clearly
It is
oscillations
increases with deformation, eq. (63).
a).
0.117
triad
However, for very

not a constant of motion in the spherical representation.
constant of the motion (alarge deformations it becomes very nearly a
difference ho> x -hca : of the
energy
since
the
number),
symptotic quantum
axis of the nucleus
symmetry
to
the
perpendicular and parallel
now
clarify the use

orbits.
\QnNn 3 Ay =
0.279
0.000
0.655
and the
of tables such as table
Take
the
first state
^(j? 0= 0)
by discussing a few
of table
1,
which
is
labeled
\i~ S03>:
For the deformation jS = (spherical

E = - 1 1,400, and the wave function
0.068
0.285
0.382
0.489
0.426
0.067
parity
quantum number
number of oscillator quanta along
[503]
0.982
0.493
0.055
Q and
of the oscillator shell, eq. (8.20),
examples of Nilsson
0.177
4]
Let us
2.055
0.531
9,
principal
=}
Basis vectors: |S53f>,

fita oifio)-
CH.
of the states according to
Examples of energies and eigen functions for
N=$
[ch. 9,
0- 155 3 T> + 1-
nucleus)
has the
it
energy
1533 T>+0-|554l>.
Thus it is the basis state \NIAZ> = |533|>, which is the

model state fj with z-projection of total angular momentum
(77)
spherical shell
m=
$.
At the
0.944
0.149
[523]
U2 - CS
5/i-iXS
0.295
3/3-IS0U
WMWfl
sa-isoa
number
at the left of
the levels.
each curve
As an example we
states. The
terms of the basis
a label for the
is
orbit,
which just counts
7/7
-(S3
i/i
-bin
6.50
some wave functions in table 1 in

first row of the table are for
of hw ((l ). The other three coefficients
also give
energies in the
each corresponding state in units
a column give the expansion coefficients a iA of eq. (69) for the deformation parameter quoted at the top of the column.
in
The
D and
results
depend, of course, on the values of the parameters
cu 00
C,
We found in section 8.4 that the oscillator constant <o 00 is related

to the size of the nucleus through fia> 00 = 4] x A~* MeV, eq. (8.53). The
quantities C and D have been chosen in section 8.3 to yield the proper
/J
6.25
6.00
spherical shell model. Alternatively one uses the parameters
2D
(76)
5.75
2h(o 00
The
JV
<
In
first
20),
fig.
of these varies between k
and
ft
varies between
0.05 (for
N>
50) and k
and 0.70 depending on the

levels by Q, by the
7 we have labeled the various
0.08 (for
shells.
parity,
and by
the counting number. Quite often one also finds in the literature a labeling
Fig. 8, Illustration
of table
1:
Deformed
shell
model neutron
deformation.
orbits as a function
of the
250
deformation*
finite
tj
this
E=
has energy
level
[ch. 9, 5
-2.055 and wave
CH. 9,
and the angular
momentum
function
<Pi(l
0.177| 5 5 3 t> -0.982(5 3 3
T>- 0.068 5 5 4 i>.
\NIAI}. The only quantum numbers

are N - 5, O = \, and parity ji = 1.
b). |Oti N 3 Ay = \~ 5 1 4>, the second state
basis states
The
situation
is
= O)=
<Pi(0o
for a spherical nucleus.

since this configuration
|j
m -
*>
+2,---.
It
is
3t>+0|53
rotational bands are given
by the condition
K-Q, =
v=
0,
1,2,3,
in table 1, is accordingly
/=
3i>+0.905|5
4i>,
the spherical shell model state hj
(79)
(m
$),
|oJ, |Q,|
+ 1,10,1+2,
(83)
H| 3 H) 1-53(3, Xi
+(5HI4-H)yM (a,) z _ t
Pictorially such states
can be visualized as in
single-particle orbits
|aO
>,
locOj),
fig. 9,
|0 2 >
are
where the core and a few
shown
schematically.
On
is built a rotational band, whose angular

Such an excited single-particle configuration
top of every single-particle orbit
momenta are given by eq. (82).

is shown schematically in fig. 9(b).
is
(5
(82)
for the state of eq. (78)
-15,
-O.42615
(see eq. 60)
similar for the other excited single-particle states. Their
given by
E=
is
(78)
has thus become a quite complicated configuration in terms of the spherical
It
of the various rotational states
/= O ,G +l,O
-
6)
251
SPECTRA OF ODD- A DEFORMED NUCLEI
5]
<f>)
(so)
Thus we see that the two numerical coefficients occurring in eq. (79) are
Clebsch-Gordan coefficients.
In fig. 8 we have indicated the first two deformed shell model states of
table I and the interpretation of the table given above can now easily be
actually
followed in this figure.
Spectra of o4d-A deformed nuclei
9.5.
A deformed
particle
CM
(a)
nucleus with a given deformation
has a well-defined singlc-
/?
spectrum which can be obtained from
7.
fig.
As
Fig. 9. Illustration of single particle orbits
ground
state; (b)Jthc
and the rotating core:
(a) the
nucleon in the
nucleon in an excited sUte.
in the spherical
model we fill the individual orbits with two nucleons

having j 3 -components of +fl and -fl, respectively. The various pairs thus
have total angular momentum zero along the intrinsic axis. The last odd
single-particle shell
particle then determines the
Assume
ground
state properties
of the individual nuclei.
that the ground state single-particle orbit
state
energy
will
single-particle orbits are
is
then be normalized to zero.
denoted by x Ql
rXoi>" etc
->
given by Xo B The
The next excited
-
wiltl the
corresponding
& lr & 2 ,-
-.On top of every single-particle state we have, according

and
(39)
(60), a rotational band. The ground state band is obviously
energies
to eqs.
ground
obtained for
K=
*
The deformation parameter
usual quadrupole deformation by
QQ
t)
ij
n2
0,
has been introduced by Nilsson.
of single particle orbits with the rotating core and

j9- vibrations
0,
2{~7i)-i fi Jko Q (fi )jC.
0>)
(a)
and
(b)
(a)
with excited
with excited y-vibrations.
(81)
It is related
to the
Of course
there can also occur /J-vibrations
in addition to the single-particle excitations.
and
y-vibrations of the core
The former
are just character-
252
ized fay n
1,
and the
latter
[CH. 9, 5
253
SPECTRA OF ODD-,4 DEFORMED NUCLEI
en, 9, 5]
are given by
above the pure
K-Q, -
result that in
single-particle state.
We
have obtained here the important
two y-vibrational states always occur. The vibrashown in fig. 10. In both the case of 0particle stays in the ground state orbit
single
the
^-vibrations,
vibrations and
2,
odd
nuclei
tional excited states are pictorially
with spins
I-\K\,\K\ + l,\K\+2,--:
(84)
Their energies (see eq. (39)) are
*=nv+ z = (4flv+2He+
is
(85)
x-nv -2 = (-40,-2)is + E
<.Ot
9/2
sm
MS
s/2
|aJ3 >. In the former case, however, a surface vibration along the core axis
core axis)
is excited, while in the latter case a y- vibration (along the shorter
172
1/2
7/2
3.09
3/2
excited.
few typical spectra of odd-X nuclei arc shown in figs. 11, 12, and 13.
The various deformed single-particle orbits on which the rotational bands
*so
S/2
are built have been indicated there.
122
3/2
studies of
deformed
model
shell
We refer to
the literature for extensive
orbits in light nuclei (Pa- 57, Ra-58, Li-58,
Ba-60, Sh-56, Br-57b, Li-59, Na-68), and in heavy nuclei (Mo-59, Ba-67,
Ke-68, Mi-69, 70).

2.77
7/2
IK
2.W
2S)
Since
2S
A1 has thirteen protons and twelve neutrons, the
last
odd proton
S/2
should occupy the deformed shell model orbit (orbit no. 5 in fig. 7).
+
+
Indeed the next excited single-particle states are then (no. 9), i (no. 11),
+
{' (no. 14) which are all found in the experimental spectrum of
$ (no. 8),
1/2
S/2
fig.
1 1
where they correspond to the band heads of the various rotational
3/2
bands.
-t/2
$12.
IB
W2
*3o
S/2
K-S/2*
K- t/2*
K.J/2*
Fig.
1.
K- V2
The experimental
K-3/2+
13X)
(200}
[202J
of "Al displayed so as to show the various rotational

bands which appear. (Data from Nu-66.)
levels
311-
~S/2
3""' '*7
-T2
its-
-S/2
KrS/lr
712
-S/2
5/2*
wm
S/2-~
554.2
7/2^-
-*U.T
m*
isxt
FigJ0S.9
5/Z*
-2S1.7
3/2-
-soaa
7/?->
as*.
3.
The energy
levels
of
M *Pu
displayed so as to
show the
rotational bands.
The
energies are in keV.
-309.5
207.0
It is
interesting to see that the predictions of the
deformed
shell
model
concerning the various single-particle orbits are almost correct. Most of

the predicted excited orbitals are found experimentally, even though their
93J
t&5
excitation energies
do not
agree, in general, with the theoretical predictions.
The ground
JW-pI3J
Fig. 12. Experimental energy levels for
*"W
and band assignments based on an
pretation involving coupling of core rotations to single-particle motion.

given in keV. (Data from Nu-66.)
The
shell
state spins,
model. This
is
however, are quite well explained by the deformed
indicated in table
2.
We should
inter-
energies are
mations
in
heavy nuclei the density of states
rather large (see
fig.
in the
note that for large defor-
deformed
shell
model
is
7) and therefore we can not always expect unique
'
254
[en, 9, 5
which can be attempted using the detailed knowledge of the
Table 2
The ground
it is
heavy nuclei as deduced from a deformed well. In this region

necessary to know the deformations and these are given in the second column as
obtained from measured intrinsic quadrupolc moments
state spins for
wave functions. For example, one can

probabilities, the
change of the mean square
0.16
'S.EU
0.30
'UTb
'"Ho
0.31
0.30
'*Tm
0.28
terms of the Hamiltonian
*,i
l + .+
ft' in eq. (32).
1
9.6.1.
0.28
0.23
'"Re
0.19
I-. (1+)
'g*
0.19
#-.+>
Ullr
0.14
*+,+.
*-
lr
0.12
#+,*+,-
l6T Er
0.29
*- i +
'2'Yb
7J ,U
0.29
0.29
l+.iIJ*+
*-,J-.li-.i-.f+
J- !-.# +
0.26
0.27
0.21
;o s
0.18
'Ôs
0.15
single-particle spectrum*.
particle has
</
Na-65.
shell
model
orbitals.
in there
is
the
.(7 +
j,+7_j + +2; 3 ; 3 )=--^-(i-i).
(86)
So
of this term are straightforwardly calculated using the

(60),
/
M K Q nt n
a>
x{[V-LVn-i+(-l)'
i
i
xl(I+K)(I-K +
+ [<*
Once
je
\)(j +
Vn+i+(~0
+4
(-ir*V-(K-.)V -to- 1)]
Q)U-Q+lJ] k
l+i
(-l)
'~*
5 r-CK+i) 5 o-(o+)]
xl(l-K)(l + K + l)(j-Q)(j + Q+l)Y}
2
ft
on the
2KQS KK S Dn
(87)
2/o
Here we have made use of the
precise
operators, eqs. (22)~(24), which
different
commutation
rules of the
/.and
according to the results of eqs. (5.122)
J,
and
(5.125) yield the matrix elements
|/MKl> = V(/TK)(/K + 1),
(88)
<JQ\h\JQl> - VfJTfl)0O+l)-
(89)
</M/C|J
and
the Nilsson orbit
been established there are several other things
Note
in
2/
K' Q' n 2 n a|iJ eorioli J

ft
recent compilation of the experimentally observed deformed single-particte orbits
can be found
are thus forced to a careful
deformed
,2
U coriolis
even-even nuclei (see eq. (6.152) and fig. 6.5). This adjusted deformation
will always be connected with some experimental error. Within these error
odd
the
of the particularly important terms contained
of eq. (32).
Coriolis interaction
knowledge of the deformation of the nucleus, which has to be obtained

from the B(E2) values for the transitions of the ground state band, just as in
one can adjust the
One
The matrix elements
predictions. Moreover, the theoretical predictions are based
for the last
on
return to the consideration of the perturbative Hamiltonian r?
wave functions of eq.
0.31
SBf
Hf
'
The Coriolis force
We now
f+,i-.*+
1-
0.31
the effect of various
VM
0.31
We
on
9.6. Non-adiabatic effects
I+.I +
*-,* +
'"Ta
S<M
'Uoy
limits
radii in the excited states,
*+.*I+.I+
I+.4+
'^Gd
single-particle
or E2 transition
(S a
discussion of the effect of ft
'SB"
Ml
magnetic moments, and so forth. Most of these quantities, as well as the
Assumed
deformations
try to predict El,
excited single-particle orbits, are quite dependent
Nucleus
255
NON-AD1ABATIC EFFECTS
ch. 9, 6]
that in the second matrix element the indices
to the first matrix element.
are inverted
compared
256
The angular momentum dependent (/-dependent) terms

only
in the first part
Ich. 9, 6
CM. 9, 6]
in eq. (87) occur
even the
of the matrix element proportional to the curly bracket.
It
obviously contributes to the diagonal matrix elements, K'
Q'
Q, only for
K=
i bands.
It is
customary
= K
and
to write those particular
matrix elements as
O M i i n2 n
- +
257
NOM-AD1ABATIC EFFECTS
order of the rotational band can be inverted for large de-
level
coupling parameters. This
is
on
rotational energy levels
indicated in
fig.
14,
where the dependence of

is shown. For a =
the decoupling parameter a
the unperturbed /(/+!) level ordering
obvious. For large positive or
is
negative a-values the level ordering becomes quite different.
fl cor
it
M{n
In general /? eorl oii. mixes

2
a>
^-icjrc^{(-i) i+ H-iy-H'+i)u+i)}-
It is
two rotational bands for which A/f = 1.

bands are
clear that this effect will be quite small if the unperturbed
However,
well separated in energy.
the
if
odd
particle is rather loosely
bound, then these bands overlap strongly and the corrections due to the
Coriolis force are important. In this case one can obtain
- + ^-(-O^Cz+DIIcSSI't-ir^J+i)-
tt
two such
= + iL(_iy+*( /+1 ) __*L.

4/
2/o
fl
(90)
K bands
</Kffn 2
K+\ Q+l
n2 n
where
is
it
= K-iy-*(i+i)ra
()
It has been given this name because

corresponds to a partial decoupling of the particle motion From the
the Coriolis term in first-order perturbation theory,
He + G[K-fi| + I+2n 2 )E,
+K+i)A-a[(-0' *('+i)]i^ Ki -2Kfli e

The
effect
of the Coriolis force on the
J*,.,,,],,)),
KQn 2
K + 10+lw 2 o>
0,
EIK + ia + lHllloa E
a>
which has the solutions
KQn
E (I
rotator.
Eikow - ^+(/(i + I)-(K-fi)
a #,,,, |f
(93)
the so-called decoupling parameter.
Under inclusion of
eq. (39) becomes
by simply diagonalizing the 2 x 2 matrix
i K fl BJB0 .-
<J
an analytic expres-
sion for the effect of the Coriolis interaction on the energy eigenvalues of
(92)
+ AE ['1+4
a)
i {E IKOB2nB3 + E1K+ia + ln BX
O K+ Q+
1
n 2 n a tieotMlt /
\
>
]*]
*|
^
AE
where
AE = E /KJ3ll2J10I -, K+10+lnjBoa
here
obtained from eq. (87), and
is
K a n2 n
may
The matrix element occurring
be conveniently written as
(IMK + Q + ln 2 o|fl,wul J M KQn 2 n

1
a>
= A K i(i-K)(i+K+i)y,
bands can be very large;
^
(95)
where
A K - -fcXCjg^CjSKJ-JOO+K + l)]*
(3/Ma
(96)
K is obviously no longer a good quantum number even though the core

possesses axial symmetry. Only for the case where the
bound
will
AE
become
large
and
odd
still
particle is tightly
be approximately a good
quantum
number.
effect of the Coriolis force on the nuclear levels was first applied to
by Kerman (Ke-56). In this nucleus two rather complete bands
(K' m |" and K*
$~) and the band heads of two other bands
+
(K* =
at 0.453 MeV and K* = \
at 0.309 MeV) are observed
The
183
Fig. 14.
The dependence
of"
rotational energy levels on the decoupling parameter
K=
i band.
in
(see fig. 15).
The ground
state
band
is
the
K'
J~ band followed by the
258
head of the
K* = J" band
MeV. According
at 0.2088
above the two lower bands
will
mix due
and
level structure
(92). It
and the values
should however be realized
that five parameters have been adjusted in this figure, viz. the
inertia in the
shows
Tablb3
some odd nuclei. For the cases where K = i the
decoupling parameter a is also listed. The moments of inertia of neighboring even-even
nuclei are given in the fourth column for comparison
The
spins and
a, and the mixing parameter A. In view of this

ment" with experiment is not too meaningful.
-v
M'//
(keV)
(keV)
71
122
'"Gd
72
123
66
89
'">
70
79
'Ho
63
73
4S11
74
80
'" Lu
76
78
3Hf
75
89
71"'
66
90
mi
(t132)
9/2
2917
-306.9
$/?+
-JOSS
7/2
20&X
-207.0
(SSt
3/2-
1/21/2-[510]
A comparison of the experimental
tions
of
eqs. (92)
and
(94).
91
93
78
too
'**Re
108
112
'RRe
116
123
"U
35
45
*u
31
45
The
7/2-&03)
spectrum for 1M
9S2*[S2*]
W and the theoretical predic-
theoretical predictions are given in brackets.

2
Table 3
lists
the data
on the moments of
inertia,
0.19
nuclei in order to show the trend for larger moments of inertia in odd nuclei.
The third column lists the moments of inertia of the excited states with
K' = K+l. These parameters have all been deduced from experiment.
The interesting question arises as to how well, for example, the decoupling
parameter can be determined theoretically according to eq. (91).
It
proves
to be the case that large discrepancies occur. These are probably due to the
deformed
2!Pu
28
44
37
43
-0.58
decoupling parameters,
and mixing parameters A K for a number of rotational nuclei. The fourth

column in table 3 gives the moment of inertia for neighboring even-even
fact that the so-called
99.1
(9302)
3/2-1512}
Ta
'W
'?
(206.0)
9/2-
Fig. 15.
-0.77
(306.6)
(29lt)
3/2-
//
iEu
MS
712'
fact the "agree-
(S56M
5/2-
inertia for
Nucleus
*2-
92-
moments of
moments of
|" and $~ bands, the band head of the |~ band, the decoupling
parameter
259
NON-ADIABATIC EFFECTS
ch. 9, 61
to our considerations
to the Coriolis force. Fig. 15
a comparison between the measured energy

calculated according to eqs. (94)
Ech. 9, 6
single-particle states are, in fact,
more
complicated configurations. However, no detailed investigations of
this
9.6.2.
Departure from axial symmetry
The complete coupling of

worked out for deformed
full perturbation
B'
the particle motion to collective motion has been

nuclei by Faessler (Fae-64).
of eq. (32)
K and Q are
The wave functions of H,
in
the basis of
He
diagonalized the
^ |+^
ol
no longer good quantum numbers and
eq. (60).
Both
are mixed considerably.
eq. (29), are superpositions of the basis states
in eq. (60),
*.i =
I AkLo* \IMKQn 2
*>,
(97)
K.n
possibility exist so far *.

*
Recently, a rather detailed investigation of a few strongly deformed
given by Michaelis, Weller et
at.
(Mi-70).
odd
nuclei
was
and they are determined by diagonalization of /?. Energies and electromagnetic transition probabilities have been calculated for these states. The
260
[ch. 9, | 6
magnetic dipole operator Kt llt and the electric quadrupole operator
The
here each consist of two terms.
first
one, J0^" aQ d $2?
represent the collective multipole operators due to the core.

1
term A? ,^, and
Q^
respectively, are
due to the odd
particle.
ch.
NON-ADIABAT1C EFFECTS
9, 6]
Table 4
Q 2
respectively,
The second
Predictions of the theory (Fae-64) in which single-particle motion
motion (upper line) eeretwa pure deformed
shown
eq. (1.17)
Q%
is
just given
given in eq. (6.148). According to
is
B(EZ; f
by
+ 1)/S(E2;
2 for protons and 5 p
magnetic
moment
operator
is
i(?
M is the rotational angular
tum of
the charged nucleons to
is
all
momentum,
eq. (21),
single-particle
moment has been
magnetic
ft> [ff. *,
Pa [9r
the intrinsic
it
h + (9 ~ SuH, +
s
0.037
0.012
0.018
5,8X10- S
2.7x10"*
2.5X10"*
2.7xlO" T
= Z/A
momen-
0.018
0.054
0.016
7.0x10"*
7.0x10"*
0.015
in the collective
0.071
0.11
0.67
6.8x10"+
6.9X10- 5
0.59
Pit* i
SPi)
S)
V I)
and gR
given in eq. (8.89) and
becomes
(ffi
B(E2; |+ | i
f)
0.3350.022
0.15
0.015
0.031
1.24
2.62
1.71
0.075
0.937
2.10
1.53
0.3
0.377
0.770
0.42 0.025
0.262
0.587
0.440.084
0.0309
0.0424
0.14+
-0.06
1.38x10-*
4.22
'
- JU
(101)
The vector 3 has been intro1, 3, and hence acts only on
is
discussed
more
fully in the
* In fact, there occur deviations in the ratio of the proton

is
due to
slightly different
and neutron density distributions. As a consequence the

from ZjA up to 30 % (Gr-6S, sec also Bo-64, Gr-68b).
X10" 1
0.004
1.8x10"*
1.6x10"*
6.4X104.9x10"
0.85
0.74
0.84
0.72
2.9
X 10" T
1.5
second volume of this
series.
especially in the nuclear surface. This
-ST
0.015
i)/3(MI;i +
functions.
The concept of effective charges
0.0024
7
0.0060
/*<f
i)
contains only the operators },
wave
0.0016
+ flil, + 9k (K JU>1
various ^-factors are given in eq. (8.90).
duced because
0.0025
0.078
essentially
-Pobn^ + Cj.
The
0.29 0.07
*E2;t+HM)
=
0.25 0.025
0.280
0.400
therefore the total magnetic dipole operator (see also eq. 1.18)
0.293
0.280
0.462
S(Ml;| +
motion. Hence gK is equal to Z/A as long as small differences in the protonneutron density ratios are neglected **.
The
0.304
0.400
defined as the ratio of angular
nucleons participating
Experiment
0.185
(100)
the rotational ^-factor. This last
0.330
IMC
is
i)
0.362
eh
where
0.330
Ki-60b, p. 73)*.
collective part of the
0.360
take into account the polarization of the core due to the odd particle (see
The
transitions
2X10"
(99)
for neutrons. These effective charges
i)
J+ ffl+|)
fl(E2;|+ii+8)/B(E2;i
coupled to collective
1.5X10"*
2
aX=(<5 p +^)r' y2 /(S',^').
where S p
is
model theory (lower line). The
One has
B(E2;|*|t + iVi(E2;i + ii +
has been discussed earlier and
shell
are in ,31 Eu
f}
Qf
261
As an example of
and neutron
deformations of proton
collective
^-factor
is
the
improvement of the predictions of the photo-
densities,
lowered
emission branching ratios in Faessler's theory (Fae-64)

results
for
1S3
( -* i)l(l -*
Eu
I) E2
in
transition
we
present his
shows the ratio of the

within the ground state rotational band of
table 4.
The
first
line
262
"Eu
(see fig. 16).
The
branching ratio
nearly the
is
same
in
state
ground
shell
model.
from the
single-particle transition. It
is
6?
PS7
seen that
16)
is
clearly
tX
11/7
shell
model
is
1.
SB
V/;
*L-
3*5
I3J2
7/2
m1a
seen that the Faessler theory predicts this in
good agreement with experiment while the pure deformed

3
off by a factor of 10~
line,
J band to
within the ground
band. The transition Q*
7S5
Spectrum of
SI*
band to an E2 transition
= l + -+ Q* - | + (fig.
state
It is
both theories. The second
however, shows the branching of a transition

the fl"
VSS 33/7
number of the second and third row gives the

full theory, the second number gives the corre-
sponding results according to the pure deformed

this
MAGNETIC MOMENTS OF ODD-EVEN DEFORMED NUCLEI
ch. 9, 7J
first
according to the
results
[CH. 9, 6
3?
.
1 tuna
keV
kW
keV
X9> "0
9i7
w m
m
ss
52
K*572 A3
?a
K.M-.W1S
173
SS
Stf
K. 7/2[S13 J7jn,.0
(5 X2]
m m
ST
K-3J3*
tin
ml
[m
3/l]n,.0
S#
Fig.
7.
"*Ho
Spectrum of
which two ^-vibration bands are seen to exist, The reduced

ground state and the y-bands are fl(E2) = 0.050 for
in
transition probabilities between the
K*5T2
K.r-a ;
i-*l,
532
0.040 for } -
V,
0.08 for
-+ 2.
The energies are given
in
keV. The data
are taken from Di-63.
The spectrum of '"Eu. The
Fig. 16.
transition rates between the various levels are given

in table 4.
Several similar effects can be found in other nuclei.
enhancement of the
single-particle transitions
is
The reason
for the
that the second, third
hsb
nn
am
31/7
103]
S/7
32
77/1
no
aa
Spectrum of
Tb
-BW
and
no
fourth term of /?' in eq. (32) admixes small components of collective con-
ttJt
figurations (17-vibrations) into the single-particle orbit. This small collective
admixture can increase the single-particle
E2
transitions
nitude while pure collective transitions (such as the

listed in table
4 within
by orders of mag-
first
branching ratio
m
m ss
a
the ground state rotational band) are not affected*.
Another important prediction of the unified theory of collective rotations,

vibrations, and single- particle motion is the existence of two y- vibrational
bands (seeeqs. (84) and (85)). These have been discovered experimentally by
Diamond, Elbeck, and Stephens (Di-63) in 165 Ho and are shown in fig. 17.
Clearly the energy splitting and the spin values of the 514 keV and the
687 keV levels support their interpretation as y-bands built on the K = J
1S9
Tb which we have shown in
ground state. A similar situation occurs in
in
deformed
odd-A nuclei indicates
y-bands
fig. 18. Thus the presence of the
v?
ee
xi na
l.fUKt
22
32
me
in
sea
i/7
3/1
Mf**JM
1*11
Fig. 18.
3/3
Spectrum of
,5
*Tb
!1
JOJifO
in
which two y-vibration bands are seen to
are given in keV.
The data
exist.
The
energies
arc taken from Di-63.
(due to the very nature of the y-bands) the dynamical departure of these
nuclei
*
from
The
axial
enhancement of single particle transitions has

N) by H. J. Rose and collaborators (Oi-68!).
0,
collective
light nuclei
ls
(
15
9.7.
symmetry.
also
been observed
in
Magnetic moments of odd-even deformed nuclei
The magnetic moments of

8.5.
spherical nuclei have been discussed in section
In analogy to eq. (8.91) the magnetic moments of the various states of
264
[CH. 9, 7
a deformed odd-A nucleus are defined as the expectation value of the z-
component of
tions \I
M KQn
H
M=
n ay of eq. (60) for the substate

t>
fi
O I KQn
The operator A? lpl
a]g R /
in eq. (101)
+6
|f/
of eq. (58) one has
KQn 2 n
in eq. (102)
it is
(Gxi
Gyi G x )
(102)
a.>.
<aQ'|6;|aQ> = -<a -Q'\Gl r \a
necessary to express
denotes the spherical components of the vector operator
in eq.
/i
i
it
in
(101)
In particular
are given in terms of the Cartesian ones
by the usual transformation
G = Tij2(G x iGr ).
The transformation of
Here n 9n is the parity of the state (p^ (see eq. (59)). The integration over the
Euler angles can be carried out immediately and is exhibited in eq. (6.130).
Since the G'v are the spherical components of a vector operator and because
/,
terms of Euler angles and intrinsic coordinates. The index
components of
func-
G = G
which
projection
= IDJ/(,)C:.
The first part of eq.
= Q'-Q.
{(J 1 /'
tl
\I
since 1
KQn
\n Kf2n 2 na> =
a,\g^J Q
\IMK} = M\IMK).
/'
K') <a
M' =
/,
For
later use
we now
K=
fi
<!'
M'
</'
M' K'
fi'
M KQn
n2 n
calculate the general
we
a>
-i
X Dj,*(,) G',\ I M K Q n 2 n Q a>,
(106)
11
We
" \ 3r
i+
tT~\
D^*(9j) G'
l
MKQn
n a>
The matrix element (aK\G'
[(2f +
1)]
Vi"'*
(5;
1 -*>}.
(109)
K'
I,
Q,
K,
(110)
0.
state. Inserting eqs. (110) into
(109)
lK <a K lG
'
l
K>
obtain,
+^^x-i(-l)'
Q' n n
2
i)<a
moment we have
M=
=
0>
find
using eq. (60),
M' K'
1 J'
Q'
Q,
G'a _ n a
The requirement that K = Q indicates that we are discussing the magnetic

moments of rotational bands where no y-vibrations are excited. This is,
</'
fi'
(105)
g R I,
which contains the second part of eq. (102) as a special case.
a>
of course, always the case for the ground
a G /
and the symmetry of the
this
(iimMW+ivw)
K K'-K
Using
special case of the magnetic
can immediately
matrix element
K' Q' n 2 n
(108)
finds for (107)
M KGn
be written as
^ <//
-fi>,
under reversal of the signs of the magnetic
+ * W-0'~*%('
For the
namely the matrix element of ?
(102),
(104)
a\G
tt
-*[|^]
components of the laboratory system to the

G'v components of the intrinsic system is given by (see section 5.6)
if v
coefficients
quantum numbers, one
(I'M' K'a'n 2
(103)
nonvanishing
is
Clebsch-Gordan
the
G,
265
given in the laboratory system. For the
is
computation of the matrix element
the spherical
wave
the magnetic dipote operator, eq. (101), with the
CH. 9, 7]
+ 2- i
^ K (2f+l)< a i|6ll a -i>]}.
a K)
is
(Ill)
calculated explicitly with the help of
eq. (101)
{<fl-f' o j.*
I
D'MK *y < o' C;

I
fl>
<*K\(g -g R)) +(g s -g,)$ \*K>

t
r_\\f+i-2K
+(-1)'
+(-l)
= K{g
<B-r*li>i,*|Dt./><n'ie;i-o>
r+ *-"'
%a ,CD&.-r*l^*|DS*><-fl'|fi;ifl>
+(-l) *'n M f( ,.j;-r*|l>i/|Di. K >< -fl'|C;| -Q.
r
(107)
As
in eq. (69)
-gi) + (g.-g,)< K\i \*K>-
(H2)
we have
l*K> =
I<|JVMX>,
I,
(113)
266
= K A.
where E
[CH. 9, 7
(Mo-59). The coefficients af4 were obtained from the deformed shell model
collective gR - factor was evaluated approximately
Thus
<K|S |JC> =
iI([^- 4
-|S'i +i
wave functions and the
(1H)
),
as Z/A, as discussed earlier in section 9.6.
and we obtain from
than Z/A by 20 to 30
eq. (Ill)
experimental data
L/+ 7 ^-[fe-ff)ic+iCff.-ff )Z(li3-*l*-l A*l

1
in
)]|
For the rotational band heads one has /
g R and
in
is
(see Gr-65).
However,
6.
gR
is
smaller
In view of the uncertainties
view of the corrections which might arise due to configuration

ft
'
of eq. (32)), the agreement
In general the agreement for odd-proton nuclei
(115)
in reality
compilation of the theoretical and
presented in tables 5 and
mixing (partly arising from
K*t.
267
ch. 9, 71
is
somewhat
is
quite good.
better than for
odd-neutron nuclei.
K- and this result reduces to
Table
Magnetic moments for odd-proton nuclei
[Nnt AK]
Nuclide
(116)
Assumed
Calculated
Experimental
Here
it
is
worthwhile to mention an alternative way of writing
Some authors
gyromagneuc
define a
ratio
gK
this equation.
by
220}
w0.4
2,7
2.63
220}
a;
0.4
3.7
3.5
211}
2.4
2.22
202|
0.5
a 0.3
3.7
3.64
3.4
19IMl>
,
<aLK\6 \*K>
and
for the
K)
ground
I(I
[i
(117)
+ l)-K 2
lg R
K
+9k
f+1
for
K*
I+l
Eu
&.
(118)
i,
irrb
'"Ho
= K)
state (/
fi
iJNa
*A1
one finds
Inserting this into eq. (Ill)
fi(I,
= K(g K -g K).
16
- (ffR+'fl).
*Tm
The
an
result in eq. (1 16) is correct as
additional contribution
<i|t?i a -i>. For a

|
level
(see
eq.
's.
long as
(Ill))
K ^ {. For K = we get
from the matrix element
of spin / the magnetic
^-J +-{(^-9.)[iZ(a
?
10
moment
in this case is
-M )+(-ir*î(2/ + l)Zô
+(0,-0R)[i+(-ir i i(21 + l)a] +
2
]
ll
/<J
3.1
0.30
0.9
1.5
41l|
0.31
2.2
1.5
523}
0.30
4.5
+ l)}.
41 1*
0.29
404}
0.28
1.4
2.0
'!iTa
404}
0.23
1.5
2.1
402}
0.23
3.7
3.3
402|
0.19
3.7
3.14
'^Re
402|
0.19
3.7
3.18
ir
402}
0.14
0.0
0.2
4021
0.12
0.0
0.2
530}
0.2
2.9
1.1
Re
>;;a c
Knp
JjNp
JiAm
*Am
" 197
<w 482
(
*>
ft:
-0.21
642|
0.25
3.0
(62.5>
523}
0.25
1.0
mM
523|
0.27
1.0
1.4
S23|
0.27
1.0
1.4
(120)
Here a is the decoupling parameter given in eq. (91). The results in eqs. (1 16)
and (120) were first compared with experiments by Mottelson and Nilsson
3.3
I7S Lu
0.16
413|
(119)
Usually g K has been regarded as an empirical constant, but it is clear that

by comparison of eqs. (112) and (114) with the definition in eq. (117) it
fl
532}
-0.2
Tw
can easily be expressed in terms of the
keV isomeric state of **F,

keV isomeric state of " Ta,
60 keV isomeric state of " 7 Np.
l
268
CH.
9, S
Lemmer and Green
Table 6
A
/
Assumed
INthAKl
Experimental
Calculated
(Le-60a) performed a calculation of single-particle
orbits for a nonspherical, velocity-dependent potential with a diffuse edge*.
Magnetic moments for odd-neutron nuclei
Nuclide
EXTENSIONS OF THE DEFORMED SHELL MODEL
ch. 9, 8]
/*
f*
very short-range nonlocal potential of this type
theories of nuclear matter.
is
suggested by the
They imply a wave equation of
p +2p 2m
p+f
2
the type
Ml7T7ld +cl h = *'

-
Ne
211}
w0.5
-0.8
-0.66
?*Mg
2021
ss0.4
-1.1
-0.86
*5Gd
521}
0.31
-0.5
-0.30
521*
0.31
-0.5
-0.37
where we have made use of the considerations leading to
'SJGd
VQ {r )
'IJDy
642}
0.31
-0.6
-0.37
0.51
2m.
(I J2tn
(121)
is
the local average potential of
Woods-Saxon
523|
0.30
'SJEr
633J
0.29
-0.8
lol
5211
0.28
0.7
0.46
l^Yt,
512|
0.28
-0.8
-0.65
5I4S
0.27
1.4
6241
0.26
-1.0
-0.47
109"
5101
0.21
0.8
0.12
RIO"
jOs
5101
0.18
0.8
0.12
Furthermore,
512}
0.15
0.9
0.65
nearly exactly equivalent in their effects to the
phenomenologically (Le-60b). This
17
*Hf
1S3U/
633}
0.23
0.7
0.51
743}
0.24
-0.6
-0.34
" 9 Pu
6 .11
0.26
-0.1
0.02
622}
0.27
-0.5
0.1
1*1 p
l*7 ru
and a
is
is
it
shown
is
that the additional terms in
pairing theory of the residual
model
actually not quite realistic.
As has been
model
(sections 8.2
and 8.3) a more realistic potential seems to be a finite

Woods-Saxon type with an additional spin-orbit force.
of a
in the potential of eq. (62) has
Woods-Saxon potential,
finite
(In fact, the
effects
at least for the single-particle energies.) Calcula-
an expansion
and
Lemmer
is
in eq. (121) are
term which was introduced
especially true for large deformations.
interaction into account
The experimental low-energy
and computed
spectra of odd-
however, could not be reproduced in a satisfactorily quantitative

this sophisticated
model.
and Sheline (Fae-66) calculated the eigenfunctions for spherical

and deformed Woods-Saxon potentials with a Thomas-type spin-orbit
coupling. They expanded the deformed wave functions into oscillator
functions and tabulated the expansion coefficients and the energies as
functions of the deformation, in a
manner similar to that of Nilsson (Ni-55).

Such calculations have also been performed by Rost (Rc-66). No important
improvement in single-particle energies and transition probabilities emerges
from these efforts.
There also
by Toepffer (Toe-66), who used a
deformed square well potential along the
Gottfried used
potential of the
been introduced to simulate the
tions of this kind have been carried out
eigenstates
Faessler
extensively discussed in the case of the spherical shell
term
The
Roeper (Roe-66) has improved the calculation of Lemmer and Green by

making the depth of the potential energy-dependent. He also took the
Several extensions of the deformed shell model can be considered. Firstly,

the infinite deformed oscillator
(r)
and Green using a perturbation calculation in the deviations from spherical

symmetry. The results are very similar to those obtained by Nilsson (Ni-55).
nuclei,
shell
(122)
the range of the nonlocality of the potential.
way even with

Extensions of the deformed
the effective
eigenvalues for particles in this type of potential have been found by
single-particle excited states.
9.8.
l-(a Mj2h )V
0.6
l*l
Here
eq. (4).
is
m =
0.5
133 |J
type,
mass
'|?Dy
1.1
ISHf
lines
of Gottfried (Go-56).
in terms of the deformation parameter
while Toepffer computes the necessary matrix elements exactly.
triaxial
*
O
is
The
exists
nuclei
effect
an extension of the deformed
shell
model to
statically
which leads to an asymmetric rotator model for odd-^4
of velocity-dependent potentials on spherical single-particle bound states
discussed in Ro-56,
Wy-60 and Me-65.
lCH. 9, 9
270
nuclei.
This has been carried out by
B'
the last term of
-M W
into i?
,p
as a static
2
r'
60).
He
incorporates
(y(s', <?')+
_ a (', ?'))].
in particular eq. (7.2)).
shell
model potential for a
with the essential difference that the three frequencies a*,*,,
at,
,2
[(i3~,?3(l)-,?3(3))
-l]
(128)
tQ,
(124)
A,
^7
+ Cl; K+Dlf-M^flor? Y2D (P'
rJ
(129)
).
The prime again indicates that these quantities are referred to the intrinsic
system. The perturbative terms are easily obtained in analogy to eq. (32).
The single-particle part clearly separates into a neutron and a proton
Q)
are all
Hamiltonian as long as residual interactions between the two odd nucleons
and the above-mentioned perturbative terms are neglected.

Assuming that the proton occupies the single-particle orbit cpas with energy
<?D(>) and the neutron is in the orbit <p with the energy ^
o
0n the following
possibilities for the wave function of /?, exists:
are ignored
Ax =
l-(|jt)"*^cos(y-l-4Tc),
A,=
A: =
l+(|7t) _i j!cosy.
-(!")"*? cob (7-4%),
(125)
are thus inversely proportional to the corresponding nuclear
radii, eq. (2.24).
a
2
i=i
where
The frequencies
i a
+iMo>
K = Z~
ZM
(123)
different
A,
triaxial
wr =
~^~^(l)~^3{2)) ]+
and
^
+4M[wV +a*V +bV ]+Cl-*+0l
2m
a
rn2
s.2 re
nucleus thus becomes formally equal to eq. (62),
8 0tf =
^
2J~
and considers the ^-coordinate not as a dynamical variable but

parameter characterizing the triaxial nucleus (see Chapter 7, and
The deformed
271
where
namely
(eq. (32)),
2
Newton (New-59,
ODD-ODD DEFORMED NUCLEI
ch. 9, 89J
The condition of
eq. (74)
leads to the analog of eq. (75) which
which assures incompressibility
<P+n,
<P+fliP+o.
^n,
= ô P +ô a
(130)
and
is
(131)
>o(ft y)
oo{[i -($*)"* cob (r+ J*)]
The
[1
In the
(v-Mltl +(t*)~* cos y]}"*.
-(|n)"*JJ cos
single particle solutions of the triaxial
deformed
shell
(126)
model
will
be used
later for the calculation of the collective potential energy surfaces.
more extensive discussion of these points we
refer to
Volume
For
3 of this
first
case the projections along the z'-axis of the angular
the rotational energies. Usually this energy difference
(1
30) or
(1 3
excited state.
9.9.
Odd-odd deformed
the
well.
odd-odd system
will
The
total
&a y
wave functions of HM +Bp and
the corresponding
energies are constructed analogously to the single-nucleon case (section
Neglecting
is
nuclei
The properties of odd-odd nuclei are for the most part determined by the
odd proton and the odd neutron. The proton and the neutron move in their
own deformed
is small compared to
and hence one of the configurations in eqs.
be the ground state while the other one will be a low-lying
the single-particle energies
series.
momenta of
two nucleons add, while they subtract in the second case. Since the collective Hamiltonian depends on the sum ]'
3uy +yH1) the configurations in
eqs. (130) and (131) will actually lead to nondegenerate states differing by
the
all
perturbation
effects, the
Hamiltonian of
|
(see eqs. (25)-(28))
/j
9.3).
/??,+/};,,
(127)
/ Af
The
result
is
K Q p Qa n 2 n
>
]/^ {DJkWv.0,9.0.
-(- 1/""!)!, -Afxlv *,^9. -Op 9. -a B }X|*-0 -nB

p
>(>?)
"o>,
(132)
272
[CH.
9,
7/2-152 jl
where
K-Qp -Q a = 0,2,
V,
273
ODD-ODD DEFORMED NUCLEI
CH. 9, 9]
VS-toA
7/2*(S33l
Ift-ltafl.
-J
(133)
I-\K\,\K\ + 1,\K\+2,
*S7
and
*21
373
+ {i|K-fip -fio
+ l+2n 2 )Er +(n +i)E,.
(134)
3*$
330
29*
completely similar. The analogy between eqs. (39) and (134) and between
eqs.
(60)
and (132)
K=
occurs if
|/M0C
0.
is
immediately obvious.
The wave
An
-*
S*
301
have presented the case of eq. (130) only, because that of eq. (131)
Here we
is
SO-btli
?so
interesting special case
function of eq. (132) then becomes

!L
1SL
Cp 2 n o (t> - l/^tl D'M0 *(i) 0$p <pin2 n

t
-J*
-3ii*r._jtil
ltwt
(135)
?
The two wave
odd. spins occur as
draw the conclusion that only even or

even nuclei, eq. (6.129); instead
the states in eq. (135).
tion
Hence one cannot
functions in the brackets are not identical.
all
spins /
0,
1,
we
did for even-
are possible for
2,
We will see below that there exists a residual
between the odd nucleons. The expectation value of
interac-
this interaction
be different for even and odd spins of the rotational band in eq. (135),
since eq. (135) depends on the phase ( if. Thus we expect a shift of the
will
"odd band" (odd members of the band) against the "even rotational band"
(even members of the band). This is, indeed, verified by experiments and is
166
Ho obtained by
shown in fig. 19 where the experimental spectrum for
and even spin
of
odd
Struble et al. (St-65a) is presented. This displacement
242
Am by Asaro
rotational bands was first observed in
values in K =
,.
?9
o-
146
Ho displayed so as to show the various
The different shift of odd and even spin members
of the band due to residual interaction and due to the phase factor (1)' in eq. (135) is
clearly displayed. The single-particle orbits of the odd nucleons are indicated at the top
Fig. 19. Experimental energy
In general the individual shell model
quantum numbers
and
Qp
give
the heads of two low-lying rotational bands with the spin sequences
-Q a \,[Q B -Oa + l, |Qp -fl| + 2,
J,
\a p
12
\Q a + a \,\Qn + Q p + l,\DB + Qp \+2,
of the two bands which arc constructed according to the rule stated in eq. (139).
mentally. Peker (Pe-57) also

nuclei having for their
state is often
showed
ground
of spin Iz or
that, indeed, for
state spins either /, or
odd-odd deformed
I2
the
first
excited
/, respectively.
as to which spin value, J\ or / 2 , gives precisely the ground
depends on the residual forces between the odd proton and the
odd neutron. In the spherical shell model this problem corresponds to the
Nordheim coupling (No-51, 50). These rules state that for odd nucleons
state spin
f>
spectrum for
rotational bands which appear (St-65a).
The question
et al. (As-60).
rise to
5}
(136)
in the spherical shell
nucleus
correspondingly for neutrons. This has been found to be correct experi-
orbitals /.
and jp
the spin of the
odd-odd
is
Bohr and Mottelson (Bo-53) originally suggested that one can expect that
for a given odd-odd nucleus the odd-proton orbital will be the same as in
the neighboring odd-A nucleus with the same number of protons, and
model
= \h~h\
for in
= lnh h =
IpTi,
for j a
'pi-
and
\j a
The
-j p \gl^h+jp
first rule is
known
lB
JP
37 >
as the strong rule. Plausibly, these rules state that
274
[CH. 9
the intrinsic spins of the last neutron and proton tend to cancel. These
empirical results have been supported theoretically by de Shalit (de-Sh-53)
(Br- 54) by showing that even for residual forces with finite
and by Brink
CHAPTER
range of the type
Vu =
-(!
- + *,- *,) V
for a larger than r$, the state /
\jn
-jp
'S
energetically well
below the
odd-odd nucleus if jp /p and ja / are of

have the same sign, the energy of the
these
quantities
opposite sign. When
stale 1 = jv +jB is lowered. For very large a it may even cross the state
-yn |. The spacing between the two configurations is, however, very small
|yp
Nuclear Hydrodynamics
other possible states of the
and weak perturbations can
10
(138)
f(r,j),
easily alter the order.
This model has been extended by Gallagher and Moszkowski (Ga-58) to
They assume that the projections of the intrinsic neutron

and proton spins, Z a and S p along the intrinsic axis always couple so as
deformed
nuclei.
to be parallel.
assumed that nuclear deformations are reasonably large

large deformations will A and E become independently
It is
because only for
good quantum numbers. For
realistic
deformations
this is
only approxi-
mately the case.
10.1.
was observed by Baldwin and Klaiber (Ba-47, 48) that the photosection exhibited a strong resonance (giant resonance) at
energies of the order of 15 to 20 MeV. This resonance was soon found in
other photon-induced reactions such as (y, n) (y, p), etc., and it has been
recognized that these photonuclear giant resonances are a general feature of
In 1947
it
fission cross
all
|G p -f2n
\fQ n = A B \,
nuclei.
Q p = A f Th
incoming photon
and
J-|O + n|
if
all
odd-odd
the spherical ones)
it
shown in
shells.
fig.
19 for
nuclei (not only the
/lpi.
deformed ones, but also
typical
16fi
They are mainly violated in the regions

spectrum of an odd-odd nucleus has been
Ho. The various bands corresponding
As we have
to the con-
counter
Fig.
J.
Scheme of a
seen, the special structure
band is clearly visible in this case, and in addition one can see
bands.
odd-even spin effect is absent for K ^
typical experimental setup for determining photon-induced particle
early review article
on
the deformed shell
model
is
that of
relates the collective aspects
deformed
shell
shown schematically
in fig.
If the
1.
model
of nuclear behavior. The relation of the
model to microscopic descriptions of the nucleus
Nathan and Nilsson (Na-65).
is
Y=J-e,
Kerman
(Ke-59). Davidson (Da-65c) has presented a general discussion of this
in the article of
is
photons were monochromatic, the measured yield
References
it
arrangement for measurements of photon-
induced reactions.
cross sections
as
typical experimental
K=
that this
An
spins.
figurations of eq. (139) are indicated.
of the
fl
b tarn
has been found that these coupling rules generally
account for the ground state

near closed
Q B = A a ,
%'Target
(139)
By considering
situation
the coupling rules for deformed nuclei:
Thus one obtains

J
The experimental
explored
where j
is
the incoming photon current and
incoming beam of
Y would
be given by
(1)
is
the cross section. In reality
The photon beam is usually obtained by a

bremsstrahlung process (e, e' y). The electrons in question come from a
betatron or a linear electron accelerator (LIN AC). Since in the (e, e'y)
however
this is not the case.
275
276
NUCLEAR HYDRODYNAMICS
[GH. 10,
CM. 10, 9 1]
277
EXPERIMENTAL. SITUATION
process photons of quite varied energies are emitted, the bremsstrahlung

has a spectrum as shown in fig. 2. One thus measures the electron energy
and the yield,
y(
)=
j(E,E
Je-o
) a (E)dE.
(2)
In order to obtain the cross section one has to solve this integral equation.
solution would be easy if the photon spectrum j(E, E ) had a simple
The
form such as
is
shown
in fig. 3.
Hi"
Fig. 2.
typical bremsstrahlung spectrum.
XZEi
fo
tEMj
bi
Fig. 3.
Schematic idealizations of the bremsstrahlung spectrum.
In the case of a square distribution

the solution of eq. (2)
is
(fig.
3(a)),
j(E)
m C=
constant,
simply
o(
i.
C
(3)
In the case of a triangular distribution
E = - cjb,
the solution of eq. (2)
(fig.
3(b)),
j(E)
= c+bE,
where
is
S;
(QUI )U0II3*S ISBJ3
278
The actual shape of/()
(fig.
2)
somewhere
is
in
[CH. 10, 2
between the two shapes of
3 with a divergence at small photon energies.
fig.
279
PHOTONUCLEAR REACTIONS
ch. 10, 2]
It is
therefore necessary
-m-
qi
that experiments be so accurate that the second derivatives of the yield, eq.
(4),
are well determined. This
energies,
E >
25
MeV, and
is
especially difficult to achieve for higher
therefore several unfolding techniques have
AÂ^y.
been developed (Pe-59, Coo-63).
different
approach was adopted
first
2i
by Goldemberg (Go-54) and by
Axel and collaborators (O'Co-62). This method is simply to "tag" the photon
energy within the bremsstrahlung spectrum by making the energy measurement on the straggled electron from the bremsstrahlung process. This
Fig. 6. Schematic
Region
photo -absorption spectrum. In region 1, discrete levels are observed.

levels in the continuum. The giant resonance appears in
shows absorption by
II
region
energy measurement then specifies the photon energy, and the straggled
electron is counted in coincidence with the product particle of the reaction
heavy nuclei at about 8
under study, whether
schematically represented in
it is
scattered
photons (G'Co-62) or neutrons emitted
found, however the
in a (y, n) process (Ku-67b).
MeV. The
III
(Hu-67).
level
scheme of an even-even nucleus
is
At low
energies only a few levels are
level density increases
as the energy approaches the
fig.
5.
method of producing monochromatic y-rays has been

pioneered by Tzara and collaborators (Mi-60, 62) and by Fultz and co-
particle emission threshold.
Beyond the threshold the nucleons can escape
and hence the
have widths which also increase. This leads
workers (Fu-62c). The method
quickly to an overlapping of the
The most
recent
is
to obtain a
beam of
positrons of small
make monochromatic y-rays by annihilation in flight.

As a typical example of a giant resonance we show the (y, n) cross section
40
for
Ca in fig. 4. Here one may already cbserve that the giant resonance
exhibits considerable substructure. The giant resonance is not a single peak but
splits up into several adjacent resonances. The nature of the important
energy spread and to
mechanism leading
to this structure will be discussed in Chapter 11.
photon absorption cross section
is
The most prominent
found around 12 to 20
feature of the
MeV
above the
r ^ 3-4 MeV occurs. This is shown in fig. 6. At low energies only a few
few broader levels
weakly-excited 1" states (dipole states) are found.
appear in the region
between the particle threshold and the giant resonance.
Because states in the continuum ( > 0; regions II and HI of fig. 6) decay

predominantly by particle emission rather than by y-ray emission, the widths
Schematic survey of photonuclear reactions

I
The photo-emission of nucleons is the most dominant photonuclear reaction. The threshold for proton or neutron emission appears in medium and
levels.
nuclear ground state where a strong resonance (giant resonance) of width
in
10.2.
levels there
region
and
and
II
II
III
depends
are
much
larger than in region
sensitively
upon
I.
The
structure in regions
the underlying shell structure of the
nucleus and therefore varies appreciably from nucleus to nucleus*. In

contrast the giant resonances are characterized by the following features:
AH nuclei show this broad photo-absorption peak.

center of the energy E varies slowly with A. One finds E x A~*
The
2).
for medium and heavy nuclei, and only for light nuclei do occur appreciable
1).
continuum
deviations from this rule (see
threshold
3).
The
overall width
fig.
7)**.
of the absorption peak varies roughly between 3
and 6 MeV, being small for closed-shell
nuclei
and
largest for nuclei with
very large deformations.
groundttott
* See Tor instance Hu-67.
*
Fig.
5.
Schematic
level
scheme for an even-even nucleus.
levels exist
Up
to the threshold only a
with increasing density towards the threshold.
few
The
variation with
of the resonance energy, the resonance width, the integrated
and the peak cross section were first given by Katz and collaborators
Mo- 53a) and by Nathans and Halpern (Na-54).
cross section
NIP CLEAR
280
HYDRODYNAMICS
[CH. 10, | 2
higher in the excitation energy,
30-
schematically in
**
mainly
the
4),
id)
&>
'
Resonance energy ^ K of the photonuclear giant resonance

number A.
The
absorption,
is
beyond the giant dipole resonance,
electric
meson
Above
8.
fig.
is
presented
the giant dipole resonance one expects
quadrupole and magnetic dipole absorption, while beyond
Ml
threshold
pion production should dominate the picture.
Let us attempt to understand the general nature of the underlying mech-
SO
7.
i.e.
281
other multipoles appear and disappear again. This situation
is-
Fig.
PHOTONUCLEAR REACTIONS
ch. 10, 2]
anism for the excitation of giant resonances. The giant resonances are
as a function of nucleon
of events:
very strong. The integrated cross section Jo-()d
generally exhausts the classical dipole
1). A photon is absorbed into the nucleus. The electric field E of the
photon wave induces a coherent motion of the protons in the direction
rule to within 10 or 20 percent
indicated
the giant resonance region (see
neutrons
sum
when the integration is extended over

Volume 2 of this series).
strongly resonating states. Their excitation occurs in the following sequence
in fig.
move
little cross section at higher energies up to the pion

MeV). Beyond the meson threshold, however, the cross
section rises again. As already mentioned, and as will be extensively discussed
in the second volume of this series the most important contribution to the
absorption cross section comes from electric dipole (El) absorption. This
because of center-of-mass conservation, the
in the opposite direction. Since the
electric field E(t)
There seems to be very
9 while,
nearly
is
homogenous over
wave length X 3> R, the
the nucleus;
it
is
of course
time-dependent.
threshold (a; 140
can be understood crudely
and
in the following
way. According to eqs. (1.16)
(kR)
(1.17) the dipole transition matrix elements are proportional to
while the quadrupole matrix elements are proportional to (kR)

the photon wave number and R is the nuclear radius. For 20
and a nuclear radius of 5 fm one has kR sw 0.5, which means
drupole transitions are
less intense
than the dipole ones. In
later that the integrated cross section
order of 10
{u()d
for
E2
3
,
where k
MeV
fact,
of the corresponding one for El transitions.
Fig. 9. Schematic illustration
photons
that the
we
transitions
is
qua-
The
electric field
of the mechanism for the excitation of the giant resonance.
(+ + +) upwards. Because of
move in the opposite direction.
of the photon pushes the protons'
conservation of the center of mass the neutrons
shall see
is
of the
As one goes
2).
The energy of
the coherent state
because the nucleons scatter each other
damping mechanism by a
fluids
of the nucleus.
friction
One can
is
distributed
(friction).
among
all
nucleons
We will later describe this
between the proton and the neutron
also say that a thermalization of the energy
occurs in the second step and thus leads to the disappearance of the coherent
mode.
microscopic description of the thermalization mechanism has been
Danos and Greiner (Da-65a).

Neutrons and protons are evaporated from the now complex giant
given by
3).
resonance configuration: the nucleus

E4.M3
f=
_V
pion threshold
Fig. 8. Schematic illustration
nucleons have, because of their origin, a
(pion production)
the
'
of the way
in
which higher multipoles
energy
is
increased.
photon energy
is
energy distribution for

photon
thermalization process.
pictorially in fig. 10.
cooling
off.
These evaporated
energy distribution.
When
same
the nucleons. This is the typical indication of a
We have presented this three-step mechanism
increased, one essentially continues to observe the
'
arise as the
is
statistical
282
COLLECTIVE
EXCITA TION
[ch. 10, 2
COOLING DOWN
PROCESS
THERMAL IZAT ION
HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL
ch. 10, 3]
283
103. The hydrodynamic model
Nuciear
Intcrartion
tph-
Historically,
2pt>
',
f-Absorption
-te
predicted the
three stages of a process in which a nucleus absorbs a photon
of the giant resonance energies to be hio
and emits a
idea into a two-fluid hydrodynamic nuclear model.
dynamic
which was
later
physical processes involved in the absorption of photons above the
and which
led to a broad understanding of the
resonance are analogous to the atomic phenomenon of photo-
the giant resonances.
ionization.
No
intermediate collective
mode
is
usually
left in
an excited state which
after-
extended to a
full
collective
It
is
this
approach
model theory (Da-64)
dynamics and structure of
up, but the final state
is set
contains a high energy nucleon which immediately disappears.
nucleus
~ A"
which indicate an A~* dependence. Soon
wards Steinwedel and Jensen (St- 50) incorporated the Goldhaber-Teller
nuclear particle.
giant
j4 -dependence
in contrast to experiments
Ground Slate of the Target Nucleus
The
for the giant resonance.
For example, they considered the vibrations of a proton sphere against a

neutron sphere (see fig. 1 ). This model, which is quite simple in its structure,
Emission
The
some possible explanations
Teller (Go-48) proposed
Particle
Fig. 10.
soon after the Baldwin and Klaiber discovery Goldhaber and
The
residual
later deexcites (cools off).
These direct processes can be divided into two groups:

1).
The
direct photo-ionization,
atomic photo-effect.
the recoil
photon
is
One nucleon
which
is
completely analogous to the
leaves the nucleus with high energy
taken up by the residual nucleus.
interacts directly with
One can
Fig.
11.
Simple schematic view of the Goldhaber-Teller
and
discussed above where the energies of the outgoing particles are always
The hydrodynamic model considers

fluids, the
proton
the density Q n (r,
fluid
t).
The
the nucleus as consisting of
total
t)
time-independent,
eoM-Cpt'.O+e-O'.O.
The quasi-deuteron process where
the
photon
interacts with
This assumption embodies nuclear incompressibility or, more precisely,
modes to nuclear compression

Moreover the basic idea of this model, namely to
represent the nucleus by interpenetrating fluids, already shows the limitations
of the model. For light nuclei with only a few nucleons this will certainly
the neglect of a coupling of giant resonance
photon carries nearly no momentum, the proton and

neutron (only this combination of nucleons has a dipole moment) proceed
in opposite directions. The recoil of the residual nucleus is usually small.
modes
The matrix element is of the form <f[e i,r/ *|i> where q is the photon
momentum, and thus one sees that an appreciable contribution to the
matrix element can be expected only when the nuclear wave functions also
not be a good approximation.
interior. Since the
i.e.
the nuclear
(see
Chapter
wave function has to

pfo)
is
an
The hard core of the nucleonto such "short-range correlations". Thus

interesting tool for the investigation
short-range correlations (Ei-67, Hu-68, Guy-68).
12).
pfo>
decrease at small proton-neutron distances.
nucleon interaction in fact leads
(5)
a proton-
neutron pair as they are colliding inside the nucleus. This can be thought of
as a photon which is disintegrating the "dynamical deuteron" in the nuclear
contain high Fourier components,
two
and the neutron fluid with

density of the nucleus, e ( r )> is assumed to be
with the density p (r,
statistical.
the quasi-deuteron process
nuclear excitation
also say that the
a single nucleon and pushes
it into the continuum. Therefore, by increasing the photon energy, the energy of the direct
nucleons is also increased in contrast to the process of thermalization
2).
mode of
involved in the photo nuclear giant resonance.
of
Fig. 12.
The
equilibrium distributions of the interpenetrating proton-neutron densities.
The
surface vibrations, indicated by
-*,
smear out the sharp surface.
NUCLBAR HYDRODYNAMICS
284
The proton and neutron
[CH. 10, 3
densities are time-dependent
due to an external
time-dependent perturbation such as the electromagnetic

In the absence of such a perturbation the nucleus
is
field
of a photon.
fig.
12.
The
surface thickness of the density which
is
observed experi-
be incorporated in the dynamic collective theory by the

inclusion of surface vibrations. This is symbolically indicated by the arrows
mentally
volume element of the fluid as a function of

the volume element is then given by
in equilibrium; the
0>
corresponding equilibrium densities are denoted by $ 0, (r) and
g (r)
p
respectively. They are assumed to be homogeneous distributions as shown
in
HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL
CM. 10,63}
will later
^t)
Similarly s p (()
and
s a (t)
volume element
in the
Here
it is
the time.
285
The
velocity v(t) of
= m-
(10)
describe the positions of the protons
and neutrons
at s(f ).
understood that the local velocities and the densities are defined
as average values over small
volume elements. These volume elements

size of the nucleus, but large enough to
which indicate the zero-point surface vibrations. It is then obvious

that a smearing out of the nuclear surface occurs. If there are local deviations
contain several particles. This again indicates that the theory
of the densities from their equilibrium values, the proton and neutron
applicability to
become separated. The force which counteracts this separation is

the symmetry energy. It is known from the Bethe-Wetzsacker mass formula
that for nuclei with N & Z an additional energy occurs in the binding of
tions in eq. (8) are carried out:
in
fig.
12,
fluids
nuclear matter which
is (see
shall
be small compared to the
medium and large nuclei.

The following subsidiary conditions have
as
(11)
o,
(12)
+v-(e D a) =
o,
(13)
This energy can be interpreted as being due to the local potential symmetry
(gpCM-g-O-
the varia-
(6)
-n
J
dt
energy
U,=
when
constant,
^+v.( CpBp
20 MeV.
limited in
Chapter 12)
k
to be fulfilled
is
t)f
dr,
(14)
(7)
(15)
nucleus
which
is
a minimum for q p {t)
0)
and e n (r) <m q&\ i.e. for the equihomogeneous densities shown in fig. 12 the
from eq. (7). Only the local separation of the
Qp
where n
is
The
protons and
the normal unit vector of the nuclear surface R(B,
(ft).
librium densities. Inserting the
relations in eqs. (12)
expression of eq. (6) results

nuclear fluids is important for the potential energy of eq.
neutrons respectively. They guarantee the conservation of protons and
Our aim is now
neutrons.
(7).
to derive the equations of
motion for the proton-neutron

system under the influence of the asymmetry energy. They shall be derived,
following Danos (Da-61 ), from Hamilton's principle,
and (13) are the continuity equations for
The conditions
in eqs. (14)
the two fluid system
is
T=
5
where the Langrangian
JLdr =
0,
L = T-U.
(8)
(e
y+
p
e a vl)dr.
(16)
introducing the relative velocity
t>,
is
(17)
(9)
and U denote the kinetic and potential energies respectively. In

hydrodynamics one characterizes the motion by the coordinates s(t) of a
Here
iJW
nucleus
By
for conservative forces
and (15) assure that neither protons

The kinetic energy of
nor neutrons are flowing through the nuclear surface.
the reduced density
QpQn
(18)
286
and
[CH. 10, 3
HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL
CH. 10, g 3]
the center- of-mass velocity
JdrSiv
v =
(e
>(+&.
O.
(19)
where A
Go
If
one can rewrite Fas a sum of center-of-mass and

the form
T=
(e
K 2 +e red
2
t.
energy in
relative kinetic
continuity equations (12)
= oJdTda(e P +e n ),
interested in describing classically the excitation
we have
of the giant resonances,
)dT.
This contains,
yield
(21)
3f
dt
eq. (19). Since the total density
is
constant in time and
firstly,
a damping term. The nonconservative friction force
taken proportional to the relative velocity of the two
V =
it
we
simulates what
width of the
shall later call the spreading
giant resonance. This refers to that part of the width which

0,
(22)
heating
as
fluids and, further-
more, proportional to the product q p q b The latter condition ensures

that the friction vanishes if one of the densities, q 9 or Q a , vanishes. The
friction then comes only from the movement of one fluid against the other
fluid. It just
we have
(28)
nucleus
and (13)
two additional
(-Mr e di'-(8s D -8s n )+e p K*5 Sp )dT.
SA
(20)
J*
space,
and the damping
to include at this point
terms in the variational procedure,
is
where we have used
(27)
a Lagrange multiplier.
is
we are
nucleus
The
267
must be for the motion of a volume element of an incompressible
fluid.
Furthermore, the continuity equations yield
up
the nucleus,
collective state to the
to the dissipation of energy
i.e.
many
comes from
from the coherent
incoherent configurations. The second term in
eq. (28) contains the interaction of the protons with the electromagnetic
field.
?^=-v-( e d .)-v-( e ,i0
The
vector
stands for the Lorentz force
(23)
K = eE+-x> xH,
(29)
s>
which, because of eq. (22), can also be written
E and H
where
are the electric and magnetic fields respectively.
In order to avoid interruptions in our subsequent discussion a few remarks

(24)
shall
be made here on the partial integrations to be carried out
variational procedure.
The total potential energy

Coulomb energy
U=Ut+ Vc = K
f
J
is
a sum of the symmetry energy eq.
and the
will
fc^ dT+i ^
go
0o
gpW^'W
(25)
surface.
nucleus
Hamilton's principle, eq.
(8),
and
8s a of the orbits of the corresponding
not have any component at the nuclear surface which
\r-r'\
Hence
all
can be applied
total
is
(15), the
volume element will

perpendicular to the
it
follows that
V-(P(r)5s p)dx
(30)
0,
DUCleiU
(26)
and
*
However, in order to take the conservation of the

into account we add to eq. (26) the term
is
and
surface integrals proportional to normal components of
os p or Ss a will vanish. In particular,
= 5\Ldt = fdt(5T-5U).
the
carried out under the assumption that the surface of the liquid drop
variations s p
|T
JJ
in
occur partial integrations which are to be
time-independent*. Furthermore, in analogy to eqs. (14)
nucleus
Now
(7),
There
number of nucleons
We
will also consider the very important effect
giant resonances in Chapter
of a vibrating nuclear surface on the
below. Since, however, the surface motion
than the giant resonance motion (aciiabaticity), the above assumption
is
much slower
is still justified.
288
0,
(31)
nuileui
where P(r) and Q(r) are arbitrary scalar functions, since according to
Gauss' law
V-WdT=
HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL
ch. 10, 31
Furthermore, because of the continuity equation, one finds
V-(Q(r)SOdT
[ch. 10. 3
W-do,
^|&+Vnb-^+^(*^T**-il,- -*?'*.
and also
= ^ +(v vk.
(32)
dr
nucleus
where
dff is
and
we may
return to the variational problem of
H -,i-t H
I*
(33)
similarly for
<5 n
Then
the continuity equations (12) and (13) yield
Se P
8e D
= -ev-Ss B
-CpV'Ss,,,
(34)
dc/d/.
Thus one
gets
jdr5T =
-M JdrdT {e
We now
and
dgjdt and
Similar formulas hold for
One has
(27).
(39)
of
turf tec
the infinitesimal surface normal vector.
After these general remarks,

eqs. (26)
[gÊ
p
+( p
V)t>
p]
5s p + e
+ (*
V)rD
[J~
consider the variation of the potential energy
convenience
we
start first
with the symmetry energy
(7,
fa.)
(40)
of eq. (25). For

and introduce the
>2
1~\i
(41)
(35)
Co
Go
Qo
Then
Because of eqs. (5) and (11) one has
(<?o-2e P)
8c P
abbreviations
and
= -Sg n
(36)
(42)
de p
We now calculate the variation of the kinetic energy, eq. (26), using eq. (16).
One
(38)
^" =
dV
_ 8k
O&p
has
(43)
(?0
and
jdiSr = M\ didT{e p e ,-8i)p +c

I
eD -5p D +ie n
5e
I)
(44)
8eB
One then
+ ie P
Vv
8s P+iCnn
V'8
obtains for the variation of
fVi. - jd,d t
M \di di Lp v - Sj+ Co t - 5sJ

-
- - M J*d< di
{jj-
(e p *p )
{<>
8sp
Si p
dt dt
( Co
V Up + <? 8s n
= dfJIdxF- J\dxF\'
because of fdt
df
J
w^, +
.?v. 5sp >
=jdrdTieo(^-ep^")v*Ssp.
*
Eq. (45) can be further transformed by the use of eq. (30),
8sj
JdiSpU,
- Af
eB
cB },
i Co fdidt8s p
-V(e p <?'-#).
(37)
In analogy one obtains

t.
jdt 8
U = -iQ Q jdt dt Ss n
t
(e n
<?'
+ <?).
(45)
290
NUCLEAR HYDRODVNAMICS
[ch
10. 3
Thus
en.
The
j*diSt/,
HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL
10, 3)
final
term needed in the variational principle for the
to the hydrodynamic model
= J'df(Sp t/I + S n t/ )
is
which we write
eq. (28),
classical
in the
approach
form
jdl^ = jdtdt{(- MF tta n+Q p K)^ + MT Q ttd vSs a

Sl>
Hamilton's principle
0=jdf{5r-S/+SN + S,4},
+ j df dr [ Cp ( V*)
We now
JdfS(/ c
now
dtdre p Q n S"{Vg p ) -(SSp-osJ
In the last step
is
(51)
}.
we have made
Ss p + e n {V<?)
Ss].
where we have included the contributions of eqs. (27) and (28). Since both
5s p and Ss are varied independently, one gets by inserting eqs. (40), (46),
use of cq. (44).
= jdte 1 jdT5g p (r)jdz'

{
(49)-(51) into (52) and by gathering
Coulomb energy
investigate the variation of the
(52)
(46)
?l +JJdTdT'c
(r) ftl
(r')5-L-
all
terms proportional to
<5s
and Ssn
Mg [+(.. -v>.]
p
-e P e n ^"Ve p -e p v^-ee p v*+e p v i-Mr e d e+ 0p i:,
(53)
+ Jdra p (r)V.6 JpJdT'i^l}.
(47)
and
Here the Coulomb potential
<P
0=
can be introduced
r-rIn eq. (47) r and

p
+(Ba
[o7
"
vK
]
+ e P a. *" Ve p - Q a v<?+ 8n vx+Mr QltA
and
<5s
" Men
in eq. (47)
r'
Subtracting the
first
of these two equations from the second, one gets
(48)
r-f
have been interchanged. One can further introduce the
V VK-OWK + ^'cp+^w+
r +re " h*>
M
M
M
at
by using eq. (34):
and by taking the continuity equations (12) and

J
(54)
t>.
d*5t/ c
= +
= JdtdTeep(V#)'5s p
Go
into
a suitable form
lx
Both
I)
relations (55)
fluid system
(<?> + <> 8s)Va}
(&,&% + q b os b ),
ot
Jdr5iV=JdrdT{A(8g p +8e +e V-5i p +e v-8s n )
= jdtdzVi
and
(49)
Next we transform the subsidiary condition of eq. (27)
(13) into account
adding both equations
d/dT[*8ep+e p *V-8sp+ep8sp -F*]
internal
(50)
Qo
and (56) are the exact equations of motions of
where the two
and external
forces.
(56)
the two
have different behavior with respect to

The term V (&).) describes a hydrodynamic
fluids
pressure. There also occur nonlinear terms in the velocities of the

(c
V)c which give
rise
to vorticity.
form
292
[CH. 10, 3
we will linearize these equations by simply dropping the

One can easily estimate that the nonlinear effects are,
In the following
nonlinear terms.
in fact,
of order 10
compared to the
linear effects (Da-65b).
HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL
ch. 10, 3]
neglect the effect of the electrostatic
We then have
a^_
ep +
S@&*-*
(57)
Mg
This
and
Thus we are
left
with
is
r 3e E
(62)
e^3(
A* Co
a wave equation with damping. The
solutions of this equation are
determined from the boundary condition
8k
(58)
In this approximation the continuity equation (24) also acquires a simpler
form
Me
Note
"VCp
f
= R<3, ^)
n*K
M
(63)
'
= K<9,rt
that the electromagnetic field does not appear in the
wave equation
(62), but only in the boundary condition (63). If the same approximations
are applied to eqs. (57)
and
+
3t>
where
(0)
n
ered
gp Qn
= _
form
3F
t>-Vg p ,
r
_!& + 8k _*
v *p-
-Ve p +r* =
o,
(64)
and
c-Ve fed and (ed - e})V e are

also of second order in the fluctuation densities. Now, taking the divergence
(V ) of eq. (57) and using eq. (59) we have
of the
Mqo
3f
Co
terms
become
(58) these
(59)
0/
because
forces.
the equation
3(
Coulomb
293
3tf
isr-T;^ 1
^
e
at
It is
obvious from the
last
(65)
'
equation that V(<f
X) describes a
hydrodynamic
pressure.
We
Using eq. (57) we can also write the boundary conditions

(14) and (15)
more suitable way. Namely, we realize that
(>)
can easily investigate the center-of-mass motion, which
in eq. (65). Since
operator (V
in
V V=
0, eq. (22),
is
contained
follows from applying the divergence
it
to eq. (65) that
V 2 (^-A) =
0,
(66)
and thus
.55p.
#-
+a.
(67)
3/
Hence
eq. (65) reduces to
3^
follows from eqs. (14) and (15), and thus these boundary
conditions are
equivalent to
8k
+
r>H(),fi)
There are
still
A4
some further approximations
V*
0.
(68)
dt
By applying
0.
the curl operator to eq. (65) one gets
(61)
VxV = C
r-K(S,rt
possible in eq. (60). In fact,
the interaction with the electromagnetic field contains
two terms, V E
an electromagnetic
and V (cj, x H). The first of these is identically zero for

wave (no sources). The second one is small since it is proportional
to
and the magnetic field H is very weak. Furthermore, for
simplicity
c
p
we
where
C is constant. We will
the curl (V
determine
its
(69)
value
later. Similarly,
by applying
operator to eq. (64) one finds
- Vxp+rVxe =
3(
0,
(70)
294
[CH. 10,
Because of eq. (77) one has from eq. (64)
with the solution of the form
Vxp =
/4(r)e
-n
to the case of
no
vorticity.
we
find after taking
(72)
0,
introducing a velocity potential
<p
(73)
vorticity of the center-of-mass
motion of the
fluids
is
and thus
physics only to
Our
<p(r, f)
(74)
M Qm
(81)
and (80)
without
is
Thomson
motion
is
(82)
vorticity, Le.
C=
scattering (see
will
to
0. It
a constant in space and time.
which
with the vorticity
identical
assume
that the
then follows that
We
can therefore
contribute in photonuclear
Volume 2 of
this series).
now
is
described by the two quantities g p (r, t) and
They obey the eqs. (62) and (74), which we write here again
two-fluid system
only.
C.
more reasonable
fluids. It is
forget the center-of-mass motion,
= V<p,
0,
Vxp p = Vxc a =
Vx V =
he time derivative of eq. (64)
dt
eqs. (78)
of the proton and neutron
Vxo =
By
and thus from
Thus the
oscillation of the system to the case
(Ve p xc)
(71)
where A{r) is some vector. Hence, if there should be some vorticity in the
system at a given time, it will damp out according to eq. (71). Without loss
of generality we can restrict ourselves in the study of proper modes of
i.e.
HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL
ch. 10, 3]
for clarity,
9r
(83)
Br
with boundary condition

1
solution of eq. (74)
is
(75)
o,
(84)
dt
with the boundary conditions
of the form
<p(r, t)
9jp
8V +w vV-r-^
=
m
The
9(
<?0
9>(r)^(t).
(85)
(76)
Sic
We
will
determine the complete detailed solution
already conclude here that dvfdt
is
parallel to
9c M
11
ST
fact
which
We now
will
Since q
c =
=
t>,
(77)
Both quantities
tinuity
V<p| f=
VxF
-q p
and Vg a =
q*c =
-Ve p
9<? P
K|,.=R(3,e)-
(86)
*-e}vV =
o.
(87)
dt
(78)
We
have introduced above the velocity
u1
[1
,)
and q p are connected with each other through the con-
yields
e p Vxi> p +(Ve
jt(a t
equation (59)
which gives
Co
cp
be of use in the following.
return to eq. (72), which
to eq. (69)
However, we can
"'
Vxr p = Vxn
and
later.
XB p )+0 Vxo
Il
11
+<v*e o
xBn )-
(79)
is
8kC = 8kZN
M
MA
(88)
'
a kind of sound velocity and characterizes the velocity of spreading
of a density fluctuation in the nucleus.
one obtains
vxD n +e P Vx+(?e p xii).
which
m,
We now
(80)
have two major items to study.
We
must
establish the complete
solutions of these classical hydrodynamic equations (83)-(87),
and derive
296
[Cft. 10,
CLASSICAL DIPOLE SOLUTIONS OF THE HYDRODYNAMIC EQUATIONS
CH. 10, 4]
the classical formulas for the absorption cross section, and in addition we
must derive a Hamiltonian function

quantize this function,
10.4.
The
classical
i.e.
in
297
Oscillating electric
dipole field
terms of the fluctuating density and
quantum mechanics.
carry out the transition to
dipole solutions of the faydrodynamic equations for a
spherical nucleus
of coordinates used for treating the hydrodynamic model.
Fig. 13. Definition
We
proceed in this section with the solution of eqs. (83) (87) for a spherical
nucleus. In this case the radius
a^ in the relation
all the
problem we can
solve.
(2.
by
just given
is
vanish: a Xll
0.
This
/?(&, <p)
is,
much
structure in the giant resonances.
proton density e p (i%
the fluctuating density e P (0)
model.
split
9r r=*
is
the angle between
-^-r 5^ =
o,
0p(O)
"SjceJOn
L.
"
C.o
Ukr) y10 (S,
"*U
6>
U,
L-J
1,.^
= kR
q>)
Cj^kr) cos
9,
(97)
eM
ZkqJO
cg R
C=
R<
(98)
)
(99)
8fC P(0) A(z)-z/a(z)

It will
(92)
)-kR Q j 1 (kR
j 1 (kR
(91)
eq. (90)
be noticed that with the boundary condition of eq. (95) or, more
precisely, with the simple r-independent electric field
shown
in fig.
13,
restricted ourselves to dipole excitations only. Indeed, only the
Yl0 in eq. (96) is selected by the boundary condition.

For a more systematic investigation of the normal modes of the density
term proportional to
where
we refer to section
The amplitude C in eq. (99)
fluctuations
(94)
ur \
ml
at values of z such that the
search for those solutions of eq, (93) which are excited by an electric
shown
with
we have
dipole held as
left
(90)
dt
(93)
We
is
(96)
or introducing z
Vlf| r = Ko
boundary condition, we are
the
lOO
the ansatz
from
general solution
where
iKr.O-flMe""'*.
get
The
fig. 13).
= T Clm j,(kr)YU3,<p).
t}(r)
8ce P (0)
we
r (see
(89)
with the boundary condition
Making
E and
(95)
of the form
Upon imposing
Q p (0)tl+ri(r,t)l
,(r,o-
eEQ
cos 9,
8Ke p(0)
dt}
where 9
which can now be written as
eq. (91)
dt
boundary conditions of
the equilibrium density e p (0) and
(83) then becomes
^v
the
be discussed
convenient to
indicates
is,
of great impor-
collective
field.
rj(r, t),
e P (r,t)
The wave equation
t) into
it is
is
It will
on the theory of the dynamic
In order to proceed with the solution of eq. (83),

total
that
We are neglecting the coupling of the density fluctua-
in full detail in Chapter 11
up the
of course, the simplest
tions to nuclear surface degrees of freedom. This coupling
tance and leads to
= R
the oscillating electric dipole
in fig,
13.
The stationary solutions have to
satisfy
j^z)
10.5.
exhibits a resonance behavior.
denominator vanishes, that

zj 2 (z)
or
tan z
It
has poles
is
2z
2-z
'
(100)
298
Table
Ich. 10,
CH. 10, 4]
CLASSICAL DIPOLE SOLUTIONS OF THE
Experimentally
Roots of the transcendental equation tan z
2i/(2
fio) p as
it
found that the
is
S0xA~* MeV. Thus
HYDRODYNAMIC EQUATIONS
the resonance energies are proportional to
mode
frequency of the vibrational

1
2.08
5.95
9,20
12.42
resonance
giant
the agreement
is
299
energies
The
quite good.
A~* comes about
lie
at
fact that
because the
proportional to the reciprocal of the
is
length (nuclear radius) along which the vibration takes place.
We
have thus
fluctuations
assumed that the dipole mode, n
far
can be
1,
of the density
The justification
for this assumption comes from the fact that, as we shall show below, the
normal mode n =
has by far the largest absorbtion cross section. For this
purpose we shall also need the dipole moment D. Since in fig. 13 we have
identified with the giant resonances.
large n
taken the polarization direction
&i
where we have
explicitly inserted the Bessel functions
solutions of eq. (100) are
From
eq. (94)
we
summarized
in table
from
eq. (8.10).
= ee P (0)j
dtzrj(r)
E of the dipole field along the z-axis, we have
= ee p(0)|
= eCe p (0)JdTr;
1.
(fcr)
or
= $* ~
or,
<On
+V,
C from
by inserting
Here we have used f nR
where
moment
(103)
Rq
Hence the proton-neutron
fluid
system exhibits eigenmodes whose frequen-
a nonzero
1.
We
will
T and
ER 2 A
WZ
/jzi/8k
ii
i/ 2k
fie
putting
.....
h(z)
2
A.
The components
is
Dx and Dy of the dipole

fig.
13
expand f[z)
For z
oo
it
the induced
m kR Si
a meromorphic function. The only singularities for
the zeros of the denominator.
We now
z;i(z)-z ; 3 (z)'
(107)
finite
k are
has an essential singularity.
in partial fractions,
with
(108)
e
r 4*
<R
We find
(106)
zj,(z)-z j 2 (z)'
vanish in our special case, since the electric field indicated in
m
which
e P(0)A(R o ),
moment only along its direction.

In order to exhibit more clearly the resonance behavior of
dipole moment, we investigate the function
not
have
induces a dipole
electric field .
Let us estimate the resonance energies by neglecting
4NZ/A 2
by eq. (103). At the resonances, the amplitude
finite if there is
= |
eq. (99),
D _
(102)
tj(r)
ep(0)[(Kr) ; 2 (fer)]2
8k
remain
cos
get
(101)
cies are given
dtrcos 9
The
for n
1,
z,
2.08
hai
and k
as
70 x
mc 2
mc 2
20
MeV
,4***
MeV.
where the expansion
coefficients are obtained
C" " +
from Cauchy's theorem:
'
2lti
(105)
z-z.
f
pole
/(z }dz '-

300
Now,
since /(z) has only simple poles
it
[CH, 10,
can be written
in the
CLASSICAL ABSORPTION CROSS SECTION
10, 51
and from
form
/<>-*
CH.
eq. (103)
z.
(110)
_
= ^0
..2
v
h(z)
where g(z) and h(z) are the numerator and denominator of

respectively.
The
eq.
(107)
first
quantity
into eq. (116)
C are then given by
coefficients
The
we
/(*)
(in)
complex, and the second one
is
"
we
-2
-2
Y
z/ -2
lQ
fc'W
Expressing the Bessei functions in terms of cos z and sin
z,
eq. (8.10),
1
- -t
sin z.
z cos z
"
1 /.
= -j
(tan z-zn
cos z.
z,
now
This expression
>.
).
(112)
tan z
(V3)
classical
1
=z,
a>
-V + ir<
a>
2
.(a>
-vB 2 -irq>
(118)
-v 2 ) 2 +r 2 cu
It will
be very useful in the next section
absorption cross section.
classical absorption cross section
The absorption
cross section
defined as the average energy absorbed per
is
and incoming energy
one has immediately

C.
and therefore
The
unit time
2-z/
Inserting this into eq. (112)
10.5.
Inserting these
exhibits quite lucidly the resonance behavior of the
induced dipole moment, eq. (106).
where we derive the
The values zn are the zeros of the denominator h(z) in eq. (107) and thus the
same as the resonance values obtained previously in eq. (100) and listed in
table 1. In particular it follows from eq. (100) that they satisfy the relation
"
find easily
_
C
is real,
find
flux
_ (*-flu
(119)
(114)
where the average incident
2-z
flux
see eq. ((108))
of the electromagnetic wave
S t =
~E
is
given by
(120)
x
8n
'
(115)
-
\z
2-z
z-z
These formulas hold when the
and negative values of

Since the solutions of eq. (113) are always symmetrical pairs, z = a,
we can sum explicitly over the positive and negative poles in eq. (115) and
Here the sum
is
z.
carried out over both positive
quantities. If complex notation
section
is
electric field
and dipole moment arc
real
used, as in the present treatment, the cross
is
tr
Re (* D)
(121)
find
n = y 2
where
now
We now
fl_
2
the
\zm
sum
l\ = y
_1_
z z+zj
zz
-1
2
zn
moment from eq. (106), using eq. (118), and assuming a

harmonic time-dependence for the field E ~ e" ia" and also for the induced
dipole moment D ~ e~ ia", we easily find
Inserting the dipole
(116)
goes over positive values only.
express z and z in terms of
to
and
v, eq. (102),
and write
in
analogy to eq. (101)

z
2
fc
= ^-(w 2 +ira>),
eÊR/A.,-
Sir
cE
4ne
(117)
cM
8k
NZ
^S
A tz
2
1)
..
/WJ
r& 2
-2(v 2 - t0 2 ) 2 +r 2 eu
(122)
302
[CH. 10, 5
ihe classical absorption cross section exhibits a typical resonance

which the individual resonances have a Lorentzian shape.
Thus
ch. 10. 5]
CLASSICAL ABSORPTION CROSS SECTION
303
very general grounds that
structure, in
The question now
arises as to
by the frequencies
which of the various resonances characterized
v is strongest,
This question
is
especially important in
order to identify the giant resonance with one of the dipole modes v. We
therefore evaluate the integrated cross section |ff,,(oj)da) over the various
resonances. Let us start with the integral
2
')* (o>
+r 2 o)
(o 2 -v Bn ) 2 +rW
J
Jo
(y
where
and a
tt)/F
it
dy
~a
2 2
)
which
is
combine
rule
is fulfilled
+y
a 2 jx we obtain
rule. It
is
now
hydrodynamics.
in classical
interesting to see
To achieve
this
we
and (116),
eqs. (107)
(123)
sum
called the classical dipole
how this sum
/a()
vjf. Changing the variables y

/
and
(130)
z;i(z)-2
=
j 2 (z)
2
2,
-2
-z
(131)
2'
(-z 2 ), and
take the limit z-k. Using the asymptotic behavior

of the Bessel functions, eq. (8.12), we easily find
multiply by
2dx
Jo (* 2 - fl 2 ) 2 + x
(124)
,
*
follows that
-2
1.
(132)
This expresses the important result that the hydrodynamic model exhausts
Jo
tf-Jf+y
(2\
v
We
tf-ey+y
2J0 (y
the classical
-a 2 f+y 2
(125)
loo
sum
rule.
general arguments,
example, that the dipole
(>
mode
of table
-v
Tardea
f"
do)
2 2
fl
)
rW "Jo
-vB
(ca
2 2
)
rW
i.e.
*"'
(126)
84
'
VJ
ff(cu)dtu
is
is
2nV
= -
2
NZ~
2, -j
Afc
f,
i4
z,
-2
(133)
sum in eq. (130), we are justified in identifying the n = I

with the experimentally observed strong giant resonance.
its energy, eq. (105), in good agreement with observation, but it
to the
is
also in accord with the fact that the integrated experimental cross section
over the giant resonance nearly exhausts the sum

(127)
derived from very
mode
dipole
Not only
and the integrated cross section
is
already contributes
=
7h mî =0M
fv.
Ja
rule of eq. (130)
extremely useful and practical. Since we find, for
in.
therefore have
sum
Since the
it is
Let us
now
rule.
determine the polarizability a of the nucleus, which
is
classically defined as
The
so-called oscillator strengths/, are defined
by the equation
(see
Volume
44 $*l.
E(m,
2 of this series, Chapter 5)
(.34)
t)
'
..
2n e
(128)
i
and we
model
find
Me
Using
by comparison with eq. (127) that in the classical hydrodynamic
NZ
A
2
z
eqs, (106)
and (118) we have
(129)
-2
It can be proved (see section 5.6 of the second
volume of
this series)
on
()
and
A I
n
-2 V-tt/-iroJ
(135)
in particular for the static limit
NZ~
A
2
z
-2
(136)
304
Making use of
eq. (127)
write
e
JVZ
o-jfcujdoj
-ikf
rule.
We have according to eqs. (131)
and (103)
Kg
Inserting z }
2n 2 e
JVZ
(1+a).
(140)
A z/-2
Mc
2.08 and fitting the various experimental values for the inte-
grated cross sections one again finds a
0.2 to 0.3. This
as
is
in agreement
2,
-2
z,,
h(z)
305
with the Bethe-Levinger calculation of the exchange-force correction to the

_
J"
Jo
(137)
This provides a second convenient sum
E2/-2
REFINEMENTS OF THE MODEL
ch. 10, $ 6]
given by
we can
ff(co)d
(0)
[ch. 10. j
sum
= 0.2%.
Le-50 and Chapter 5 in Volume 2 of
rule (see
this series).
zA(z)-z .Mz) i-0
(138)
gives 0.199 for the coefficient
It is easily estimated that the first terra already
of
i?
/w
compared with 0.2
most important one.

Let us summarize our
model
sum
rule
is
all
7)
The
results thus far.
classical
is
1 is
the
hydrodynamical
and ex-
first
sum rule. Approximately 84 % of

dipole mode (n = I). Also the experi-
A~* dependence
of the giant resonance energies (see
of the classical dipole
contained in the
mentally observed
fig.
Again the term with n
reproduces the position of the resonance energy quite well
hausts almost
the
in eq. (138).
predicted by the hydrodynamical
model
Fig. 14.
tion.
largest part of the surface thickness
Boundary
boundary
at
conditions:
.
model
oscillations will
There are several refinements to be made in the hydrodynamical model

presented so far. Of overall importance are the following items.
of the nuclear forces
a). Exchange corrections: An appreciable fraction
to a
arc exchange forces. They allow the exchange of charge from a proton
neutron and simulate virtual meson exchange. This, in effect, produces a
nucleons
variation J> of the dipole moment with no mechanical motion of
involved
*.
One may
take this effect into account by introducing an effective
mass (Da-61)
M*
(139)
as
by
-.
We have taken a square distribution with a rigid
In reality the surface
Fermi distribution
10,6. Refinements of the
comes from the surface vibrations, which
are indicated
b).
(eq. (105)).
A Fermi distribution such as might be used to describe the nuclear charge distribu-
The
shown
in fig. 14.
is
given by something resembling a
One might suppose
smear out the nuclear surface, and
case as has been found in the theory of
this is
muonic atoms
that the surface
indeed partly the
(Pie-68).
There are
however, that the surface of the intrinsic nucleus already
indications,
exhibits a finite surface thickness. Nevertheless, the inclusion of the

cal surface into the theory is of the greatest
the giant resonances. It will be fully discussed in Chapter

c).
the
Coulomb
Coulomb
shown that
an increase
corrections:
We
Coulomb
1 1
have, for simplicity, neglected the effect of
force after eq. (62).
the
dynami-
importance for the structure of
Danos and Steinwedel (Da-51) have
forces contribute to the restoring force
in the resonance frequency of 2 to 3
and give
for the heaviest nuclei.
This effectively accounts for the fact that in the oscillations of the charge
parameter
the nucleons participate only with a fraction of their mass. The
a depends on the strength of the exchange forces. By fitting the energy of
experiment,
the giant dipole resonance to be in complete agreement with
is included,
correction
When
this
and
0.3.
0.2
one finds a to lie between
Fig. 15. Nuclei
resonance
the integrated cross section, eq. (128), for the giant dipole
is
giant resonance due to the
mass of quasi-particles see section 9.6 of Volume
3.
For the concept of the
effective
which are deformed into
two
ellipsoidal shapes will exhibit
different frequencies
two peaks
in the
of oscillation along the longer and
shorter intrinsic axes respectively.
306
[CH. 10, 6
Deformed nuclei: We have discussed the hydrodynamics for spherical

up to now. We know, however, that the rotating nuclei are statically
deformed. Danos (Da-58) and Okamoto (Ok-58) have thus studied the
hydrodynamical model for an axially symmetric ellipsoid. In the spherical
d).
section will be given by
nuclei
case three degenerate giant dipole
(see next section). In the case
of the ellipsoid these three
split into
cillating along the
modes
modes exist
degenerate modes
long axis of the ellipsoid
two, one
mode
os-
15) and two degenerate
(fig.
oscillating in the plane perpendicular to the long axis. Since the giant
<f
where aa and
trh
axes.
Hence it follows for the frequencies that

is
(143)
i<*a +frb,
when
ized parallel to the a- or 6-axis respectively (see
the photons are polar-
fig. 16).
There are actually
two of them are equal in length. This is taken into account

obtain either
by the statistical factors J and $ multiplying <r and ab To
Now, since
fig.
16,
in
shown
as
nucleus
the
align
aa or ab it is necessary to
three axes, but
<7
fft
144 )
<D t oc
Rf
'
that
is
the energies
are expected to be proportional to the reciprocal radii.
of Danos show that this
are the cross sections obtained
resonances are standing sound waves in the nucleus, one expects normal
modes of wavelengths A,
R t where E are the radii in the three ellipsoidal
307
REFINEMENTS OF TUB MODEL
ch. 10, 6]
indeed true to
The exact calculations

a very good approximation. He
the absorption cross section of a
shown
deformed nucleus must have the shape
in fig. 17.
finds (Da-58)
E
a
= nntt
0.911 b
6
irtM
+0.089
or
Eb -Ea
_
=
0.911
For a quadrupole shaped nucleus one
finds
from
ffl
(p.
(141)
eq. (2.25) that if y
'
(ei
lb)
raj
symmetric nuclei) then
(axially
and
T'i-k^*^ 1
where
is
(142b)
/?
the shape of the nucleus.
If the nuclei are
randomly oriented, the

t
total absorption cross
For
between the photo-absorption cross section and
and (c) oblate

model are indicated.
(a) spherical, (b) prolate,
tions of
the nuclear deformation. Thus, in the case of deformed nuclei,
the absorption cross section exhibits two peaks in the giant resonance region.
The separation of the two peaks (see fig. 17) is proportional to the deforma-
tion
Fig. 17. Schematic picture of the relation
the collective
nuclei, the predic-
upper component of the giant resonance contains

we have a prolate
twice as much integrated cross section as the lower one if
for oblate nuclei
versa
vice
and
17(b))
b;
fig.
(or a >
nucleus, i.e.
O >
For deformed
(fig. 17(c)).
nuclei the
Thus the form of the
gives direct information not only
giant resonance absorption cross section
on the magnitude but
also
on
the sign of
the nuclear deformation.
The
splitting of the giant
resonance in deformed nuclei was discovered
independently by Fuller, Weiss and
Fig.
16.
The
Hayward
(Fu-58a, b) and by Spicer and
(Pa-59, Mi-62,
Thiess (Sp-59). In all deformed nuclei measured so far
of the
observations
Br-63, 64, Co-59), prolate shapes have been found. The
effect
of nuclear alignment on the photo-absorption cross section for a

deformed nucleus.
constitute the
of the giant resonance due to nuclear deformations
to the shape of
cases where the strong coupling of the dipole resonance
splitting
first
308
We
the nuclear surface were observed.
generally the case,
and
and that
found -if the
dynamical oscillations
in fact
shall see,
much more
(CH. 10, 7
however, that
this
is
quite
this definition assures that
structure will be predicted
(147)
abandoned and instead the

of the surface are incorporated into the theory. For a
static
approach
is
more complete theoretical treatment we

dynamic collective model.
refer to the next chapter
on the
m
is
Since
we have followed the classical development of

nuclear hydrodynamics. In particular we treated all the absorption processes
classically. A quantum mechanical treatment is not only more complete but
In the foregoing sections
is
after all
The nature of the normal modes
we
modes of the system we omit

with the electromagnetic field and also the friction. Eqs.
are interested purely in the normal
the interaction
(BOH 91 ) * 00 "1
1
*5
a microsystem which obeys
program
of the eigenmodes of the hydrodynamic equations. This
is
the
for this section.
(148a)
V 2 (r,()-^T^ =
0,
(148b)
-^|, =Ro =
0.
(148c)
the ansatz of eq. (92) for solutions periodic in time fj(r, t) =

This leads to the normal modes which are then defined as the
We make
ij(r)e"
e P(0)(l+u(r,0).
e P (r,0
quantum mechanics. In order to quantize classical nuclear hydrodynamics

we shall require a much more systematic and clear-cut description and
classification
Hi
a scalar contraction.
10.7.2.
10,7. Systematic classification of the cigenmodes of the density fluctuations
also necessary, since the nucleus
309
EIOENMODES OF THE DENSITY FLUCTUATIONS
ch. 10, 7 J
io
".
corresponding solutions for eq. (148). They obey the Helroholtz equation
10.7.1.
It
Spherical
and Cartesian representations of tensors
\ 2 tl(r)+k 2 n(r) =
spherical representation of a tensor q lm to the Cartesian representation.

special cases of such transformations
we
recall
As
the transformations of
eq. (2.20) for the surface collective variables
and of eq.
vector. In general,
components of the tensor q w ,
its
if
q, are the spherical
Cartesian components
(4.5) for the position
Q im are defined as
9l0>
fii-
ts/2(q,- m +(-l)
set {/j(*j"V) Y, m (&, <p)} for
aU
n,
/and m
<l,n,),
-fcf"'
These
,)
Of course, the set {;,(fe{' r)<P, M (3, <p)}

with the above-defined Cartesian components of the spherical harmonics
also gives a complete set of solutions. Every solution of eq. (149) can
We
m >
a complete set* of
eigenfunctions are finite at the origin.
shall
now show
wave functions.
that the rotationally invariant ansatz
n(r, i)
is
eigenfunctions of the Laplacian operator with eigenvalues
therefore be expanded in terms of these sets of
a-- -iV2 (*---(-irft-).

Qio
Obviously the
(149)
0.
proves convenient in the following to be able to convert readily from the
=
1
(145)
1i(r, 0.
2
=
(150)
with
and, for the spherical harmonics,

*, 1B
we take a somewhat
= W2(ylM +(-iry
where the
4> lm
*io.
- - m/2(ri*-(-
!)"
y -J,
r
m >
(146)
0,
are the spherical harmonics in Cartesian representation.
Note
the difference in the signs of the m-indices and the various factors in eqs.
(145) and (146).
As
in the case
Ji,(fc{"
r)(-l)
of surface variables (see eqs,
(2.
) (2.5)),
= RQ
(2/
+ l)*[ (0x Y V T\
in eq.
C,J
(148)
if
(151)
the nuclear surface
is
Here the F, are normalization factors which are

determined later (see eq. (168)), The above notation clearly shows the
rotational invariance of the fluctuation densities **. For this ansatz, the
sphere,
*J0
F,
obeys the boundary condition given
_j,
*(r,
different definition
i.e.
R(B,
<p)
* The set is complete for functions regular at the origin.

* In the general case where the surface is given by eq. (2.1) the
the surface coordinates

eq, (151), see St-67a.
aXlt and one
gets
much more
tj,{r, t)
depend also on
involved expressions in place of
We will briefly investigate these general cases in section
1.2
below.
CH.
310
boundary condition
BIOBNMODES OF THE DENSITY FLUCTUATIONS
10, j 7]
311
[ch. 10, 7
energy (table
From
2).
yields the equation
the dipole
mode on up
to higher giant multipole
vibrations, the energy increases with increasing multipolarity, but fixed n.
(152a)
3r
Since q
and Y m are not
in fig. 2.2.
= Ra
Up
identically zero
one concludes that
=
9r
to
now we have
only been interested in the solution of the density
equations (83) or (148).
It is,
know
however, also necessary to
the solutions
for the equation of the velocity potential in order to obtain the kinetic energy,
0.
(152b)
eq. (20),
= Ro
The first four of the infinite number of solutions of this equation (z,00 = k\ n) J?
are listed in table
A pictorial view of the giant multipole oscillations has already been presented
for
ip
connected with the density fluctuations. The differential equation
(see eq. (84))
is
_5î> +B VMr,0 =
2.
(155)
0,
Table 2
The
solutions of eq,
(1
52) which yield the eigenfrequencies of giant multipole resonances
4.4934
2.0815
3.3421
4.51409
5.64670
7.7252
5.9404
7.2899
8.58375
9.84045
10.9041
9.2058
10.6138
11.97273
13.29556
14.0662
12.4044
15.24451
if
time and space coordinates are separated

v-V(r) + kV')
13.8461
or
16.60934
for the dipoles (table 1)
is
contained in eq. (152). The ansatz of eq. (150)
'
(p(r)eT "',
0,
V#(r,0|r-ii.=0,
(156)
or
If
one compares
and
this
(157)
0.
with the differential equations for n(r,
also with the corresponding
boundary conditions,
components of
realizes that the multipole
should thus be generalized to
-ifi>-V<p(r)|, So
We have denoted the various solutions for k by k\"K Note that the special case
q>(r, t)
j(r, t)
and
t),
eq.
<p(r, t)
eq. (148b),
(148c), one
can only
by additive or multiplicative constants. Since, however, only \q>(r

f(r,
o = E^"V.O.
(153)
physical interest (see eq. (73)) an additive constant
n.i
therefore be dropped.
where
&(r
The FF}
The / =
= JftflPW- 1)' {21 + 1)* [q<"> (() x
t)
0, 1, 2, 4,
oscillation.
first
solutions represent giant monopole, giant dipole,
Thus, as
is
clear
'fluctuations respectively.
We
call
ifj"*
giant dipole fluctuation,
is
(21+
1 )
and
last section, n\
sK-O-sfiVft..
times degenerate corre-
and z ts
(159)
The
k\
n}
are identical with those occurring in the fluctuation densities, eq.
because the boundary condition eq. (157) is identical with the

boundary condition in eq. (148c). Here S1 '^/) denotes the spherical tensor
of the amplitudes, similar to q
(hufjR Q )z tH ,
("8)
similarly,
= k^Ro does not depend on m. It is quite

monopole mode has a higher energy than the giant
dipole and giant quadrupole mode. Its energy is quite near the giant octupole
(
hand can
The index
(154),
interesting that the giant
the other
of
can
sponding to the (2/+1) m-values of the spherical harmonics, because
w =
on
It
thus have
= E9>!"V,0 = E(-irsl:V{"2.,
n.l.m
.1,
usually just called the giant resonance.

is
We
f) is
the nth giant 2'-pole
from the discussion of the
also noticed that every giant 2'-pole
multiplicative constants
unimportant.
(154)
<p(m)
characterizes the various overtones.
It is
are normalization factors which are determined later (eq. (168)).
giant quadrupole, giant hexadecupole,
the
Y*]
The
be incorporated into the amplitudes.
is
differ
explicitly
shown.
<p(r)
and
tj(r)
above.
The time-dependence of S1 1
is
are not independent of each other because
312
of the continuity equation

cients,
we
(87).
By
inserting
)VH
and from
(160)
eq. (87),
Now the orthogonality of the
JO)
(161)
Thus, up to simple factors the tensor
of eq. (159)
is
S}
occurring in the velocity potential
identical with the time derivative of the tensor ?&'{') of the
fluctuation densities, eq. (154).
We
Orthogonality of ike normal densities
ijj">
for
immediately established from
I' is
It thus suffices to
the orthogonality properties of the spherical harmonics.
1
n\ eq. (165),
consider eq. (165) for / - f. Then since tf + ftf for n #
immediately
together with the orthogonality of the spherical harmonics,
densities n\* form an

implies the relationship in eq. (162). Therefore, the
of the hydrosolutions
normal
of
set
orthogonal and linearly independent
}
set is also complete.
dynamic equations. This

10.7.3.
313
B1QINMODES OF THE DENSITY FLUCTUATIONS
CM. 10, 8 7)
The same
results hold,
of
course, for the velocity potentials <p\(r, t) as well.
prove here briefly that the normal densities ^"'(r,
f)
in eq. (154)
obey
10.7.4.
orthogonality relations of the type
Normalization of the fluctuation densities
A few words shall now be said on the normalization problem. We have just
j 4^#Xf)drlf*4r4^.
(162)
nucleus
where the
K/"' are constants.
From
the
proved the uniqueness of the expansion of n (r, f ) or (p(r, t) in terms of
functions
the
normalize
normal densities. It is now convenient to
the differential equation (149) one
(166)
rf2<r)-Jf>/#Tr)X1m
finds immediately
The comparison of the amplito obtain

tudes q} is then more conveniently accomplished when one needs
multipole
(giant
a measure of the intensity with which a normal mode
which occur in the normal
JV^vV'dT =
-(k{'>)
1 ,<f'* i,S"Mt,
(163a)
resonance)
and also
is
excited.
densities, eq. (154).
The normalization
integrals of these functions deter-
mine the constants ff"\

(163b)
It
follows in the usual
manner using Green's theorem
J*
that
iirds* - vPfffiftP*** *
<
167 >
ouclciu
It
follows in the spherical case * that
nuclei! i
Ff
= rj(*fr
V CftW-A- iWff
itoJfl"**.
16g )
The normalization of the velocity potentials <j>[;> m ^"ViW^^ta.eq. (159),

normal densities. However,
is, of course, the same as the normalization of the
nueleui
we
shall see in the next sections that there
(164)
tion. All final results will
is
actually
always be independent of
no need for normalizait.
nuclear
surf ice
m, which
For a spherical nucleus the normalization constants are independent of
not true for a deformed nucleus.
*
Since by construction
Vij{"
has no normal component at the surface
is
314
CH.
Hie energy of giant
10.8.
[CH. 10, 8
multipole resonances in terms of collective variables
ENERGY OF Q1ANT MULTIPOLE RESONANCES
10, 8]
In the last step Green's theorem
have again been used. Actually,

In the previous sections
fluid
components
we have shown
eigenoscillations of a collective
giant resonances. In order to follow the general procedure for the treatment
of collective motion outlined in Chapter 2 it is desirable to obtain the

energies of the various multipole giant resonances in terms of collective
variables.
As we know from
*'.')
eq. (2.34) the
q$
defined by
I(-i)'(2J+W" H
=
nucleus
just states the fact that

is
'W
ij(r, () is
a polarization density. Since the
always the same, namely Z,
it
friction forces are neglected, the total internal energy

is,
l0J
*"
E of the two-fluid
nucleus
Therefore, the only term
and the
total
eq. (171)
left in
e p (0)(l + ij(r,
for the symmetry energy
t))
and qd
E -
nucleus
fl,(0)(I
-(Z/W)ij(r,
t)),
6o
rn
iMcS
dt,
(171)
nucleus
j"
()*dt+
-e
nucleus
interest.
The term
For the explicit calculation of the

linear in
ij(r, t)
arising
do
1_
(
<r
z)
'
t)dx '
is
a,
._fp- m
h
V<p|"J(r, ()-
n,
J"
According to Greenes theorem we have
in fact zero, since
(B)
f*P<fr- -E(fe,
r fv^dT- -(fc! r
2
B)
fviT -dff = 0.
(173)
(176)
kinetic energy J c dt,
(172)
nucleus
and
1.
that according to eq. (158)
Kg P 2 (0)
^&M yww.
Qq
form
A
(175)
(0)
Co
of no
ifdx.
4xe p
is
\r,(.r,
nucleus
nucleus
be a constant which
two terms separately. Because of the orthogonality

we get by inserting eq. (169) in the potential energy
-<e,(0)-e n (o)) fdT
in eq. (171) is of the
2
p (0)
Co
noting that the term
will
jj(r, r),
treat the
relation eq. (162)
+ 2ij(r,0
the term quadratic in
one obtains
We now
u _ kqAV
is
energy becomes
nucleus
(174)
nucleus
nucleus
Coulomb
(170)
Since q v
ijdr,
^
(169)
according to eqs. (20) and (25),
nucleus
e P(0)dT + e p (0)
e P(0)[l+ij(r,t)]dr=
j
system
charge
or the total polarization density
,,)t ' ,
serve as collective coordinates for giant multipole resonances. If the
and
total
follows from charge conservation that
nucleus
i(-irAii2M
1=0
Hl=-I
1
n>
ij{
dr
t)
n (r,
Z=
11=1
=1
B=l
and the boundary condition (148c) for

the vanishing of the volume integral
that the density fluctuations of the
obey a wave equation. The j, (r) describe

motion of the nucleons, which we called
in the nucleus
315
nucleus
nucleus
we have
to
remember
NUCLBAR HYDRODYNAMICS
316
ch. 10, 8
because of
10.9,
>K-*VW:?-d<r
0.
80)
it is
necessary, according
to our discussion in Chapter 2, to introduce the n>, which are the

canonically conjugate momenta for the coordinates qfcK In general they are
eq. (160)
quantization of giant multipole resonances
Quantum hydrodynamics;
In order to quantize the classical system of eq.
>urf*c<:
From
317
QUANTUM HYDRODYNAMICS
CB. 10, 9]
(V^))*-V^"JdT =
defined as
(fcW) Z
nucleus
<P?2*<P%dx
ar
(183)
nucleus
(WWr,^,
(178)
where 71s the kinetic energy given by the first term of eq, (181). Eliminating
The
due to the orthogonality of the functions <p$, section 10.7.3.

Thus not only the <p$ form an orthogonal set of functions but also the
last step is
V <pj^. We can now proceed to the calculation of the kinetic energy and
the q\$ in this
way we
_ y ( l)(2i-rl)
obtain
using eq. (158) and the results just derived
M'dT-EisffipfivdspdT
*f
it. I,
,[i]
x *^F
(184)
(185)
n,tm
n,l
From
and thus the
c<">(- 1)'(2I+
x jjwm-pi
or
-XOfyZKBI*m
,
rrj(HH
2B*" 5
nt
+i
hoUm
get for the total energy
total energy, eq. (175),
becomes, using eq. (161),
here on the quantization
detailed discussion in Chapter
phonon operators 4}J"
)
,
flg?
2,
straightforward and
is
We
from
we
eq. (2.50)
(186)
n,t t
{B{"> (
top = fil/^J = M* = ftl/^|

2
'
'
- l)'(2f + 1)* [$<"> I" x 4<"> "J]
+4C, ( - 1)'(2/+ 1)*
y* W X q Wp^,
rt
(0)
ffred
c,=
K(
fr
8Ke P
" 2
Bj"*
(181)
and
the z, are given in table 2.
the solution of the harmonic quadrupole oscillator discussed in Chapter
The ground
(Q)
state
(vacuum) of the even-even nucleus
is
3.
denoted by |0>. The
giant multipole resonances are then given by
/.
The notation of
clearly that the giant multipole resonances
The system
(187)
The last result has been obtained by inserting

making
use
of
eqs. (103) and (88).
eq. (182) and by
The solution of the Hamiltonian in eq. (186) is completely analogous to
and
(182)
are actually independent of
oscillators.
*=,
'
Co
The C,
MX
where
'
where
This can be written lucidly as
our
and get
(180)
refer to
immediately insert the giant multipole
is
now
described
form a
by
set
w |0>.
4?-
eq, (181) exhibits
of uncoupled harmonic
the collective coordinates
the next step will be the quantization of eq. (180) or (181).
q$,
(188)
from the transformation properties of the / under space rotations

(Chapter 2) that the giant multipole phonons ftV'IO) carry an angular
momentum / with z-projection m. The parity of the phonons is (-1/. Let
It is clear
31S
momentum
be the angular
[ch. io, io
operator, then
With
319
y-ABSORPTION CROSS SECTION
CH. 10,1111
eq. (166) the integration
is
straightforward and yields
4Lw [o> = /(j+i)C>|o>,

2
w |0>
The angular momentum operator

to the angular
phonons, eq.
Of
momentum
itself is
(3.69), Essentially, thejj,
constructed in complete analogy
ft must be replaced by the #
many-phonon
harmonic quadrupole vibrator
\IMn} which
states,
and T
given by eq. (168) and (f^
G<">
The two-dipole-phonon
listed in table 3.1.
states
is
positive,
of course, The
/ can only take on two values, namely /

1,
is
is
given by
= J\(*S*r)rdr =
R^^hU^R.)-
(195)
A
Thus only giant 2 -pole resonances contribute
one can insert the phonon operators from eq.
to the
EX
(2.50)
and thereby
operators. Finally
find
for example,
The parity for these
where fj
(m)
a^S?*,
n-L
are again
|/M2> + =^(11/| /ivM)^,4|J0>-
operator in terms of the surface quadrupole
course, there also exist
is,
e P (o) F<">G<">i;'*
=>I
constructed by vector coupling in analogy to the wave functions of the
state
G* -
(189)
= m4/W|0>.
A4/-
0, 2.
total
angular
momentum
That the odd
spins, e.g.
are excluded can be proved in complete analogy to the case of the
two-quadrupole-phonon
es - E4">l/-^(C+(-ir4
(190)
states, eq. (3.46).
The
Bxn)
l
eoi"'
multipole operator
tors.
Therefore
states differing
We
is
linear in the
will
phonon
The
creation and annihilation opera-
have nonvanishing matrix elements only between
giant resonance phonon (gion).

developed quantum hydrodynamics for a rigid spherical
by one
now
have
it
are defined in eqs. (182) and (187) respectively.
nucleus with no other degrees of freedom than the density fluctuations. Of

course, this is a great simplification of the problem. It does however make
10.10. Multipole operators in collective coordinates
If we adopt the quantized picture
and
d96)
from now on, we must express the
electric
more sophisticated generalizations,

are now more easily understood. These
the underlying ideas transparent and the
may possibly occur) in

terms of collective coordinates. Following our general considerations of
which we
subsection 3.2.2 for constructing multipole operators in collective coor-
of the giant multipole resonances to nuclear surface degrees of freedom.

In order to become acquainted with quantum hydrodynamics, and also
multipole operators (and other operators which
dinates,
we
obtain for the electric multipole operators
will discuss in
Chapter
1 1,
generalizations climax in the recognition of the importance of the coupling
be rather complete in our presentation, we shall derive the

photo-absorption cross section in a completely quantum mechanical way
in order to
Q=
Q P r*Yilt dT,
(191)
in the next section.
nucleut
where q
is
given by
Le.
ali]
e p(o)(i+'Kr,0).
for
all A,
only the fluctuation density e p (0)ij(r,
in the integral of eq. (191). Therefore, inserting
we
(192)
fj(r, t)
<)
from
contributes
eq.
(169),
readily obtain
Q =
can then be compared with our
the simplicity
and improvement
10.11.
The
y-absorption cross section in quantum hydrodynamics
As we have
outlined in the beginning of this chapter, the giant resonances
are usually studied by photo-absorption experiments.
ep(0)
1
(-i)
'*!">,
j
nucleus
tffr)r V<*t.
the target and the absorption

problem (Da-64) by assuming that at time t =
beam impinges on
(193)
classical
in the present
description will then be evident.
as the nuclear collective surface degrees of freedom are omitted,
results
discussion in section 10.5, and
e P 0%t)
As long
The
E{t) of frequency
oi is
switched on, and
we
is
bremsstrahlung
measured.
We
treat this
an electromagnetic
field
determine the behavior of the
320
[CH.
system for times long compared with the lifetime of the excited
10,911
Let
levels.
be the ground state (the giant resonance vacuum |0>) and i)ff the excited
one-gion state). The ground state is stable, i.e. it does not decay.
\j; t
321
y-ABSGRFTIQN CROSS SECTION
CH. 10, 11]
QR of eq. (186)), then

in the usual manner of time-dependent perturbation theory
various giant resonance states described by
jf?
we
get
state (a
The
continuum and mostly
excited state, however, decays partly into the
</|tfdM>
&,=
of the giant resonances has been described

sections
by introducing
classically in
the previous
and the
friction into the two-fluid dynamics,
in order to obtain nondecaying steady
we have omitted
states.
#1
equation
first
(197)
we have
we do not
contains additively the giant resonance Hamiltonian *? GR which
further specify here. fi x shall describe the decay of the giant resonance
nonvanishing off-diagonal matrix elements of
which connect the giant resonance
levels with
we have
state to other excited states
ground
+lj i +#d
discussed so far, and also other nuclear degrees of freedom which
levels, i.e. there will exist
In the
definition, the
Let us describe the total system by

tf
).
We
assume
state.
(friction in the
due
averages out to zero,
state
where â and $ are giant resonance
states.
ff
with the electromagnetic
tjt
where
is
is
/-
the electric field,
the electron charge.
is
e$K)*E(t)-D,
the dipole operator,
i.e.
The time-dependence of the
Le.
we assume
where
If a,
e is
We now
fulfill
state that at the
system shall be in
of eq. (191)
a, its initial value,
set
a,(t
0)
1,
a/0
0)
0,
moment
The random phase approximation

Volume 3 of this series.
f and
ground state.
and we get
We
\j/
is
in eq. (201) average
out
(203)
beam
can solve eq. (202) by
Cflflnal')
if
is
the excited state
and
^,
(some of the ^ are the
in nuclear structure physics
sum
of turning on the photon
J<''*-''
Mf.>)|
A
2
"
4ft
in
(202)
i(^- )._{V
a/i
ffl
ate
energy
have a system of coupled equations where a and
The probability for observing
this
the ansatz,
(t
0) the
inserting for
i(o/i-Bj)_
-r/i/(zj
(204)
2ift[i(/ ,-o)-r/ /2ft]
(200)
states
way by
electric field shall
sin cot,
of eigenfunctions of
very
its
2ft
its
a Ji)
and af are the amplitudes of the
ground
By
the initial conditions
(199)
the polarization vector.
complete orthonormal
<f\S2iM>
that the different phases in the
(see eq. (198)).
be given by
E = eE
(201)
neglected the transitions from the
2ih
which
i/^
Following Weisskopf and Wigner (Wei-30), we take
the interaction
field
fi nd
and e
/? d
is
a e
because they are "off resonance".
(19g)
0>
finally,
ift
dissipation into account in a certain averaged
Of have to
<*.|fl.l.Xjfl|lfr> m
</l#il v >
describes, in a manner of speaking, the thermalization

hydrodynamical sense) of the energy contained in the excited
a random phase
approximation* that the interaction of the various giant resonance levels

to
y
f*i
sum
This
i.
other excited levels (for
in the sense of
Hamiltonian #, does not contain matrix elements to the

Therefore, the sum in the second equation is restricted to
example, many-particle configurations of the shell model type which might

also be described by
H/i-)'
this friction
After the quantization, the
in the following.
8-
flje
2ift
widths of the states have then to be reintroduced. This will be achieved by

a Hamiltonian
</lfldl'>
the quantization procedure
i{I/-C9)t
and
friction
has been characterized by the width parameters f. In deriving the normal
modes underlying
a, e
2ih
to other configurations which are not of giant resonance type. This decay
extensively discussed
The y-absorption
cross section o(a>)
is
>l'
\f/
f after a long time
(t B /1
.
is
given by
-w) +JV 2/4A l

2
(205)
defined as the energy absorbed during
322
CH.
[CH. 10,
the lifetime h/r, of the excited state, divided by the incoming flux per unit
area and per second,
g(E)
!</(>)
I*
Here we have used
<*\Ti(C+(-iy^yio> = c-ir.
over the
Icriîor
" (E^-EJ'+K/
V~'
projection
E|V2
It is derived, as
we
l(**)**o-D|0>|
As an example we perform this
ff
calculation
m . ^f! lljA
}
The
the
final state
ground
is
then the giant dipole resonance,
state,
and
(A iN
"
3ft
') 2
from
eq. (168),
2B
a>l*>
N)
from
and the B[
/'Q
/V" (M^-Bf+K/'
N)
A\
after explicitly inserting the
from
eq. (182),
eqs. (194)
we
and
(195), the F\
N>
find
ff(E)
to be evaluated
(210)
.
2B<
(207)
The matrix element
This inserted into eq. (206) gives the absorption cross section
explicitly here for the giant dipole resonances. It is similar for all other
initial state is
1>
see,
step consists in the evaluation of the matrix element of the
giant multipole states.
Le.
(206)
eq. (120). This formula exhibits the resonance behavior
interaction with the electric field.
and the
summing over the final states,

quantum number m, we have, with ,|fi| 2
After squaring the matrix element and
of the cross section as a Breit-Wigner type formula.

by a straightforward procedure.
The next
because
/i
(E *c!SK)(h!rf )
ft
y-ABSORPTION CROSS SECTION
10. 11]
11
^n 2 L!L*32
c
is
En rt
2
(^-B)
+ir/
jAr,,)-^*.*-)^.*)
Ji (*iw)
M <>
^NÊaK-iye-.DJO)
(211)
Realizing that the * are solutions of
dj ( (z)
x<4^nz4 )/-^(c+(-iroio>.
dz
B)
(208)
21
W,-,(z)-a+l)j, + (z)]-0,
1
+1
and therefore
where we have written the scalar product
il-l( Z lW
in spherical notation
and where we have
(196). Only the term of the sum with n = A/ and A = 1

contributes because of the boson commutation relations for the q* and
q
in analogy to eq. (2.46). We thus find
<fl2
/l+l( Z L/f)l
(213)
inserted the dipole operator
A. - 0?*fromeq.
(212)
and, furthermore, making use of
h - 1(*) +h +
l(f^*(-irt. j>,|0)
(z)
21+1
Ji{z).
>
0,
(214)
I - 1)" -<$V2 (C +
(
2B\">m
we
(
- iy TO
o>
(209)
find a considerable simplification
of the cross section of eq. (211),
namely
a \E)
= ~r%
Mc A
"<>
:t
2 Go
z lw
r,E
f r-/<
-2 (Ei^-E^ + ir/
(215)
324
This
[CH. 10, 12
ff>t
mode $i 10>. The giant resonance absorption cross section is

= 1. There occurs only a small difference in the shape
obtained by putting
special
line:
our above result exhibits a Breit-Wigner shape while the
classical
MICROSCOPIC FOUNDATION
10, 12]
This "classical" Hamiltonian
3).
precisely the classical result, eq. (122), for the excitation of the
is
of the
CH.
One has
used.
to try to write this functional in terms of classical quantities
we
describe this as
# - H #)
t
el
In addition to the classical
states, 4S
}t
|0>, the
anical treatment gives the higher gion (giant resonance
type 4 4 f
understand now
the
phonon)
states
of
The reason
scribes experiments quite satisfactorily.
is
t#),
tfcl (eO),
that the multipole
One now
4).
i.e.
eq. (180).
5). Finally the continuity equations have to be established.
achieved we can utilize everything that was done in the previous

such as the determination of the normal modes and the normal
If all this is
sections,
gion creation and annihilation operators. Thus the many-gion states cannot
frequencies, the quantization of the classical
state.
(217)
has to try to recognize the classical Hamilton function of
the hydrodynamical model,
operators, eq. (196), and in particular the dipole operator are linear in the
be reached (excited) from the ground
quantum mech-
4 IO)- These have no classical equivalent. We also

why classical hydrodynamics works quite well and de-
a functional of the wave functions
is
(observables) such as local densities, local velocities, etc. Symbolically
calculation yields Lorentz shapes. However, for small widths T, both are
identical.
325
In other words, the total
now proceed
to
work out
Hamilton function,
these five points in
etc.
somewhat greater
We
detail:
absorption strength goes to the one-gion states, which are essentially the
classical fluctuation
10.12. Microscopic foundation of unclear
hydrodynamics
The situation seems to be confusing. On the one hand we have the shell
model picture where all particles are described as moving in a common
potential well and having mutual residual interactions. On the other hand
we have the collective picture where only a few degrees of freedom are
treated by introducing normal coordinates in a classical way. The obvious
question arises as to whether there is a relation between both ways of looking
more precisely, as
at the nucleus, or, even
can be
justified
from the
shell
"justification" of collective
Later in
Volume
This problem
model.
We
we
present here
some
ideas of such a
will also discuss the justification
of other
by no means
trivial. It
involves the consideration of a
highly excited many-body system. However, a treatment has been presented by Wild (Wi-55) which
laborious.
1).
One
tonian
2).
is
The general procedure
collective treatment
is
establishes
One
the interaction with the electromagnetic field and
VM = (W+HPhfih + MPlj + Bfy V

Here
P (j
is
Vu
is
the
(ri}).
(219)
the position-exchange operator
KMri,rI) =
$(ri ,r \
(220)
and
P'j
i(l
+*,
&j)
is
the spin-exchange operator.
The operator PyPfj*
which exchanges both spin and space coordinates is also called the Heisenberg exchange operator Pf It is, in fact, equivalent to an exchange of the
s
.
= -Pj} = -i(l+t, iJ ), because of

which follows from the total antisymmetry of the nuclear wave
function under the exchange of particles and /, The strength
characterizes
rather simple
and transparent, though
for establishing such a foundation of a
P]j
a microscopic (many-particle
shell
model) Hamil-
to obtain a "classical'* Hamiltonian by taking the expectation
ffel
applied to any short-range force, but
it
has
now come
name was
to be used exclusively
to refer to exchange-independent forces. Similarly the other parts of the
the following:
with suitable wave functions.
the strength of the Wigner force (Wi-33a, 33b). Originally this
force are
ft.
value of
is
(218)
i*l
two-body nuclear interaction
forces:
tries
HiM
in!
im
charges of the nucleons. Indeed, PfJ
of freedom.
is
where
of the form
is
to whether the collective treatment
motion for the cases of nuclear hydrodynamics.
3 of this series
collective degrees
The quantum mechanical Hamiltonian
1).
modes.
We
= <[#|>.
denote this symbolically as

(216)
for
named
after physicists
who worked
stands for Bartlett (Ba-36),
in the field of
H for
nucleon-nucleon
Heisenberg (Hei-32), and
Majorana (Ma-33).
2). We now have to define a suitable wave function. It is most natural

and most simple to assume that the ground state is described by a shell
NUCI
326
i:-\R
itYDKODYNAMCI
[en. 10. 12
ch. 10, 12]
model wave function
327
momenta of
the protons with spin up have to increase,

volume results in a decrease in the wavelengths of the
particles confined to the volume and thus leads to an increase in the momentum. One can also say that a decrease in volume leads to an expansion of
the Fermi sphere. Such an expansion of the Fermi sphere is symmetrical
(as many particles are moving to the right as to the left). We thus see that
pressed,
all
the
since a decrease in
*0)
WA)
*i(2)
J-
(221)
(vÔ
*a(0
as long as
we
W2)-W^)
Here the
are dealing with a closed shell nucleus.
model wave functions.
single-particle shell
We now
tffji)
5*5 =
are the
want to describe an
excited state which corresponds to local density fluctuations in the sense of
and no net flow
0,
(223)
results.
The possibility of flow is introduced by the additional factor tifKt *Jw }

Here/ (x/ t) is associated with the local velocity of the th kind of particle.
'
hydrodynamic model. This
the
is
achieved by modifying the single-particle
wave functions
in the following
Ml) -
way:
= W;)e
VJLJ)
In order to allow for a
1(8t '" )
'
^" >V^(x 0'e

1
(222)
(3 K (xj, <))*
ffK (xj,
Here the index k
refers to the type
spin
of particle, for example, proton with spin
down, neutron with spin up, or
up, proton with spin
down. The model
is
finally
neutron with
formulated in such a general way that not only
do protons fluctuate collectively against neutrons, but also other coherent

modes appear in the model, such as the spin-isospin mode in which protons with spin up and neutrons with spin down fluctuate together against
protons with spin down and neutrons with spin up. A pictorial representation of the isospin mode (the giant resonance mode which we have discussed
so far) and the spin-isospin mode is given in fig, 1 8 *.
18. Pictorial representation
nuclear excitation.
The
of
factor e
momentum
** J "'
'* is
t)
of
The
(a) isospin
vertical
modes and
(b) spin-isospin
We
have here
move against neutrons, or that

up move against particles with spin down, and so forth.
If we now assume that the excited state is described by a Slater determinant with modified single-particle wave functions q>JJ), we are faced
the possibility of arranging that protons
particles with spin
with the problem that in general the
<p(y )
do not form an orthonormal
set
as did the ^.(/). However, for small density fluctuations the difference
between $JJ) and tp,(j) is also small. We therefore can expect the deviations
from orthonormality for the %,(/) to be small as long as the density fluctuations are small.
The average
kinetic energy
is
then
modes of
a
introduced in order to take into account the change
of Volume 2 in the present
series.
5(*/o-)^.owj))dt
+ IV(---)dT.
is
com-
The
index./, refers to the particle/
but of type
It
i/(^)
(224)
volume of
one sort of nucleons (say the protons with spin up for example)
and
density fluctuation, the amplitude factor
one can describe either density waves or spin waves.
arrows denote spin direction.
that accompanies the density fluctuation. If the
* See also Chapters 7
common
has been introduced. Depending on the values chosen for
a}
Fig.
The
last
k'
k,
of sort k.
If the particle/ is
not of sort k,
then the particle/ does not contribute in a
sum /.
divergence term contains those terms which arise from a partial
328
two preceding
integration performed in the
[CH. 10, 12
terras.
In the sense of our
program (l)-(5) the expression in eq. (224) is the classical kinetic energy
which we must now try to express in terms of classical quantities such as
densities, velocities, etc.
kinetic energy,
The
3).
We
shall
and discuss the
local density
proceed further in
effect
this
way only with
of the potential energy
of the k th kind of particle
the
CH.
exchange terms in the force whose
classical interpretation
forward as for the direct terms.

terras to direct terms if the
is
not so straight-
possible to reduce these exchange
It is
two-body correlation function
is
introduced
(Wi-55).
later.
5).
In order to derive the continuity equation for the fluctuation density
we note
is
329
10, 121
that
(229)
(225)
3f
3f
9(
and
Furthermore, introducing the velocities
(230)
8f
ft
(226)
Using these equations for the wave functions, eq. (222), one
which we
interpret as the local velocities of the particles of kind k,
we
get
continuity equations for the different particle species
is
able to derive
k of the following form
for the kinetic energy
Jk = -V
T = T0+ Ilm|&^dr+ I^Jfc (^) dt+

T
Here
gK (xt,
is
the average ground state kinetic energy modified

It differs
t)'s.
from the true ground
state kinetic
7"
l+
second order, since (gK (x t , t))* must be of the form ^JgK

is of first order in the small deviations from the ground state.
exchange terms.
(231)
(227)
somewhat by the
energy
(q k v k)
only in
where a
This equation obviously indicates that the change of local density of a

particular kind of particle can be due either to convection (first term of eq.
(231)) or to exchange forces.
The exchange
the change of the total density e
X*e
corrections actually cancel out

is
if
considered. Then one has
(232)
4).
Now we
recognized.
have reached the point where the
The term imgK v K 2
classical kinetic
(227)
is
classical
energy.
classical picture
should be
in eq. (227) is clearly to be interpreted as the
energy of the density fluctuations.
The
third term in eq.
velocity-independent; only the density occurs. Therefore, in the
hydrodynamical formulation
It
it
must be interpreted as a potential

densities. Such a term has
depends on the gradient of the local
been mentioned by von Weizsacker in
mass formula paper (Wei-35).

Up to now we have only discussed the kinetic energy of the Hamiltonian
in eq. (218). The potential energy Y*i>i v can
treated ia a similar way by
v
taking
its
Wild first derives ti for the ground state in order to obtain the BetheWeizsacker mass formula (see Chapter 12). The various force parameters
are adjusted so that the constants of the mass formula are reproduced.
Nuclear collapse
avoided by assuming strong repulsion for high densities

He then uses magnitudes of the forces obtained in this
is
(see
Chapter
way
to calculate the giant resonances.
12).
his
first
3(
expectation value,
(228)
Z<fcl^l#.>.
forward, but extremely lengthy and
g>.
denotes a Slater determinant of the wave
similar to that in eq. (221).
The average
be expressed as a function of the local densities qk
can also
However, there appear
is
straight-
shall therefore restrict ourselves to
sections lies in the appearance of exchange terms in the continuity equations.

effective
functions of eq. (222),
potential energy, eq. (228),
entire procedure
quoting the results here; The only formal difference between this type of
microscopic treatment and the hydrodynamical model of the previous
These exchange terms lead to an
where
we
The
tn
= m
mass
(233)
330
(CH. 10
where
ieo(î3+î*).
and
1m
*3- --^C ls (M + fO.
CHAPTER
2m
,,
The Dynamic
'
Here p(s) and
r(s) are
(t
=J^)p(s)4s
fi"$
are also positive and thus also
tt 's
are positive. Therefore,
we have observed
( ( (i)f k
(5)d s
two-body correlation functions.
the
if
11
Model
Collective
It
can be shown that
the nuclear interactions are attractive the
earlier, eq. (1 39).
a.
Hence one has m*
< m,
We conclude this section by
precisely as
noting that
one can of course carry out a treatment of giant resonances within the
particle-hole framework. This will be discussed in
Volume
3 of this series.
The hydrodynamic model developed so
far has been restricted purely to a
We know,
spherical nucleus with a rigid time-independent radius.
however,
from the existence of nuclear surface vibrations and deformations that this
approximation
is
not a good one and that a more sophisticated theory which

is very much
also takes into account the collective surface degrees of freedom

called for.
References
The development of
It will proceed in several steps.
The
presentation of the hydrodynamical
model
in this chapter has
been
this
theory
is
We first study
action of giant resonance motion
the
program in this chapter.

form of the inter-
the general
and nuclear snrface
based strongly on the lecture notes of Danos (Da-59) and on the thesis
be possible in a very general
of Stock (St-67a). General aspects of photonuclear physics and their re-
of the collective potential energy surface in Chapter
lationship to this model are presented in the articles of
(Da-65), Shevchenko and Yudin (Sh-65), and,
of Spicer (Sp-69).
more
Danos and
Fuller
recently, in the review
way
interaction between density fluctuations
very strong and
vibrations. This will
similar to the establishment of the

4.
As we
form
will see, the
and surface degrees of freedom
is
leads to important substructure in the giant resonances.
We follow the historical development and study the effect of this interaction
for rotational nuclei
first
and then extend the discussion to spherical quad-
rupole vibrators.
11.1.
The form of
the interaction between surface degrees of freedom and
The most important
density fluctuations are the giant dipole
quadrupole resonances which are described by the
and
the giant
collective coordinates
drop the upper

q\l and qi? respectively (see eqs. (2.34) and (10.153)). We
index (1 ) from now on since it will be redundant as long as we confine our
tt]
and q
discussion to these two modes only. The spherical tensors* <j
}
One should
clearly distinguish
(I), (2) etc., which denote

which denote the multipolarity of the
between the upper indices
the overtones, and the upper indices
[1 ],
[2J etc.,
tensor in shorthand notation.
331
DYNAMIC COLLECTIVE MODEL
332
[CH. II, S
The
are of negative and positive parity respectively.
surface quadrupole
degrees of freedom are described by the coordinate tensor a [2] which

positive parity.
The
interaction
is
of
between the surface and the giant
resonance degrees of freedom has to conserve parity as well as angular
momentum. Thus,
The most simple
vibrations
is
CH.
NORMAL MODES OF DENSITY FLUCTUATIONS - COUPLING CONSTANTS
2]
1,
in eq. (2), containing four
momenta
JI, is
relativistic
333
term and therefore
quite small.
The coupling of
of freedom
must be a zero-rank tensor and of positive parity.

and surface quadrupole
h<
2
>
is,
the quadrupole giant resonances to the surface degrees
as in eq. (1), given by
K^ryw
21 101
]
+KPlJn xy**xJxfnrn
interaction for giant dipole
consequently of the form
o^W^fo
123 t2]-|t01
+ KK rI2] v 121-I[0]r-I2]
*^]
+ K& [ x F 2J
+ K&
+^
[2]
[[a
[a
t2]
+ KW [
[2]
( 1)
1
+ *W EC"
The
part,
LV
U*
C1
o^T
x [I7 ni x
n m]
x pr [23 x in 111 x
]
ii
+ [[
+
-.
(1)
part involving the q's describes a potential energy while the second
first
where the canonical momenta
i7
appear,
is
an interaction of the
kinetic energy of the dipole state with the surface motion.
We
that as long as the dipole oscillations can be considered to be
fourth through sixth terms in eq. (1) are equal to the
terms of that equation.
It is
clear that
two momenta
II
+<,*> [a121 x[JI t21 x/7 [2]] C2] t0]

]
+ K$ [a123 x a l2
]
C0]
[I] C2] t0]
+ K$ [[am x < z *] w x [_q m x flWrjWfO]
xi7t , J]^]^
tl]
^m
+ Kg? [ry 2] x ai m x ry 2i x q m
]
x rf*p' x foi x fl ]t*Jy +
x[/7
121
ra
first
will see later
harmonic the
through third
must always occur
requirement of time-reversal invariance. The
[2]
<J
T [n
]
2i
x I7t2
x [J7 x J7 [21] c21] t03 +
+ Kgf IW 2] x a [2J] [4) x [17 [2] x &***$*.
(4)
In contrast to eq. (1) there occurs here a term containing the giant quadrupole coordinates q l2i linearly. This is not possible for the giant dipoles,
because of parity and angular
momentum
We
conservation.
will see later
that in fact the Coulomb repulsion of the protons in the nucleus leads to such
terms as [a [21
The
x? E2] f 01
structure of the interaction
is
now
clearly established.
As we
see,
question arises as to
this has been quite easy to do, because of the use of general invariance
arguments. The work begins, however, with the determination of the various
sents the canonical
coupling constants
in the interaction because of the
why no terms involving JT121 occur, where i7 121 repremomenta of the surface motion. Such terms could be of
K$ entering in eqs.
(1)
and
(4).
the form
[2]
[[/7
/7
I21 [21
x fot" x qtH]t2]][0]
11.2.
and
m xn m tri
lti
for example.
The
first
ii
kind of terms
is
*xnt,Ji tn
(2)
dropped because of adiabaticity
arguments: The energies of the surface excitations ho> 2 are of the order of
1
MeV
while the giant resonance energies hl are larger than 15
MeV,
therefore
na> 2
in
a deformed nucleus-
the coupling constants
ll
*}
The normal modes of
< hQ.
(3)
The coupling constants entering in
the general forms for //
'
'
and H
will
determined with relative ease in the complete adiabatic limit of eq.
be
(3),
is instantaneously deformed and the

modes
of
the density fluctuations and their
knowledge of the normal
frequencies becomes important. This problem, namely to determine the
i.e.
<o 2 -* 0.
In this case the nucleus
normal solutions of the Helmholtz equation
V 2 iir) + k 2 n {r) =
0,
(5)
0,
(6a)
In other words, at every instant the giant resonance oscillations "see" the
nucleus as being deformed.
It is
clear that in the adiabatic limit (a> 2 - 0)
terms of the type shown in eq. (2) would vanish exactly. The second term
ViKr)| f .j,
CH. 11,8 2]
[CH. 11, 2
334
where
where
R - R
(l
+ (-l) A (2A + l)*|>M x ^ U
).
n t (r) is a trial function
^2 ^3>
fcC&i.t
do not
It is
'
r )-
'I
'
necessarily
which may depend on some parameters,
Trial functions are also allowed in eq. (11)
fulfill
the boundary condition conU]

see already from the
sistently in the deformation parameters <x
from the normal modes of the sphere
general statement of the problem, that the fluctuation densities and
n ( r > flo)
is
not
trivial, since
necessary to
is
it
fulfill
frequencies
become dependent on
the a1
jj(r,
k(*
their
),
eq.
U1
).
(Ur-66).
The
point
that the solutions
is
by a variational
of eq. (5) can be found approximately for any
procedure (In-60). By multiplication of eq, (5) with n*(r) and integration
ellipsoid
over the nuclear volume (the surface of the volume
may
be deformed)
we
^*V
ijdT + Jc
2
|
Jv
Jv
n* n dr
(8)
0.
/J
0.35
different
it
increasing,
and,
consequently,
from the
<7
where the
tj
x<t
(a ,a 2 ) are (22 + 1)
The expansion
coefficients
tion parameters a
energy
ail
in eq. (11)
(a Q ,
A a)l (a
and a z of the
spherical
is,
however,
still
the eigenvalues
k k are usually
deformed
the
normal modes,
modes
n,
i.e.
1,2,---,(2A+1),
(12)
normal modes of a deformed nucleus.

a2 ) depend, in general, on the deforma-
intrinsic ellipsoid.
then gives (2A+
a 2 ) and subsequently the
This procedure
i.e.
seems plausible to try as a variational function
We prefer the following way:
Green's theorem gives
is
a linear combination of the degenerate spherical normal modes,
get
deformation
furthermore, the (22+1) spherical normal
Since,
(10,154).
ellipsoid are generated continuously
if the
- 0. In actual cases the nuclear deformations are
e.g.
n k)i {r) are degenerate
general solution of this problem is quite involved. It

through by Stock (St-67a), (St-68). We prefer here, for the sake of lucidity
and simplicity, a less accurate treatment which, however, gives insight into
small,
/?
normal modes are not very
The
method
as
*l(r)
i.e.
has been carried
the underlying ideas of the
relatively
*1
We
i.e.
which
the boundary condition (6).
normal modes of an
clear that the
335
minimization of the
homogeneous equations for the

normal modes of the deformed nucleus.
1) linear
too laborious.
It is
known
that in a variational procedure
better determined than the eigenfunctions
by an order of magnitude (Mo-53a). Furthermore, the coupling constants

(1 ) and (4) are by definition independent of the shape parameters a a and a z
For the determination of the coupling constants it is,
fo
(VvV*
<ij*Vji-dj-J"
V'Vqdt,
(9)
defined in eqs.
and therefore eq. (8)
therefore, sufficient to consider very small (infinitesimal) deformations
yields
and a 2
k
tj*Vtfds
\n* -VtjdT- CD
J "iffJV
(10)
n*ndz
Jv
If
we had
the exact solution r}{r) which
om y- O ne mav then use as trial functions in eq.
(1
just the spherical

1 )
normal modes and obtain a reasonably good solution for k 2 directly by

computation of the integrals occurring in eq. (11). It is physically obvious,
that the normal dipole modes of a triaxial ellipsoid are those fluctuations
which correspond to standing sound waves along the three principal axes.
fulfills
eq. (5)
and the boundary
Their density distributions are given by
numerator of eq. (10) would vanish

condition (6), then the second term
2
and eq. (10) would yield the exact eigenvalues k Such exact solutions are,
in the
Jim
= fiJ&t$!*tm*
JW
1,0,-1,
(13)
in general, difficult to find.
We
therefore formulate the variational principle
where the
# 1M
eq. (10.146),
2
JjV^|
dT
min
factors.
The
fact that the densities
in eq. (13) describe just the density oscillations along the three axes of the
(ti)
ellipsoid is illustrated in fig.
(l) dT
are the Cartesian representation of the spherical harmonics,
and the.?! are normalization
is
really to
1.
The rigorous proof that
the ansatz of eq. (13)
a good approximation the dipole eigenmode of a deformed

[ch.
336
11,|2
CH. 11, 2]
337
be of some importance, since we will see

these particular quadrupole giant
that the measurements of the energies of
dimensions along these
resonances can furnish information on the nuclear
respectively. This fact will later
axes.
densities of a weakly deformed

In general the proper normal fluctuation
eqs.
(10.147) and (10.151))
(see
nucleus are given approximately by
l,n
(15)
1,
The f$i m
dinates in
giant resonance coorare therefore the appropriate collective

are the coora deformed nucleus. The tilde indicates that these
dinates in the intrinsic system.

of giant dipole oscillations in a
of the normal modes

deformed nucleus according to eq. (13). The protons are indicated by
by
Fig.
1.
Pictorial representation
+ + +, the neutrons
9a*
are found by inserting

giant resonances in a weakly deformed nucleus
deformed nucleus:
h MM
They are represented
*uf
'
>
in fig. 2. It is seen that the
represent fluctuations along the axes
ft
as
n,
<p
~ l ~%
-
modes
and 9
denote spherical and Cartesian components respectively.

the energies of the
According to the variational principle of eq. (11)
for the
nucleus can be found in Stock's paper. The situation is similar
density
normal
quadrupole giant resonances. In analogy to eq. (13) their
distributions are in a
case and capital letters g and
The lower
fjf
21
and
in,
(p
rj 2
trial
ft.
functions into eq.
The
calculation
(1 1)
is
flffi
and computing
in this
way
the corresponding
lengthy but straightforward and
following result for the giant dipole
and
16>
leads
to the
quadrupole wave numbers
giant
-i
(17)
{-it,
R{a 0t a z )\
and
k*,(o..)
^^[l + i(M
-2)0.284(a
-n5 U)1
p=
fl 2
V6)-f,o
2
],
-2,-1,0,1,2,
(18)
where
F =
The R(a ,a2 )
F I =0.077,
0.186,
R = R
v 2*l
normal modes of giant quadrupole oscillations in a

+, the
(14). The protons are indicated by
to
eq.
according
deformed nucleus
-.
neutrons by
Fig. 2. Pictorial representation of the
++
-0.058.
(19)
principal
are the nuclear radii in the direction of the three
axes. If the nuclear ellipsoid
*20
F 2 m
(l
is
approximated by a quadrupoVSnape
+ a Y20 + a 2 (Y22 + Y2 . 2 ))
these radii are (see eqs. (2.24)
and
(20)
(2.25))
(21)
338
[ch.
n,2
Eq. (17) was
first derived by Inopin (In-60). He found that the approximate

formula (17) described exact solutions for an axial symmetric ellipsoid
(Da-58) very well. It is also straightforward to derive similar formulas for
all
CH.
1,
2]
In the adiabatic approximation
9x,
The corresponding
and giant quadrupole
energies of the giant dipole
lfl
= hu k
If all numerical values are inserted,
klt
E, 1
= 2 {1 + 0.2902
2
+ 0.091 5
and from
+0.3661 a Q
T 0.4483
6^, since the rotational
energies
compared to the giant resonance frequencies,

components Q Xll of the intrinsic giant
Cartesian
the
introduce
(frequencies) are very small
(22)
and terms up
+" 0.7
neglect the term proportional to
ure,
shape parameters are considered (Ur-66), we have
E l0 = E% {1- 0.5803 a
we can
(27)
<C Q. We
resonance collective coordinates in analogy to eq. (10.145)
resonances in a weakly deformed nucleus are
i.e.
also
-2d&M+ IAW^, * I,dUM*.

r
the other normal density fluctuations. However, the giant dipoles and
giant quadrupoles are of greatest importance in photon uciear physics.
we have
339
to
second order
explicitly
from
in the
Sao
eq. (17)
(28)
4f.
%
and
107 a 2
a o a 2 +0.5491 a 2
also
the
corresponding Cartesian gion creation and annihilation
operators,
(23)
eq. (18)
(29a)
fiIo=4io.
E 20 =
Eii
35 {1 -0.2848 o -0.1872 o
- 0.2456 a 2
2
},
Eg {l-0.1424a 0.3488 a 2
-0.0775 a
and
+0.0262 a/ +0.2220 a a 2 },
E 22 = s{l+0.2848a +0.O584 flo 2 -
(^) a
a A ^w2(^-.-(-ir^).
(24)
(29b)
2
2 }
where
We have now
f
reached the point where we can establish the giant resonance

Hamiltonian for a weakly deformed nucleus in a very simple way. Let us
briefly recapitulate: We have found the normal modes of such a nucleus
M* A 2
and
to be well approximated by eqs. (13)
first
first
zero of fl
zero of j[
is
intrinsic nucleus. Their
explicitly exhibited in these equations.
ting the adiabatic limit, the a
The
and a 2 are
As long
dependence on a
as
we are
investiga-
variational principle
The corresponding
collective
and are
spherical giant resonance coordinates in the intrinsic system

q lfi are
and
(24). In the intrinsic
harmonic giant multipole vibrators
$*+**
given by
(26)
listed in eqs. (23)
(principal axis) system of the weakly deformed nucleus the giant resonance
Hamiltonian is therefore, in the adiabatic limit the sum of the various
fixed parameters.
% = Y,K(h)*to-
(14).
coordinates are defined in eq. (15) and the energies were obtained via the
(25)
2.0816
These energies are given for the
and a 2
3J421
and
This Hamiltonian
is
XE>
<*,)(&&, + *).
(30)
Kb
derived in a kind of Bora-Oppenheiiner approach
(Bo-27) as used in molecular physics,
i.e.
by means of an adiabatic approach.
310
[CH. 11, | 2
For the derivation of eq. (30) the shape of the nucleus, characterized by a Q
and a 2 is considered to be fixed. After the establishment of eq. (30) the
parameters a and a 2 are no longer considered fixed, but are instead the usual
CH,
Oppenheimer procedure.
The Hamiltonian of
resonance Hamiltonian
/f im
which
and
(4). It
and
(4) if
is,
eq.
B aR
the spirit of the
is
(30) contains both
and
Born-
K<Q1}
JK^>
^ +R\îhB
however, not yet of the transparent form established in eqs. (1)
F\ fl m)+ fn>o
eq. (30)
<*i
f*1 n).
(31)
the Hamiltonians are in the intrinsic
tilde indicates that
they are functional of a
i.e.
2B 2
a 2 and q Xji and
FI kli
by keeping only the terms proportional
to
fi iM
is
powers of a and
rotated frame just by replacing
a121
where B^ and
(32)
replacement clearly
is
only possible in this simple form
because of adiabaticity (see eq. (27)). Then inserting eq. (28) and eq. (29)
(30) and,
furthermore, expressing the coordinates and
B\H and B\H by
occurring in
determined.
This yields a
coupling constants
down these
later on.
in
given operators on both sides of
of linear equations for the
contained
in eqs.
and
(1)
as yet unknown
(4). We do not write
They have a unique solution
for the coupling constants
KV>
A J0
K$
ft
B]
"11
2B Q
l
+ K 22^ttB Q -I$V
i
factors
hj2Bk Qx and \hBk Q x occur
the kinetic coupling
Kw
are uniquely
in front of the potential
convenient, because, after introducing the gion creation and annihilation
There
now
is
K^
the coupling
(4),
also the possibility of suppressing the kinetic coupling
in eqs. (1)
and
(4).
Since the giant resonance motion
is
nearly
harmonic, kinetic and potential energy are equal. In this approach one
therefore obtains potential coupling constants
V* =
(35)
2K<t>.
These coupling constants
will
be used explicitly
in section 11.10.1.
appears that for quadrupole giant resonances the interaction term
It
[a [1]
xqWf
vanishes.
The reason
is
just that in the adiabatic limit of eq.
(30) only a bilinear form in terms of the gion operators
Coulomb energy of the protons, however,

2y
ft
-0.794 Eg,
-0.354 *,
possible.
The
(Do-66).
the coupling constants of higher-order interaction terms.
(33)
been claimed (We-66)

ity
is
will yield a nonvanishing coupling
restricted ourselves to the second-order terms in the
+ KWtttB Q =
ft
way
and the potential coupling constants
The
(34)
In principle the same procedure can also be used for the evaluation of
B,2,
2,i
ft
-0.188 ES,
coupling terms and kinetic coupling terms, respectively, and are quite
constant K^
result is
K<1)
Q 2 = K 222 =
B2 Q2
h
are the inertia parameters for giant dipole and quadrupole
momenta
equations here because of their length and the fact that they are
unimportant
and the
set
K$
{1)
= - 0.355 ?,
operators according to eqs. (2.51) one
can compare corresponding terms

eq. (31).
constants
terms
last
B2
constants are multiplied by these factors.
The
Q2
-0.081 E8,
operators of eq. (2.51) into ft\ and ft\%, eqs. (1) and
rU]
in eq. (4).
B2
2
2
&-?
resonances, and are given in eq. (10.182). In this
obtained
a 2 The transformation of eqs. (I) and (4) to the intrinsic system is very
simply achieved. Since the interaction is a scalar, it will be given in the
into
+K lihB
ft
Here again the

from
+ KhhB 2 Q 2 m
+0.596 Eg,
ft
must, of course, be identical with our general ansatz of eqs. (1)

the latter are transformed to the intrinsic system
= n\lK"o
= Kf~i- .
B2 Q2
2 S2 2
+KiV&B 2 a = K^-A*# rAr

B Q
zB Q
the interaction with the surface vibrations
K&>
system,
0,
2B 2 Q 2
unperturbed giant
the
341
and
dynamical surface collective coordinates. This
II, 2]
-0.468 El,
Here we have
a 2 . However,
that the higher-order terms as well as the
it
has
anharmonio
of the surface vibrations very likely give non-negligible contributions
to the structure of giant resonances in spherical nuclei

included.
and should also be
342
Hie Hamiltonian
11.3.
[ch.
M,3
be neglected (Da-64).
etc., will
We
follow the historical development of the dynamic collective theory,
which was first worked out for deformed nuclei in 1963 by Danos and Greiner
(Da-64, Se-65). The Hamiltonian describing the various collective degrees
of freedom in nuclei
in general of the form
is
"suffice model
\^"l
In the particular case of deformed even-even nuclei /?, rftM moi contains
the rotations, Q the R- and y-vibrations, r? vih , and also the octupole
vibrations.
The
latter shall
the ^-vibrational energy

first
H + // *ib>
The Hamiltonian
(37)
,,
general given by eq. (30),
We
"roi
(*#""Ji
"?/*(.
"rol + "lbro+"fIolis
(38)
The
modes of the giant resonances,
momentum components
We
associated
note that of the various terms
eq. (38) the most important one
gions, Le.
The f^
these
two cases
are
on
momentum
(P-CTr-im
separately.
[^ +
2B
2
^1J
2
2
2
+ic c +c 2n -
by
eq. (5.72). It is
(40)
worthwhile to
note that the Hamiltonian describing the surface degrees of freedom, eq.
is
y-band,
known from
etc.
and
see
the low-energy spectrum (ground state band, /?-band,
Chapter
the strong coupling t
6).
The occurrence ofJ
(1)
in eq. (38)
comes from
M +J W (id being the rotational angular momentum
of the core) of the giant resonances to the
I-2 ftQ,(, !,)(&&+*)= I Ei^nMUQir+ti
H=
(43)
intrinsic nucleus.
Qu
and Bi#i Qz* arc creation and annihilation operators of
dipole gions and quadnipole gions in the intrinsic system respectively.

earlier, the
The various
computed
in nuclear
(22), if a
As
overtones (n) have been omitted because of their
small strengths (see section 10.5).
leBt]
9ij
inertia ^({,ij) are given
(42)
^ Gy+i[ n >= e MWfcuxeiû+i)- i i^D)(dLdu+i).
Here Old*
describes, as usual (see eq. (6.42)), the surface
/? vib
l_3{
(37),
treat
where
mentioned
The moments of
we
We consider
(39)
vibrations:
*U
1)
the discussion as transparent as possible
s M +s^ = s^+s\U+m+s\S,
m+m=
2/,
- -
> 1), and furthermore here restrict

and giant quadripole (X = 2) oscilla-
the right-hand side of
is
t
The Hamiltonian
make
with the giant A-pole
resonances, while the ! are the components of the total angular
of the system.
(41)
i).
are treated in complete analogy
to the strong coupling of a single particle to the nuclear core.
angular
,)
the discussion of the odd-particle case preceding eq. (9.25).
the
E M& nWx*
have neglected the "overtones" (n
are led to this ansatz by similar considerations to those which arose in
the excitation
in
is
i.e.
ourselves to the giant dipole (X

tions. In order to
We
fig. 6.5).
for the giant resonances in the intrinsic system
^gr + . =
where
evident that the parameters occur-
ft
rotational state (see
be neglected in the following. Therefore
suffice modes
now
Er = h(C2 !Bf is the y- vibrational energy, Ef = ft(C /S)*

and e - 2 /</o is obtained from the energy of
state, eq. (6.152),

is
"r"f tin ttMiitnceT" In*
It is
ring in eq. (37) are directly related to low-energy data. The nuclear deforma+
+
tion
-,2 ) value to the first rotational
O is obtained from the B(E2;
the
"
343
small terms such as the rotation-vibration interaction, the Coriolis terms,
deformed even-even nuclei
for
HAMILTONIAN FOR DEFORMED EVEN-EVEN NUCLEI
ch. 11,8 3]
The frequencies
fl 1(1
hydrodynamics and are given
+ and a2 =
tj
are inserted.
and
i2J(l
have been
in eqs. (17), (18)
and
We now recall how the coupling
of the giant resonances to the surface vibrations comes about: The frequencies fl 1(I
and
fl 2
of the gions depend on the nuclear deformation and there-
fore on the vibrational coordinates {
and
and the frequencies
(18) are established in the adiabatic
in eqs. (17)
and
tj.
The Hamiltonian of
eq. (43)
approximation. Because of ErfhQy at E (fiQ 2 at -^ the surface vibrations

r
are very slow compared to the giant resonance oscillations. It is therefore
344
justified to
compute the frequencies
frequencies are obtained in this

treated as variables
(moving
Xli
static,
as
if
[ch. II. | 3
the nucleus
adiabatic way,
surface). This
is,
is
fixed. After the
and
tj
are again
of course, completely analo-
gous to the Born-Oppenheimer procedure in molecular physics (Bo-27). By

and i\ = 0, one obtains
rt) about the equilibrium, =
expanding
Q>J
GIANT DIPOLE RESONANCES OF EVEN-EVEN NUCLEI
CM. 11, 4}
the nucleus.
The
interaction Hamikonians, eqs.
(45)
345
and
(47), typically
exhibit the influence of the giant resonances on the surface vibrations and
vice versa.
With
typical vibrational amplitudes , w *
tV
'
easily esti-
and (47) that the interaction between the surface

vibrations of a deformed nucleus and the giant resonances is of the order
# ln( as 1 to 2 MeV. In fact, the strong interaction S iBl leads to a splitting by
mated from
MeV
to 2
eqs. (45)
of the giant dipole modes @\
and Q\ _ , and also of the giant
Q 2l and 0S-i The former describe dipole density

fluctuations perpendicular to the long axis of the nucleus while the latter
quadrupole modes
i&N <i=E
*niô)G*;>({+fi,ifV6)(fiUfiu+t).
(45)
describe quadrupole density fluctuations in the 3
and
(46)
2).
One may
also express this
is
axially
symmetric in the ground state becomes
soon as the giant dipole resonances Q\ |0> are

,
(47)
splitting
of the two
originally degenerate
vibrational bands (satellites) also occur,
Gj"
= (- W (W*
*
l+t-i) "'^)-*^
o 08
1 (0)
is
clearly in the
following sections.
the static nuclear deformation
on
hu 2.08K
fifi,(0)
more
'
hQ lQ (0) = hQ ,(0) {i-0.58O3ft> + 0.3661
of rotational and
where a giant dipole
11.4.
ftft,
states
l+0.08(-i)""(|)-^J
are simple factors depending
the
tj,
triaxial as
|0>.
series
excited as well as surface phonons. This will be outlined
ftfi,(0)
i.e.
figs.
way:
excited. This then leads to
modes Q\ t
main giant dipole modes, a
In addition to the three
where
direction (see
jt
in the following
Because of the interaction terms of eq. (45) which are linear in

nucleus which
iff- E wJi/ojci^-Ai^^ */)(&,&,+i).
mechanism
'
+0.0915
and
The wave
functions
(48)
2
tf">
},
and energies for the giant dipole resonances of
even-even nuclei
The eigenfunctions of the
},
- 70 x A~* MeV,
{1+0.2902
total
Hamiltonian for the giant dipole resonances
C+/U+fl&+^+ S-i
(8+OW)
16Bt}
(so)
are the giant resonance frequencies of the statically deformed nucleus.
are products of the rotator wave function D'MK *%), the 0- and y-vibrational
Similarly
wave functions UîO and q> Kni ^tf)> and the S' ant dipole
The total wave function has to fulfill the symmetries ft
(4.22). The first symmetry, A,, is satisfied if in the product
3)
0.284 (ti
- 2)
^ ux 3 J43
2M1^(0)
ftQ 20 (p)
ftfi
22 (0)
As7 21 (0)
= ftft2 (0)(l- 0.2848 0o -O.18720 O 2 +

= M2 2 (0)(l +0.2848 O + 0.0584 O 2 +
- nf2 2 (O)(l-O.I4240 o -O.O7750 o 2 +
*
'
(49)
),
are numerical expansion coefficients and frequencies for the quadrupole

giant resonances which again only depend
on
the static deformation
states
fc 2
0!s|O>.
&i of
J&iWfilslO)
*)
),
O of
K S is always an even number,

K-S = 2v,
This follows in the same
way
eq.
(51)
i.e.
0,
1,.2,-".
(52)
as the condition of eq. (9.45) for the deformed
single particle shell model. In fact, the coupling of the giant resonance
mode
346
[CH.
ch.
11,54
The
01s |0> to the rotating and vibrating core is, formally, equivalent to the
coupling of an odd particle to the core. Therefore, we can take over a number
of conclusions from our discussion in Chapter
k2
that under the transformation
9. It
y-vibrational
5=
0,
the product function of eq. (51) trans-
resonance mode
where a giant
i.e.
One
(53)
\s\
for
5^0,
Using eqs. (52) and (53) and our experience with constructing
and
(9.51)
fonffcO,
|o
for n
and
-*^
<
(58)
0,
where
wave functions gained in the derivation of

we obtain (see Da- 54) the totally symmetrized wave
functions of the rotating
,j+i)
[tF,(-a, 4*4-1? Jtj*)
the properly symmetrized total

eqs, (6.128)
symmetry
r(Kx+2))
2i
J>L-*(9i)GUlo>
excited along the
obtains
Otuofa)
oUW&IO) - jl (-ir*
is
a)
_ l/ 2A**+ r(K*+ 2 )+ B 2)
forms as
+ * +5
analytically only in the case
wave functions can be given
axis of the nucleus.
follows, furthermore,
347
GIANT D1POLE RESONANCES OF EVEN-EVEN NUCLEI
n,4]
I-
3ejS
vibrating ellipsoid with giant resonances
excited:
\IMK
(59)
21 +
_]/
n 2 n Q S> "
'
r
1
+ 5 K0 )
32it (l
uUO
^- KW)^
x[(^W-(-i/ +K+ * S(S+,)

+(-l)-*-. (i) j
rEW _
The //^(O
BJ s(-?)ai S iO>
where
and
JC
s
/
The
/(-vibrational
in
(54)
H$
(Da-64
= |S|,|S|+2,|S|+V,
= 0, 1,
= 1,3,5,for K = 0,
= K,K + l K + 2 --- forX>0.
t
tj
is
(55)
exp
- fr
({ -, s| ) ]
\Jx
H (c< - ,)),
we have
i\s\ (a o
y-vibration
The
0.
represented the ^-vibrational wave functions in
= Po+Zm)-
The
total
wave function
wave functions
defined for negative

is
t},
is
only defined for positive arguments,
in eq. (54) contain
two
the second one for positive
parts; the first
t\.
eigenfunctions
q>Znj
ij
x (ij)
k2
one
factor
cannot be determined analytically, because
contained in
//, nV.
They
are solutions of the equation
(56)
4B
2
3ij
16Bfj
2E,
The phase
determined by the symmetry requirement
of the terms linear in
in
The
where
2
6,
between them
wave functions are

2a
the confluent
is
and not through the use of phonon operators. The reason is that
eq. (45) contains terms linear in ^ which can be treated exactly by
(a = J? ) to
the equilibrium of the ^-vibrations from =
shifting
lUC) - 1;
2*n
Chapter
-space
K obey the following conditions
Hermite polynomials and
hypergeometric function. In contrast to our treatment of the ^-vibrations
_ 1) i + .-i, i<( _ i . (tfj))
x],
in eq. (56) are the
5-
1.
(60)
3e0 o
Because of the impenetrable potential well occurring at
or r\ g
determine the solutions of eq. (60) only for tj ^
(57)
t\
0.
=
The
one may
<p K is(l)
are chosen (Ar-67, Ar-68) such that

|s|
_
=
3ftO 1
%
=
/.
5i (0)
=-j
G s(U'ft, 2
*.,<(*)
3J3/?
for
ij
g0.
(61)
Scheck (Sch-66) showed that one obtains good approximate solutions of

2
eq. (60)
li
by a variational approach
for the cases n 2
0, 1.
For higher
states
DYNAMIC COLLBCTTVE MODEL
348
this
Ech. II,
procedure becomes tedious and also inaccurate. Since one will
need y-vibrational states up to n 2
a numerical solution of eq. (60)
3,
preferable. It also should be noted that the
wave functions
We
later
is
in eq. (54)
diagonalize only one term of the rotational energy around the third principal
%<!-#?*
i6Bi?
id}
(62)
iBr)
16 Bt]
-(ft
term
first
of
(62)
eq.
/^ )^}^' mixes the

2
states
is
contained
S = 1,
in
The term
shown in
nO t and
(G)
this
<
energy than those with
because of the relation
The matrix elements of
eq.
(I'M' K'
n'2 n' S'\
-^h3i
iy
\l
M Kn
n S>
the dipole
8lI'&tlM' S *K'&m
K
(64)
which
in eq. (65).
the dipole
MeV)
1,
n2
0.
modes 6IilO>
0,
even in the ground
(oscillations perpendicular to the
,..
split
sym-
because of
This can be made plausible as follows:
state.
maxima
at y
and vanishes for
Therefore, the nucleus
in
is
effect
-3-
-2~
-4-5-
In addition, the large widths (of the order 1-2
it
is
-3-
fact, detailed diagonaliza-
mixing term in eq. (64). In
-1-
-2-
-2-
-4"
-3-
-3-2-
-2-
-T
-r
-r
tions of the total Hamiltontan justify this procedure (Li-66b).
we
leads to the term
10I - 10 _ 1 2to3 MeV,
has been shown that the y-vibrations are anharmonic. As a consequence,
of the various dipole states diminish the contribution of this mixing
Finally
one has
j3
have a higher
so
to the scattering and absorption cross sections even more. Hence

justified to neglect the
S +1
modes and the surface
S=
These energies
positive deformation
0.
They are of the order of magnitude of 0.1 to 0.2 MeV. Therefore only those
states interact strongly which are separated in energy by less than 0.2 to 0.4
MeV. Since the dipole state S = 1, n 2 = is lower in energy by 1 to 2 MeV
than the state S - 1, n 2 = 0, only the higher phonon states on top of the
have matrix elements with the main giant
giant resonance 5 = 1 n 2 >
resonance
momentum
quanta
the probability distribution of y has

h
More
metry axis of the nucleus which are originally degenerate)
It
8B17
connected with angular
in eq. (65). It turns out (Da-64b) that
is
features arise. First,
giant resonance cross section,
For
(48),
new
precisely, the gion
their interaction with the y-vibrations.
is
therefore the gtons with
S =
The coupling between
term are
chapter two
^{ 1 |0> are excited in the upper

follows mathematically from the term hQ ts (0)
that
eq, (10.146).
the complete giant dipole resonance
along the intrinsic axis of the nucleus.
are explicitly
(50).
last
the higher peak of the giant resonance
jt ni .
which follows from
in a position to discuss
dynamical model discussed in the
fi^!
Only the
now
spectrum of a deformed even-even nucleus. Compared with the hydro-
axis, eq. (38),
are
349
GIANT DIPOLE RESONANCES OF EVEN-EVEN NUCLEI
CH. 11, S 4)
exhibit the energies of the various states
K*1
K=2
K*0
- W/ + l)-K 2 ~|5|)ie+(iIo +i)
fi
(!
(^^G^jW + ^^+îstO),
(65)
xO,fh*1
K-l
Q/tQ
S*J
where
Fig. 3. Giant dipole resonances in a deformed rotating and vibrating nucleus. The three
and
0, S
1 can be
0, n 1
0, S
1, n
0. n x
1
states
0, n
*wo-(2* a +**+!),,
and
E]Ln1 i are determined
by the numerical solution of
K=
eq. (60).
identified with the
K=
Danos-Okamoto modes
(see section 10.6).
350
[CH.
1, 5
"asymmetric," though not, however, in the sense of Davydov (see Chapter 7)
who assumes a permanently deformed
Upon
triaxial shape.
CH.
GIANT QUADRUPOLE RESONANCES OF EVEN-EVEN NUCLEI
5]
1 1,
The conditions
K=
"transverse" gion, (SI-t|0>, the nuclear shape becomes stabilized in its

axialJy asymmetric form. Thus the degeneracy of the upper dipole resonance
removed and two resonances
is
will
appear corresponding to the axes
perpendicular to the symmetry axis. According to eq. (65) each dipole state
forms the basis of vibrational and rotational bands

thus behave in a
way completely analogous
low-energy region (Chapter 9)
In section
1.8
we will
(fig. 3).
is
We
shall find the rather surprising
excited in addition to the transverse dipole
is
appreciable photon absorption cross section.
The
thus acquire a "satellite" at an energy about 0.8

states are characterized in fig. 3
0,
n2
S-
1,
and
1}
selection rule
where a vibrational
modes
also have
MeV
higher.
Such
satellite
transition and the dipole operator
y-vibrations
11,5.
and
The wave
=
=
1, 3, 5,
0, 2, 4,
K,
for
for
K=
K=
K + \,K+2
It is
0,
T=
-2,
0,
T*
-2,
K >
for
quantum number T
noticed that the
number S
(68)
0,
is
the analog of the
of giant dipole resonances. Again
in the case
quantum
2
<pi i,r(tf)
>
s tnfi
solution of a differential equation analogous to eq. (60)
(_
\
H#
45
8n
+c 2 n 2 +
* >(
!" -Wi
f+
16Br}
1)
>
r|CP .|ftoSg-, I T]
l
by the set of quantum numbers {!,

-1}. Offhand,
1, n = 0, n 2 m 1, S
satellite states
should be inhibited
analogous to the Af-selection rule in the low-energy
this selection rule is
T = -2,-1,0,1,2.
an
transverse dipole states
spectrum, since in these states more than one degree of freedom makes a
of
+ 2,\T\+4,---
\T\,\T\
x<P AU'?)
0.
(69)
{K =
one would expect that transitions to these
by a
dipole states
and derive expressions
result that, in addition to the dipole states, those states
mode
are
not surprising.
calculate the dipole operator
for the dipole transition probabilities.
The
to the odd-particle states in the
a result which
quantum numbers
for the
excitation of a
is
For
T =
0,
+2,
eq. (69)
is
the differential equation for the radial
wave
function of the three-dimensional oscillator with a centrifugal barrier of
angular
momentum
/=-i+iVK 2 +r.
a one-body operator. The breakdown
(70)
again associated with the anharmonicity of the
their strong coupling to the transverse dipole
modes.
The
eigenvalues and eigenfunctions are in this case
E KBlT =
functions and energies for the giant quadrupoie resonances of
(2n 2 +
|r|*l,
!+$},,
(71a)
even-even nuclei
The Hamiltonian
(46), (47)
for the giant quadrupoie resonances
is,
according to eqs.
and (36)-(40),
/?<*>
+ /U +
^rT
in)
'
n 2 ir
(l TK
+$)
for n
-- (h + (?m
loBn
2
+ /& >+
t
(66)
^0
for
ij
<
and
\T\
(71b)
0,
This should be compared with eq. (50). The solutions of eq. (66) have the
same
structure as the dipole solutions (54), namely *
MKn
where X
n,
T> -
]/
1
?+}
32^(1 + S KQ )
(,t
xiD^+siMTX-lY+'D^-^tfU-nWU-irTml
detailed derivation
can be found in the
literature (Li-67).
rj
T = 1
occurs which
it is
noticed that in eq. (69)
an
is
411 J [0> gions couple to the y-vibrations. This
- ,T|)
The
In the case
due to the coupling of the quad(see eq. (47)). Hence only the
y-vibrations
giant
with
the
rupoie
resonances
U kT (0
x{(UU* + sign(r)(-i),+I+T i>ir-r*)^ rWaiT|0>+(~l)*
= 2/y3spy.
additional term linear in
can be very simply under-
figs. 2 and 4, where it can be seen that the modes fii il0>
couple to both axes of the nuclear ellipsoid and therefore not to the y-
stood from
(67)
vibrations, while the gions
^2il0>
describe oscillations along the radii
DYNAMIC COLIECTIVE MODEL
352
with polar angles 3
Jn,
<p
and 9
Jit, <p
[CH. 11,
\n t
The
modes
respectively.
HAMILTONIAN FOR DEFORMED ODO-A NUCLEI
ch. 11, 6]
satellites.
Only the 2 + member of

+
from the
ground
do couple to the y-vibrations because the energy of these

depends mainly on the reciprocal radii of the nuclear ellipsoid in the above
excitation
mentioned
quadrupole giant resonances
latter clearly
directions.
The energy spectrum of
On
the various giant resonances
is
shown
the bands can be reached
state.
The
by quadrupole
strengths of the various excitations
are indicated through the thickness of the arrows. Further discussion
of
continued in section 11.9.
is
in fig. 5.
top of the gion excitation there occur rotational bands and vibrational
11.6.
The Hamiltonian
The complete
/?1*
353
for deformed oAA-A nuclei
2-t
and the giant resonance

one
and
collective theory of the nucleus, unifying the low-energy
the high-energy collective degrees of freedom,

oscillations has
feature, namely, the possibility of
spin. In this section
we
i.e.
the rotations, vibrations,
been developed above,
It still
lacks
having nonvanishing ground-state
intend to remedy this situation, and
we
set
ourselves
the task of combining the unified model and the dynamic collective model
for even-even nuclei.
1**20
The reasons
Y
2f
performed on
Y2-1
for doing this are manifold. Firstly, experiments are being

odd-.<4 nuclei
which do have a
been frequently stated that the
'vn
Fig, 4.
The
32
H2
on the giant resonance, but

is
directions of the various quadrupole giant resonances in a deformed nucleus.
odd
last
this
finite
ground-state spin.
particle will
statement has to be
have a negligible
made
It
has
effect
quantitative. This
particularly important since odd-^4 nuclei frequently are mono-isotopic
and therefore the finer details, e.g. the line shape of the lower energy peak,
are not washed out in experiments on natural isotopes as they may be in an
isotope mixture. Furthermore, experiments involving nuclear orientation
Ml
require a finite ground-state spin.
For a consistent description of such ex-
periments the incorporation of an odd particle
4
-j
3*
-2
the tensor polarizibility of a nucleus (see
is
indispensable. In particular,
Volume 2 of this
series, section 5.5)
vanishes for a spin-zero ground state. Also, the details of the elastic
Raman
scattering of photons (see
Volume
2,
he.
cit.)
depend
and
on
essentially
the ground-state spin of the nucleus. Fjnally, the presence of a further angular
momentum,
viz.
A
4*
considerable enrichment of the structure of the spectrum
expected when comparison
2*
momentum, provides for a large number

may couple to a given total angular momentum.
the particle angular
of ways in which the system
is
made with
is
thus to be
the-already quite rich level structure
of the even-even nuclei.
s*
One
considers the odd-v4 nucleus as consisting of the even-even core with
one outside
K*2 7=2 K=2
nÔ ty=Q 1^0
particle.
The even-even core
model. The additional odd particle
model
(see
Chapter 9) and
is
is
is
described by the collective
treated within the
deformed
shell
strongly coupled to the core. Therefore the
Hamiltonian of an odd-^4 nucleus consists of the collective Hamiltonian of

Pig.
S.
The E2
giant resonance spectrum for even nuclei (qualitatively).
the core, #,, , the single-particle Hamiltonian of the
odd
particle, /? p>r(
354
the interaction energy between core
and
and
[CH. II,
S cMpMri
particle,
(Da-65b):
Here ft^
is
the deformed shell
r? pirt
where hco
is
"coil + "pux + "coll pin
(72)
model (Nilsson) Hamiltonian, see eq.
- ihm ( - V 2 + k z r 2 ) -ft r 2 T2 + C I
the energy parameter
+D
(9.65),
2
I
(73)
of the single particle shell model.
The properly symmetrized
(54).
\IMKQan 2
2/<
are taken into account.
on the
The
collective states.
h +
Of
+(-l)*- a
(74)
-,V
where / and
V ^r
- s -'"(Dj
K=
given by
UmS {Q
The
K has
E,
)
iK
and
- Bi
(17
xV.a-(-ir i+ * +,,+W
'> M-/ft-i,)
(76)
similar to that of eq. (55)
Z|K-i3| BI s(l) are
0) only.
given by eqs. (56), (58) and (60), where
\K-Q\. Again Xix-nimstl)
The corresponding
defined for positive
is
energies are
2
2
feft + |K _ oU3s + fif2is(0) + eoa(
(78)
where
E lK _ a]ni0 =
and the
+fe+mi +flffi+A2?+*
,
(73)
l
The various giant resonance parts are explicitly exhibited

(47). The solutions of eq. (75) are obtained in a manner
in eqs. (44)
through
similar to that used
for even nuclei (see Da-65b, Da-64b and sections 11.4 and 11.5).
E\ K _ at lS for
(2n 2
+ i\K-Q\ + l)E 7
1 have to
equation very similar to eq. (60). Since
be determined numerically from an
this
part of the solution
analogous to the discussion of even-even nuclei
we
is
completely
refer the reader to
2
2
where the term -(ft /8 ) (/a-Ja)?"' <s also discussed.
It is analogous to the last term of eq. (62) and mixes states with S = 1.
The order of magnitude is the same as in eq. (64) and therefore can also be
section
11.4,
neglected
*.
functions and energies of the giant dipote resonance of de*
formed o&A-A nuclei
As was
true for the giant dipole resonances, the giant quadrupole resonances can also
be formulated for odd-X nuclei.
wave functions are again products of rotator wave functions, surface
vibrational
I>
_ |^s(0) G u)j
16nV
The
'"
2
2
m , - [/(i+l)-K -S*-fl ]ie+(* + i),
2/c
The wave
0-\S\ Q-\S\ + 2, fi-|S|+4,
to be replaced by
argument
(r-h'-h'-ow-o?)
eq.
(77)
same approx-
for the collective Hamiltonian
from
jT-{*J,}X|+l,JKj+2,".
11.7.
U,
32ji
K satisfy conditions
course, the single-particle states are then de-
of the core. Under these approximations the dynamic collective Hamiltonian
8=
different
given by (Da-65b,
is
x X |x-m- lS(l)dl-s|0>].
16Btj
be made
wave
somewhat
function
xX|x-fl1- jS0?)dMO>
neglected terms have only a very small influence
imations as for even-even nuclei will
is
S~>
'
scribed only very crudely in this treatment. Furthermore, the
add-A nuclei
The
action has been discussed extensively in that chapter. Here only the terms
2
total
is
Ar-67a, Ar-68):
wave functions of eq. (73) have been derived in Chapter 9, and are denoted
by ^ an where CI is the projection of the angular momentum of the single
particle j, along the symmetry axis of the nucleus. The core-particle inter-
355
functions. Because of the additional single-particle functions the
wave
symmetrization of the total wave function
8=
for
GIANT DIPOLE RESONANCE OF DEFORMED ODD-A NUCJUBI
CH. 11, 8 7]
wave
functions, giant dipole
wave functions and
single-particle
We
omit
this discussion here.
energies of the giant quadrupole resonances in

in Li-67.
odd-A
The wave
functions
and
nuclei can be found, for example,
356
11.8,
So
The
far
Ech. II,
The
dipole and quadrupole operators in collective variables
we have
CH. 11, 8)
described the dynamic collective model for the giant res-
DIPOLE AND QUADRUPQLB OPERATORS IN COLLECTIVE VAKIARLES
calculated
fig? are then readily
components of the multipole operators
intrinsic
357
from
onances and have derived the wave functions and energies. In order to
determine physical cross sections as, for example, the y-absorption cross
section, the transition matrix elements of the various multipole operators
have to be determined. The collective part of the multipole operators of the

nuclear charge distribution e(r, /) = e p (0){l +r(r, r)) have to be of the
Cp(0) f (
J
I - VT ft - ft *<Mo
(
I.
a 3 ) r) ft. r*
F* dr,
(82)
where the bar on the multipole operator indicates that these are its intrinsic
components. This calculation is lenghty but straightforward. The result for
form
and
Qt = ^^+B:[
in the laboratory system.
the dipole operators
^T+
[2J
The constants
and
Az
(80)
have already been
determined in eq. (10.196) where the upper index (n) enumerates the
overtones which are of no interest here. We have therefore dropped this
upper index. The constants
B lt B2 and
mi
Jii|{[i
however, one needs to
know
pj(r, t,
o^ 1 ) as
(Da-65a, b, Ar-67a, b):
w (fi M +fi. w)-Mffl-w + fii-w)](l+Si w)
4U =
fi/i
(0.925 +0.050 p
= hf (-0.654+0.018
S MH = (-2)-""0.349
d\
a function
l/ NZ(l+)
Jl
JAM
2 AM
nucleus
1? =
- $Lh{kLr)*LM,
where the k LM (a
o2 )
are given
by
eqs,
(81)
(17) and (18) for the cases L =
intrinsic
The
1,
mode
in the
system as well as on the surface coordinates. In contrast to this the
wave numbers in the arguments of eqs. (13) and (14) are just the wave
numbers k L of a spherical nucleus (see table 2 in Chapter 10). This difference
comes about because eqs. (13) and (14) are zero-order trial functions for
the fluctuation density. The first-order corrections are obtained by replacing
k L by fcuuK. a i)- Ifthe Bcssel functions AtAâ,,. <* 2 )r) are expanded in
terms of a
and a 2 one obtains
explicitly
an expression of
order in a
and a2
up
_3_
^t[(ffiw+S2|,i)-(l-*wo)iiiW(&w+i2i-w)]
x0 497 ')K
x(W 6 ) 5 h>
< 85 )
with
2>
d*o
2fc/2 (l+0.497pV),
d = - hf2
2>
S 2M =
,,.
J,i
the type given in
eq. (12) for the fluctuation densities; this expression is correct
(84)
x[i+s 2U |d_
difference
a 2 )r where the wave numbers depend on the
-0.18pV),
between eq. (81) and eqs. (13) and (14) should

be carefully realized: Here the arguments of the Bessel functions are
respectively.
jS
and for the quadrupole operator (Li-66)
fr,
+ 0.26 pV).
fc0.m\
Ait
hQ,(0) Air*
must be given to the fact that in order to

111
for the multipole operators,
achieve consistent first-order terms in a
one has to insert in eq. (15) the normal density distribution in a deformed
fluctuation densities. Attention
= L,-'\ -L,
83>
>
1*1
(see eq. (7)). However, we obtain
of the collective surface coordinates a
using the expression (15) for the
system
by
intrinsic
the
this most simply in
with
possible higher constants in the
the fluctuation density
is
+pw (fflw+#i W)+iK-w+&-wHW(V*)*iw*d.
expressions for the multipole operators eqs. (79) and (80) can, in principle,
be determined according to the method leading to eq. (10.196). In this case,
A LM (a
HI
+0.248 /j +0.42 JS
(1
2
),
2
ft/2 (1 - 0.497 p +0.29 ft, ),
K2-H
o.3ii
RoV
(86)
)x 0-497,
f-m^-L
AM hQ
hOJ
kAM
f
2 (Q)
to first
With the help of
the rotation matrices, one obtains the
components
g^
[CH. It,
358
from eqs. (83) and (85),

of the multipole operators in the laboratory system
359
photo-absorption and photon scattering experiments have been performed

only for four heavy deformed nuclei, namely Er, Ho, Tb and Ta. We shall
an analysis for the first two cases, which

typically represent even-even and odd-even nuclei. The analysts on the
basis of the dynamic collective model proceeds in the following manner:
try to give as complete as possible
especially for
the form of the multipole operators which is used
and intrinsic
angles
9
Euler
of
in
terms
described
deformed nuclei which are
This
EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR DEFORMED NUCLEI
CH. it, 9]
is
are linear in gion

coordinates. It is noticed that these multipole operators
of
these operators
action
creation and annihilation operators. Therefore the
ground state (vacuum), as for example in absorption of a photon,
on
the
Among
the parameters determining the theoretical cross sections the three
parameters
e,
r Ep
,
are taken from low-energy spectra (see
deformation S
experiments are
equations into the intrinsic system. This is

(80) by transforming these two
- q k]l and the a 2 -* a 2lt In addition,
just achieved by replacing the qx
parameter.
less
The
2lt
eq. (28),
and
and finally introduces the creation and annihilation operators, eqs. (29)
terms
the
independently,
and,
(2.51), one can compare the terms linear in a,,
and (80).
not containing fl in eqs. (83) and (79) and correspondingly (85)
results are
This determines uniquely the coefficients A lt B t and A 2 ,B 2 The
One
^.$.0.925 1-A MVMi(0)

ft
A2 =
-0.246
0.3104
thus considers 6
'
B 2 = -Ut)
(88)
magnitude and width of the resonances.

different dipole resonances
describe this by a
jt
We
that the widths of the
depend only on the excitation energy and we
power law,
i.e.
we put (Da-65a, Da-64b)
(89)
TB and En are the width and energy of the nth giant dipole state
F and E Q - ftQ,(0) are the width and energy of one arbitrary
giant dipole state. One conveniently chooses the lower giant dipole resonance
a deformed nucleus which
MV
|/Af0000>
is
ftQ 2 (0)
f and
-0.4967/1,.
Finally
we
are
left
with two parameters, namely
terms in eqs. (79) and (80) characterize the multipole operators in

clearly take into
spherical nuclei while the second terms in eqs. (79) and (80)
nucleus.
deformed
in
a
densities
fluctuation
the
of
account the modification
from the low-energy
the integrated cross section, which
hydrodynamic model
odd-A
is
(see eq. (10.139)
adjustment of the parameters we

In
a, the
exchange correction to
the effective mass correction of the
and
For the details of the
(10.233)).
refer to the literature (Ar-67a).
nuclei the low-energy parameters are not necessarily available
fore
eters
photonuctear processes can be divided into
two
categories: the photo-
absorption processes and the photon scattering processes.
particularly true for the vibrational energy
Er can also be varied somewhat
experimental data (Ar-67).
deformed nuclei
Up
to
now
can be determined
where
is
The
Er
In these cases, there-
while fitting the theoretical curve to the
precision with which the different param-
highest for ftfl|(0) (less than
%) and T and
about 5 %.
proceed to the detailed discussion of various nuclei.
it is
We now
from neighboring
some uncertainties.
spectra. In such cases parameters
nuclei are used. This procedure evidently introduces

is
the position of the
first
This
by two parameters
3.
low-energy giant resonance |/M0000>, and
11.9. Analysis of experimental data for
quantum numbers
characterized by the
(see eq. (54)). All widths thus are described
the multipole operators in eqs. (79) and (80) is particularly

in section 10.
useful in the case of vibrational nuclei which we will discuss
gion creation
In this case the wave functions will be given in terms of the
phonon
surface
of
the
terms
in
and
system
operators 4l in the laboratory
variables.
intrinsic
and
angles
and not in terms of Euler
operators
The
assume
The form of
The
to the giant
also to be an adjustable
'-'-&'
state in
ftV
fits
excitation
respectively.
O 4,,
The
where
jt
B,
6.5).
other parameters determine, crudely, the position, absolute
(Ar-67a, b, Li-67):
good
accurate than required to give
resonance cross sections.
one expresses the q kv in terms of the Cartesian components
Coulomb
low-energy data. However, the values obtained by
Furthermore, it is now
leads only to the one-phonon giant resonance states.
B 2 of eqs. (79) and
and
B,
constants
the
also rather simple to determine
if
fig.
of the nucleus can, in principle, also be determined from the
[ch. 11, S 9
DYNAMIC COLLECTIVE MODBL
360
picture
361
CH. 11, 9]
The main effect of the coupling to the

transverse modes IM 1 00 1> (see eq. (54))
see also section 10.6),
surface mode is a splitting of the
300
ns
t a*
Of
t*
U
o
to
s
Fig. 6.
The
OA
a.
5a
photon absorption cross section of
'"Er according
to theory (full line)
and
experiment (Da-64a).
Table
-ti-
14
L
5
v
li-llXiL
ill
Jv
I
9?v Is
*u
vvy
I?
Nuclear parameters for Erbium
scheme and dipole strength of giant dipole resonances in

numbers /, K, nx,it a >S of the main states are indicated.
Fig. 7.Level
efkeV)
11.68
11.9.1.
EÔteV)
E,(keV)
E, 0000 (MeV)
7S8
1460
12.1
(MeV)
/?
2.2
0.29
1.5
22', {MeV)
" Er, The quantum
0.09
Erbium
The photon absorption experiment (Fu-62b) has been performed only on

even-even isotopes
natural Erbium in which the abundances of the different
l70
168
,66 Er, 27.1
Er. The lowfor
and
14.9%.
Er
% for
are 33.4% for
I68
l66
well known
not
so
Er,
but
Er and
energy spectra are well known for
Er
l70
for *
same
Er. The low-energy parameters are practically the
for
of
and 168 Er. The computations are thus performed with the parameters
most abundant isotope
to eq. (10.206), where the
the
t66
The cross sections are calculated according

state
initial wave function is the nuclear ground
fit is
obtained
The
states are given by eq. (54).
Er.
|0> and the various final

shown in fig. 6. The parameters are given in table 1.
The level scheme and dipole strengths for the giant resonances are shown in
the strength of the transverse
fig. 7. The dashed line shows the position and
is omitted (Danos-Okamoto
vibrations
modes if the coupling to the surface
photon scattering cross sections via the giant resonances in

and 2 + ' curves show
l66 Er respecscattering to the first rotational state and to the y-bandhead in
Fig. 8. Elastic
"'Er.
and
inelastic
The 0* curve
the inelastic
+
indicates the elastic scattering while the 2
tively (see
fig.
9).
362
by almost 2
MeV. Many
[en. II, 5 9
vibrational satellites also appear. However, only
one of them acquires an appreciable dipole strength.

Another important application of the dynamic collective model
prediction of photon scattering cross sections.
inelastic
photon
in this series
scattering
on
is
excitation
The theory
We
and
Volume 2
refer to this
chapter and to the literature (Ar-67, Ar-68) for more information on photon
scattering.
The
Here we
shall discuss the results.
scattering cross sections
above are shown
(Raman)
in fig. 8.
which
term
(/ 3
from the parameters obtained
and the important
elastic
scattering cross sections are given.
The

(
+J 3
1)2
)/(16Bij ) (see eq. (50)).
Thus the
363
differential
equation for
wave function of the ff-vibrations is different for different rotational

(60)). However, the overlap integrals are still small for those
wave functions which would have been orthogonal in the absence of the
above term. The structure of the y-vibration bandhead, as seen from its
quantum numbers 1 = 2, K = 2, n 2 = 0, = 0, actually involves no
bands (see eq.
y-vibration phonon.
resulting
result
Both the
n, 9)
the
the
is
for elastic
discussed in detail in Chapter 5 of
mechanisms of the nucleus.
CH.
inelastic
elastic scattering here
is
purely scalar, since the ground state spin vanishes. Tensor scattering leads
from the
deformed shape
It
finite
merely indicates a kind of centrifugal stretching

K, which leads to a dynamic permanent triaxially
(see fig. 6.4,
and
also
scattering cross section at 140,
is
from La-64. The agreement
is
are
fig. 7.5).
shown
in
excellent
The
total quasi-elastic
photon
The experimental points

bearing in mind that no adjust-
fig. 10.
ments have been made after the parameters are
from the absorption
fitted
data.
"
'
,,
Fig. 9.
Schematic representation of the various
Mastic to
r-bcmd
inelastic to first
rotational state
elastic
and
inelastic scattering processes.
Fig. 10. Total quasi-elastic
photon scattering cross section

ical
to the
first
rotational state (2
+
)
and
to the y-bandhead (2
have schematically depicted these scattering processes. The

ing cross section into the y-band
is
magnitude larger than the other

vibrational states (Ar-67b).
quite remarkable.
Raman
The reason
It is
').
In
fig.
is
As compared with Erbium,

clearer because the nucleus
The
scatter-
and would
vanish exactly except for the presence of the rotation-vibration and dipolevibration interaction. Explicitly this effect results from the presence of the
fig. 9).
They are
Hoimium
into
ing strengths contain overlap integrals between the y-vibrational wave
functions (see the schematic
11.9.2.
about an order of
the following:
in general very small
compared with theoret-
we
inelastic scatter-
scattering cross sections
for this
at 140
prediction (solid line).
the situation in
is
Hoimium
is
on
the
one hand
mono-isotopic, but on the other hand
more
no consistent analysis of the low-energy spectra is as yet

The spectra seem to indicate two y-bandheads with spin ~ and
f " at 514 keV and 687 keV respectively (see Di-63 and fig. 9.17). This
would yield for the y-vibration parameter T 500 to 700 keV. Such a
value for would also agree with the systematics of the y-vibrational
uncertain because
available.
364
[CH. 11,
ch. 11,5 9]
365
energies in the neighboring nuclei (see the discussion in section 9.6.2).
MS
Because of these uncertainties
The
is
taken to be a free parameter.
calculated y-absorption cross section
obtained by Bramblett et
at.
(Br-63, 64a),
is
shown
in
fig.
with the data
1 1
which show the quadrupole giant
MeV. The parameters entering the calculation

The spectrum of the strengths of the dipole states is
fig. 12. The spectrum is now considerably richer, as expected on
of our discussion in sections 1 1 .6 and 1 1 .7. However, the dipole
resonance at about 20-26

are listed in table
shown
in
the basis
2.
strength distribution has remained practically unchanged
compared to the
even case. Thus summing the strengths of the different main groups of peaks
10
t2
20
(8
tk
in figs. 12
BMttl
2S
2*
and
7,
we have the
to 86/58/17/80 for
Fig. 11.
The y-absorption cross section of ,6 'Ho compared with theory
(solid line) (Li- 67a).
odd
the
166
particle has
Er. This
no
Table 2
The
Resonance parameters for Holmium
EÔceV)
VkeV)
ioooo(MeV)
(MeV)
00
1460
1000
1.6
0.24
2.3
12.00
on the
assumption that
distribution of the dipole strengths
However, the dipole strength
is split
up into several
scheme of the quadrupole giant resonances is shown in

Erbium and Holmium. The integrated non-energy-
weighted quadrupole absorption cross section
a.
test for the
Ho as compared
lying at exceedingly close energies.
El absorption cross
10.5
a quantitative
16S
13 (Li-67a)for both
fig.
e(keV)
level
is
influence
in the giant resonances.
components
distribution 86/51/20/79 for
is
about 7
% of the integrated
section, if exchange corrections are not included. Since
0.2S
the giant quadrupole resonances occur
on the high-energy
of the dipole
tail
IV
4?,
Ho
Sets
Q3
Er
166
ss
hi
-
3 0.4 %
02
01
02 .
"-1
1
20
1
,.
12
Ik
.<i
ill
IS
Ik
E(MeV)
Id
\%^
))\
Fig. 12.
.Si
figs S3 3
ggSSSi
'vv vv
Ri, na
ISS
A CH3
&&<?
55255
Wlv
Ho. The quantum numbers

and S are indicated for the main states.
Giant dipole states in the odi-A nucleus
27
E(MeV)
se
=
u4.
26
24
rjjo
88
23
22
I,
K,
Fig. 13(a).
The
states in
till
HI
^s>
6y K,ii
i
*
v v t
&ij
V T
\
level scheme and quadrupole strengths of the giant quadrupole resonance

'"Er. The quantum numbers of the states K, nt , n and T are indicated.
366
[CH. 11,
ch. II, 9)
367
absorption cross section, the experimental problems involved in the detection
of the quadrupole giant resonances are considerable. Nevertheless the
os
Ho
W5
experiments of the Livermore group (Br-63, Br-64a) seem to give some

indication of the existence of the giant quadrupole resonance in the photoabsorption cross section (see
ace
fig.
12)*.
The measurements of
the angular
distribution of fast photoprotons (So-63) are also consistent with the
22
21
25
23
-il.i
26
i)i
ffMeW
27
assumption of quadrupole absorption in the energy region above 20 MeV,

Recently Spicer et al. (Sp-69) were able to find similar structure in the
2n) cross section of l65 Ho. The level scheme of the quadrupole giant
resonances (fig. 13) divides into four main groups corresponding to the
(y,
ii
I!
//n\\
SIS
L^.
*lu-"-
mini
M\\ l\\\\\
J'/lift
esseae
eeeeeeggiggS
eeesae
4i> *
*
n
+ ***
^-HhJ, Kj
U *J
V V *V V V
nun
i\^\
i!
//i\\
quantum numbers T m -2,
(see section 11.5),
1,
modes with T
are nearly degenerate while the
The modes with T = 2

1 split by about 1 MeV.
This has already been discussed in connection with
88S888 6S6g8
WWW
4.
v v
-r
i,
"
fc* Kj.
fig. 4.
[n odd->4 nuclei one again has a larger enrichment of states as

to even nuclei
states with
(fig.
K=
13). States
with
K=
split
compared
into three components,
and
1,2 into six components (Li-67). However, because of the
resonance
Fig. 13(b). The level scheme and quadrupole strengths of the giant quadrupole
163
indicated.
are
and
T
the
states
K,
Q, **, o
Ho. The quantum numbers of
states in
e [M'v J
Fig. 15. Calculated inelastic scattering cross sections for scattering into the levels of the
two
Fig. 14. Predictions for the elastic
and
inelastic scattering cross sections for
ing into the levels of the ground state band of
1M Ho.
photon
scatter-
Recently,
nuclei
some evidence
(Ur-70b, Fu-70).
y- bands
of 16I Ho.
for quadrupole giant resonances also occurred in spherical
368
[CH. II,
ch. 11,89]
369
widths of the giant resonances the absorption cross section

little
til pelt
resonances
giant
by the odd
The
shown
photon scattering cross section are
different contributions to the
in figs. 14
scattering
Excitation
now
influenced
is
particle.
and
Because of the
15.
finite
ground-state spin the elastic
has both a scalar and tensor contribution (see section 5.5 of
Mechanisms of the Nucleus). The scalar contribution
Two rotational
is
indicated
ground
band can now also be reached, since in the case of odd nuclei with
ground state spin j the giant resonances which can be reached by dipole
separately by the dashed line in
fig. 14.
states of the
state
absorption can have spins j,j
obvious that angular

indicated in
shows the
fig. 16.
Raman
This
momentum
They
is
indicated infig. 16.
immediately
It is
selection rules allow the virtual transitions
are also
shown
quantitatively in
fig.
14. Fig. 15
scattering into the states of the y-bands of the
nucleus. In the lower y-band
(K =
J) five rotational states
odd-A
can be reached,
ground
state
rotational
band
Fig. 16. Various possibilities of elastic
and
inelastic scattering processes into the
ground
state rotational band of a deformed nucleus.
giant dipole resonances
Fig. 18. Total quasi-elastic scattering cross section
K.
1/-2I lewtrY-
The
bead
The
experimental data are from Ti-68
general situation
shown
in
fig.
17,
where the
first
6 members of the
K=
\j 2| and the corresponding transitions are preIn

the
actual
case
of Holmium the corresponding cross sections are
sented.
= J which
plotted in fig. 15 except for transitions into the state / = -^-,
lower y-band with
ground state
y-band of a
Fig. 17. Inelastic scattering processes into the levels of the lower
odd- A nucleus.
is
of '* 5 Ho compared with experiment.

( x ) and from La-64().
deformed
have too small an intensity to be plotted. Because of the dipole selection

= j+2) can be
rules only the bandhead of the upper y-band (I =j+2,
370
reached.
the
It is interesting
two v-bands of odd
that the total scattering into the various levels of
much
We
Raman
scattering into the /f-band
The
smaller (Ar-67a, Ar-68).
shown
scattering cross section is
experimental data.
ll,S
nuclei corresponds to the single scattering into the
7-band head in even-even nuclei. The

the higher y-band are
[CH.
in
fig.
and
total quasi-elastic
We
refer to the literature (Ar-67a,
Ar-68) for further
have found good agreement between experimental data
and theoretical predictions. The nuclear parameters which are obtained are
found to be consistent with the values expected from low-energy spectra. Also
the data on the damping parameter of the giant resonances F and S are
consistent with theoretical estimates of the spreading width of collective
the dynamic collective model have been unified (Dr-66, Dr-67, Sea-69)*. The
collective correlations introduced in the particle-hole model may give a
more comprehensive understanding of the

even in
low-energy spectrum (Ar-67). This can be concluded by comparing the
obtained from low-energy
Erbium, the former value
The model employed
is
mechanism,
viz.
and 2 from giant resonances with the B Q - values

+ - 2*
transitions. Typically, in the case of
0.29, while the latter
is still
incorporate the low-energy
tails
The
0.33.
not complete. In particular,
it
does not yet
of the nonresonating high-energy absorption
and the quasi-deuteron
existence of these effects
photon absorption experiments of Ambler

nuclei.
is
the direct photo-ionization processes
effect (see section 10.2).
et at.
is
suggested by the
(Am-65) with aligned
Unfortunately, the experiments with nonaligned targets are not
sufficiently accurate to
show
the difference in the shape of various cross
which would result from the presence of an additional scalar

component with a magnitude of about 1 5 %. One should expect this to be
sections
associated with these nonresonating processes.
The small
irregularities
on the
rising side
of the cross section are very
likely the effects of the individual particle structure
which in the Brown-
Bohterli schematic model* (Br-59) would give up nearly
all
the dipole
strength to the collective states. Such states can perhaps be described in the
model by spin-isospin waves considered first by Wild (Wi-55) (see

section 10.12) and later by Uberall (Ub-66). Except for this incompleteness
the agreement between theory and experiment is such that one has to conclude that the dynamic collective model is valid to a very high degree for
nuclei of the deformed region. In fact, recently the particle-hole model and
collective
See Volume 3 of this
series,
structure of the giant resonance
light nuclei.
11.10.
The dynamic
Microscopic Theory of the Nucleus.
model for spherical even-even nuclei
collective
For low-energy excitations, spherical nuclei show the typical spectra of

nearly harmonic quadrupole surface vibrations. It is known from the
location of the low-energy states and from the magnitudes of the E2 transition probabilities between these states that in the vibrational nuclei the shape
oscillations have rather large amplitudes. In fact, very frequently the mean
square deformation
states (Da-65b). There seems to be an indication, however, that the "highenergy deformations" are slightly smaller than the measured /J 's from the
-values obtained in tables
371
18 together with the available
discussion.
Conclusions,
DYNAMIC COLLECTIVE MODEL FOR SPHERICAL EVEN-EVEN NUCLEI
CH. 11, 10]
/o
V<0|
*,/,
(90)
0>
associated with the surface vibrations
permanently deformed nuclei
(p\,
is
comparable in magnitude to that of

- see table 3.2 and St-65).
0.15 to 0.3
interaction of the giant resonance oscillations with the surface vibrato the
tions, therefore, must be expected to be very important. In contrast
The
heavy deformed nuclei, where a
static
treatment of the nuclear surface
already leads to a qualitatively correct description of the splitting of the

giant resonance, here the interaction is totally a dynamic effect, viz, that of
because of the large amplitude of the surface

should be expected that a treatment considering these vibrations to be harmonic will have only limited accuracy. However, a power
series expansion in terms of the vibrational amplitudes should converge
oscillators. Also,
coupled
vibrations,
it
quite rapidly.
The need
to go beyond the harmonic approximation
low-energy spectra. In even-even nuclei the

+
+
+
a degenerate
2
state (see
triplet
Chapter
is
two-phonon
evident from the
states
at an energy twice that of the
3). Instead, in
many
nuclei there
should form
first
excited
are more than
three
states at
approximately that energy, and frequently the splitting in the
multiple!
is
of the same order as the harmonic oscillator energy. The experi-
mental spectra are
still
more confused
in
odd
nuclei.
Not much
is
known
to
date about the three-phonon states. It seems worthwhile to undertake a

systematic development of the theory and to compare the results with
experimental data. Historically the dynamic collective theory has been
extended to spherical nuclei by LeTourneux (LeT-65) and by Weber,

* See
Volume
of this
series,
Microscopic Theory of the Nucleus.
372
Huber and Greiner (We-65, We-66).
We
tCH. 1I,| 10
here to the de-
restrict ourselves
and
scription of giant dipole resonances only,
CH.
| 10]
1,
where
JVZ
refer to the literature for the

1
rsj
treatment of giant quadrupole resonances (Ur-70a).

11.10.1,
Let us
The structure of the Hamiltonian
The Hamiltonian
describing the surface quadrupole vibrations, the giant
dipole resonances, and the interaction between the two collective motions
recall that the
We
+ -"dln+-"
dip"
int-
from the boundary conditions for the giant
We
begin with
describes the quadrupole vibrations of the nuclear surface.
H^^
which
known from
It is
We
have seen
uta
in
The energy of
5 ( B 2~
t*
21
P
**
T +c
]
[*
[2J
x&
mT
2 ,
since
in the spherical
However, the two-phonon

degenerate in almost
all
states are, for instance, observed to be
terms would have to be added to eq. (92).
The parameters B % and
C 2 are
To
We
describe this,
neglect
them
becomes
for simplicity.
phonon
- l/^ 2
to,
+ a 2 * Yllt ). Therefore the total
(l
The
is
operators,
V*?
K,
(93)
known from quantum

phonon and gion
eqs. (2.44)
O2.08)
_ 8*g,
"Im
(0)
(95)
For the giant resonances the harmonic approximation is excellent as we have

and (10.58). If the given creation
inserted
from
eq. (2.50), eq. (94)
becomes
>
= - 1.588 C,,
= - 0.708 Cl
The coupling constants
(100)
creation and annihilation operators are inserted from
and
becomes
(2.50), eq. (99)
= H|+r?20 + 22
= -(UeJE.lMK-iraiZlvAi-vfi)
-0.05^ ft, 3 { /,
1
= 0, 2
E
ju,
v ji\
h
(-l) w (2 2/|nvM)(U/||i'v'-M)
v'
x[(-ire4-v+(-i)"'4-,-e]
(seeeq. (10.186))
tf*i,
ll
00
discussed in connection with eqs. (10.57)
and annihilation operators are
(1)
Pg> = -0.936CV
where , and C, are given by eq. (10.182) as
Ci
Hamilto-
are easily determined by eqs. (33) to be

<1)
If
^m ^4 T
the harmonicity of the giant resonance oscillations.
(94)
form
Here we made use of the approximation eq. (35) where we put the kinetic
interaction terms of eq. (1) equal to the potential interaction, because of
hydrodynamics (section 10.9) to be
B,
have to be of the
+ v^[6t m x& mf
K<
Hamiltonian of the giant dipole resonances
determined by the nuclear
non-
(see eq. (3.19))
#qu d - I A** (01 & +),
R-R
is
the collective variables of the quadrupole
anharmonic
obtained from the low-energy spectrum of the
individual nuclei under discussion. If the quadrupole

eq. (2.44), are introduced, eq. (92)
(98)
(92)
)-
even-even nuclei to some extent.
vibrational nuclei.
on
nian contains interaction terms which

1
Chapter 3 that the harmonic approximation describes the
low-energy properties
zn
hQB - hku
the resonance
surface which in turn depends

oscillations
eq. (3.18) to be
(91)
discuss the different terms separately.
(97)
resonance oscillations, eqs. (10.91) and (10.101),

kn R
ffaud
gmd
2M
m
MA
'
coupling between the giant resonances and the surface
vibrations arises essentially
can be written
" =
373
= I*OiWl,4i, + i).
( 96 )
374
[CH.
11,|10
CH.
11, S 10]
375

etc.
where
/o
1-58,
2
ft>
The
/a
0-94,
. kQ = 704"* MeV,
t
- <01Z2m**^|0> = 5n(2B 2 C 2 )->
(102)
(103)
E2 transition probability
The prime on the Hamiltonian /?[, indicates that we have here dropped terms which do not commute
with the gion number operator, i.e. which are proportional to #J #j and
$i$, They will be treated later by perturbation theory.
effective
deformation
is
j5
connected with the
of the low-energy spectrum by the relation
(3,86).
The
11.10.2.
The
splitting
of the giant resonance
ftn,
in spherical nuclei
solutions to the Hamiltonian of eq. (91) are obtained by the diagonaliza-
"
The
energies of ft
N2) =
where
states
of (104) are denoted by
is
the
"quid + "dip-
are simply given
flf#a.
l1
+(^+4)^01!,
(105)
11
(106)
3.2.1),
and
and
M are the total angular
z-component.
We are interested here in giant dipole states only, and therefore JV, = 1,
= 1 and 7=1. Only these states can be reached with the dipole operator
from the ground
state
Fig- 19.
S*I0>
0*
I0>
of an even-even nucleus which has spin zero. In
The level spectrum of H
l(
consists of the low-energy spectrum (quadrupole states)
and the high-energy spectrum
N2 the number of phonons. The eigen-
The quantum numbers ^ and l2 are the angular momenta of the dipole gion
and quadrupole phonon states, respectively. The label v 2 is the seniority of the
its
2*
Aj
(104)
;N 2 ,v 2 ,l 2i IM>.
quadrupole states (see subsection
[0*f}*]
by
(iV,+f)ftQi
number of gions and
\N 1
momentum and
C!3
0*2*4*
tion of #., in the basis of
to a total angular
momentum 7 =
are
shown
in the figure. It
is
also indi-
these 1" states, namely 4l M |0>, can be

state. This becomes clear, if we remember the
cated that only the lowest of
reached from the ground
(giant dipole states).
all
form (79) of the dipole operator and note that it is linear

as long as the coupling to surface modes is neglected.
in
gion operators
The interaction of eqs. (99) and (101) is of the order of 1 to 2 MeV and
therefore too strong to be treated by perturbation methods, since the level
spacing of the unperturbed states eq. (106)
is
h<o 2 as 0.5 to 1.2
MeV.
= 3) are also contained in the complete

basis for states of negative parity and 7=1. They are, however, energetically
Therefore one has to diagonalize the interaction in the basis of the solutions
of 8 (eq. (106)). However, as mentioned above, the admixture of three-
quite high above the giant resonance (about 30
gion states to the one-gion state (which are the usual giant dipole states)
still can be treated by perturbation methods since hil^ is much larger than
principle, three-gion states (N t
= 3,
lt
MeV), and their influence

is therefore small. We exclude these configurations from our discussion for
the moment, and treat them later by perturbation theory. Therefore only
the many-phonon states with l2 =
and 2 are needed for the construction
of the basis (106), The unperturbed spectrum is therefore of the form shown
in fig. 19. The low-energy part is the well-known level scheme of the
quadrupole oscillator while the high-energy part consists of
phonons excited on top of one
gion.
Only those
states
0, 1,2, etc.
which can couple
both the interaction energy and the quadrupole energy fta> 2 We have
therefore neglected in /?,', of eq. (101) all those terms proportional to $*$<
.
and 44, correcting
The
later for the error thus introduced.
interaction Hamiltonian
Q'iav has both diagonal and nondiagonal
elements. The diagonal elements of J7 20 , eq, (101), have the following

effect. After integrating over the dipole osculations they have the same form
376
[CH. 11,5 10
as the potential term in ftqatd . This means that the giant dipole resonances
contribute to the restoring force of the surface vibrations. Therefore
usually taken
gion present,
lp
C2
tig.
is
Cf =
(107)
when a gion
is
is
one obtains
excited,
is
C?+ 0.368 Hit.
excited than in the
(108)
is
stronger
state band. This renormalization
ground
% for the different
between 5 and 25
10]
377
number of quadrupole phonons N2 and whose seniority v differ by 1, ft 20

and ft 22 9f * (101) change N 2 by 2 and v by or 2 respectively ( We-65, 66).
A schematic picture of the energy matrix is given in fig. 20. The elements of
by the
corresponding coupling constants. The strong interaction ft jM requires a
many-phonon configurations for the diagonalization.

up to N2 = 14 phonon states have to be included
(Ar-67). The classification of the many-phonon states and the evaluation of
the matrix elements are somewhat involved even though the algebraic
large basis of one-gion
This means that the restoring force for the surface vibrations
effect
1 1
the different parts of the interaction Hamiltonian are indicated
the renormalized potential constant. For the l~ states (see
where one dipole quantum
19)
C2t
For the case of no
= Cf+ 0.547 hQ lt
Cl
where
to be renormalized.
from experiment, has

JVj, = 0, we have
CH.
In
fact, for soft nuclei
expression for the elements are relatively simple.
All contributions in ft lM
nuclei.
We
refer therefore to the
We-66).
literature (He-65, LeT-65,
eq. (99),
which do not conserve the number of
phonons have been neglected in eq. (101), Le. the terms of the form
01
which admix the three-gion states to the
x^Jx/S*]103 or [4i x $iF
dipole
v,
v
v
2
2
v,
[Si
one-gion states have been omitted. This part
4.
\
V,
WW
W,w
V,
v vn
which
fefe
v,
tq
It
V* m
V,
V,
He VK
v,
Ha
)A|
The contributions of the different
parts of the Hamilton ian of eqs. (90)
and
<
0.4
MeV. This
and the perturbation,
Furthermore, the interaction Hamiltonian
They connect
(phonons) and different
(HO)
shift
cm)
Ztiiii
-IhQ^.
rough estimate leads to
a posteriori the application of perturbation
methods as well as the neglect of the interaction

2i which is smaller than
2
0.1
to
0.01. Explicit formulas
by
factor
of
Le.
a
j5
$i
the contribution of
for the contribution of
ft lnt
#, to
the different matrix elements are given in
(We-66).
As a
eq. (109), respectively).
result
of the diagonalization of ft lM the basis states of eq. (106) are

state vectors are of the
form
provides nonvanishing
states with different surface
seniorities, ft^
by
by perturbation methods.
this interaction
y,
justifies
mixed and the resulting
off-diagonal elements.
2ft
(101
are indicated by the corresponding coupling constants (H and IV refer to the unperturbed
eq. (104),
which are linear and quadratic in
A schematic picture of the energy matrix. The boxes contain nonvanishing matrix
Hamilton ian,
using the approximation
elements.
<
Fig. 20.
i.e,
...rM.-imw-Mffi.
V,
2
6
+ ft in
give a rough estimate of the energy shift produced
= -0.3M ftcMLtt! *4iFx^:r+[[4. x$i] t2, *r
+ [[4.x4 ] t21 x^] +[WtX4i] tI1 x^r}.
ft 20
(109)
As stated earlier, we will treat

Then one obtains for the energy
and
A-8 -8 m -# + #
"
r?j
We
Hamiltonian can be
Hff
from
W of the
r2
w
v,
arise
respectively.
vK
4
W^ and
separated into two terms
v,
W*w
Hq
3
2
H,
1
quanta
of eq. (101) admixes states whose
+ flSi
Hlx[^x^]^|0>+---.
(U2)
378
Thus
the pure gion state
and therefore many
#imI0>
now
states
is
now
eqs. (88).
This
is
configurations
CH.
1 ,
3 10]
379
lENERQf
so because the dipole
of the form of eq. (79) with the constants
is
10
acquire dipole strengths which are essen-
proportional to the coefficient (oo
operator
many
spread over
K) 2
tially
[CH. II,
A , and B t
given by
Hence, corresponding to this structure of the dipole operator,
from the ground
the matrix element
state to
a giant resonance state of the
form of eq. (112) has the following structure

<*iSlflffi|0>
It is
BJA
seen from eq. (88) that
K)
(4 +
At
,
<
^<>) -
A l9K
(113)
and therefore the above statement
is
proved.
The y-absorption
cross section
is
then obtained according to eq. (10.206).
This formula can easily be brought into the form
<*E)-S;
^(E-EK f+irK 2
(114)
'
where
0K
= *n(^ p\<*
c
Inserting eq. (1 1 3) into
u K and using
0.0095(1
iK)
eqs. (88)
Decay scheme of the giant resonance states. The cross-hatched area represents
states. Each arrow symbolizes the emission of a particle (proton or
neutron). The wavy arrows indicate y-decay. Ey is the energy of the absorbed photon.
Fig. 21.
(115)
\<>>\
one
the
continuum
finally obtains
*T
00^5;^^
At ha, (E-E f+ir
K
therefore neglect the contribution of processes involving proton emission.
(116)
Then we obtain
,lbs
ff
where
all energies
giant resonance states
a(y, n)+ff(y, pj+fffo,
pn) + ff(y, 2p) + o(y, 2n)+
sections.
The
their contribution to the total cross section
is less
than 10
(Ha-64). In the foregoing (section 11.9) and in the following discussion
we
photon absorption cross sections have been obtained by various groups

Du-59, Zi-60, Bu-62, Wy-65. Do-67, Be-69).
* Total
(Zi-58,
a(y i n)
(118)
= a"\y n)+aAl "
ct
(y,n).
(119)
In order to obtain the cross section for the excitation of collective dipole
states one therefore has to subtract this nonresonating contribution:
a"'?
(117)
For energy reasons the emission of more than two particles is excluded in
most nuclei (see fig. 21). For medium and heavy elements the emission of
protons is strongly inhibited by the Coulomb barrier, and except for the
Ni isotopes
+ o-(y,2n).
we have
words must be added on the experimental absorption cross

photon absorption cross section* is given by
(r(y,n)
In addition to the resonating process direct continuum transitions also

contribute to the absorption. They lead to fast neutron emission. Thus
before comparing theoretical predictions with experiment, a few
r"
all
The experimental absorption cross sections
11.10.3.
Now,
and a is in barns. We have summed over

of the form of eq. (1 12).
MeV
are in
AS
A~
Unfortunately, very
CT
"(v, n) +<r(y, 2n)
little is
known about
ments (Mu-65) one can conclude that

section
dence.
is
less
The
its
" c,
o"" - o-
dl
direet
n )-
=
tr
(7
(y, n).
From
(120)
several experi-
contribution to the integrated cross
than 15 %. Furthermore, we assume a smooth energy depen-
uncertainties introduced
by
this correction are usually within
the experimental errors.
The measured neutron
yield cross sections
P = ff B 2o-(y, 2n)+ a*
ff
)+
(y>
l<
M (y, n)
(121)
CH.
DYNAMIC COLLECTIVE MOOEL
380
1 1
have to be corrected for the neutron multiplicity. This can be done using the
statistical neutron
F(E)
is
The
evaporation theory.
multiplicity correction factor
defined by
a.colt
e
*r *P
a
o
{y s
(122)
= 2-(l+x)e" x
for
E>?,
for
E < 2n
(123)
of experimental data for spherical nuclei
10.4. Analysis
found in the
Extensive discussions of the y-absorption cross sections can be
Mi-68,
Sp-69,
We-67,
Ba-65,
Fie^65,
literature (We-65, Co-67, Coo-66,
energy of the
are determined in the following way. hm t gives the experimental
+
probability
of this state.
transition
reduced
the
given
is
by
state and O
first 2
main peak
fitting
the
by
obtained
is
energy
The precise value of the dipole
one. For the
of the theoretical absorption cross section to the experimental
value
T of about
width fjt of the various giant resonance states a common
1
to 2
MeV
is
used, which
is
adjusted to the width of the
first
main peak of
For a complete discussion of the fitting procedure and the experimental uncertainties we refer to We-66.
The shape of the spectrum depends very much on the magnitude of the
where
the absorption cross section.
x
and
381
DVNAMIC COLLECTIVE MODEL FOR SPHERICAL- EVEN-EVEN NUCLEI
101
Here we present some typical examples together with theoretical

of the theorypredictions for photon scattering on Cr and Zn. The parameters
n)-ff(y,2n)
(BI-52)
F(E)
Fie-68).
(Nreoi
{a""-oil "a (y,n)}F(E).

Then we have
1 1
[CH. 11, 10
= (*-&)
En is the threshold energy for the two neutron
temperature
&
is
chosen between 0.5 and
MeV. In
factor has been plotted for several temperatures.

uncertainties in
have no appreciable
emission (see
It
fig.
22
22).
fig.
The
this correction
can be seen that small
on the corrections.
effect
parameters h(a 2 and
shown
in fig. 23.
The
Typical spectra for various parameter sets are

2
have been plotted as a function of
dipole strengths <p
.
J?
for different values of
pQ
fico 2
of physical
in the region
interest,
<
0.4
get semi-quan(Hu-67). From this figure one can easily use interpolation to
information on the dipole strengths for an arbitrary spherical nucleus
titative
W
0."
0.*
03 1
^^Q-i.e HtY
ft .
t,t>
'
HrV
e-
0.5
Alt.
02-
""
"^~
$,=0,200-
PfOJSO-
il
i
1
1
jj
1.1
020.1
la
J_
Oi02-
OS
fcOJX
04
L.I
i.
02
foOSSO.
02
J ..!)
.J
..
0.300
O.i
0.2-
-,
.
Fig. 22.
II
02
n
01
i
il
kj-JL
V 02
ai
Pe .ftKtf
01
MtV
0.J
OS0A02-
$,-0,150
02 1
01 i
Uj
Zw
mass region. As already stated earlier, the Hamiltonian matrix to be

restrict
diagonalized is in principle infinite. For practical reasons one has to
has
actually
one
phonons
the number of interacting phonons. How many
in this
Neutron multiplicity correction. F(E) is the factor which relates the experimental
measurement to the total (y, nj cross section (Hu-67b).
20
22
1.
.1
i.
20
JB
.i
22
E[hv}
E[M*VJ
!.
"
20
E[MtV}
if
'
22
We
conclude
this
direct coincidence
experimental subsection by mentioning that nowadays
measurements of
(y,
2n) cross sections also
especially the case for the cross sections of the Livermore
which we discussed
in section 11.9.
exist.
This
is
group (Br-63, 64a)
Fig. 23.
titox
(a).
(W =
18.0 MeV,
t
Dipole strenghts ** for different values of /J
account in the
to 8 quadrupole phonons have been taken into
= 0.6 MeV). Up
calculation, (b).
The same
as in (a) but Ikoi

Jion
1.2
= 0.9
MeV.
MeV.
(c).
The same
as in (a) but
THE DYNAMIC COLLECTIVE MODEL
382
to take into account depends
[CH. 11, | 10
on the value of /3 and of fio) 2 of the quadnipole
figs.
1 1, $
101
fore, those
and experimental absorption cross sections are shown in

For Cr and Zn no (y, n) measurements are available. There-
theoretical
24 and 26.
It is
383
51
V and Cu, respectively, have been

that the last odd particle does
assumed
thus
of the neighboring nuclei
compared with the theory.
phonons.
The
CH.
not change the giant resonance structure appreciably.
and also the

+
and second excited 2
The corresponding
photon
elastic scattering cross sections
inelastic
sections to the first
states (see
fig.
scattering cross
19) are given in

+
state, which
25 and 26. The scattering cross section to the second
smaller
than
magnitude
order
of
belongs to the quadrupole triplet, is one
figs.
the elastic one.
Cr S2 (V 5')
As
is
expected from the optical theorem (see Chapter 5 of
and dispersion relations, the elastic

and the absorption cross section show a similar structure in all
Excitation Mechanisms of the Nucleus)

scattering
wo
Zn^Cu)
50
Fig. 24. Theoretical dipole absorption cross section
mental data of
24*1**}
20
IS
51
of
"Cr compared
with the experi-
(Fu-62).
E(MeV)
Fig. 25. Theoretical elastic (solid curve)
The dashed and dash-dot curves show
and
inelastic scattering cross sections
the inelastic scattering cross sections to the

second 2 + states respectively.
of "Cr.
first
and
Fig. 26. Theoretical dipole absorption cross section

figure gives the prediction for the elastic
photon
of
* 4 Zn.
scattering.
curve show the inelastic photon scattering to the
first
The solid curve in the tower

The dashed and the dash-dot
and second 2*
states respectively.
384
cases. It is interesting to
[CH. 11, 10
note that the dipole-quadrupole coupling produces
and second 2 +
relatively large inelastic ^-scattering to the first
states for
these spherical nuclei because of appreciable tensor polarizibility,
i.e.
the
nucleus becomes optically anisotropic by reason of the dipole-quadrupole
Mechanisms of the Nucleus). This
interaction (see Chapter 5 of Excitation
not yet seen experimentally, but
effect is
since the excitation energy of the
MeV
first
it
2+
should be possible to detect
it
state is of the order of 0.4 to 1.4
and, therefore, the resolution of inelastic components should be
possible (Ar-67b).
Even
be separated experimentally, the
effect
clearly in the angular distributions.
elastic
photons cannot
of tensor scattering should show up
It is
evident that the inelastic scattering
processes provide a further check of the

collective
and
in the case that inelastic
wave functions of
dynamic
the
K)
model, Le. of the expansion coefficients a\Ki and c^
CH. 11,
10]
385
"crossed" particles. In short, the two lp-lh components of the two-phonon

states
the
must be expected to
many-phonon
To
states
interact strongly.
The same arguments apply to
even more forcefully.
include such interactions in a collective description one clearly must
add anharmonic terms to the Hamiltonian. The Hamiltonian of eq. (91)

[25
have been constill does not include such terms; only quadratic terms in a
sidered here.
The importance of anharmonic, higher-order terms in the

shown experimentally by Bergere,
collective potential has recently been
Carlos and coworkers (Ca-7 1

(Re- 72a, b) and Sedlmayr
Ca-74) and theoretically by Rezwani
el al.
(Se-73).
theoretical results for the transition
phase of the Nd-isotope chain
in eq. (112).
We
ct al.
present experimental
and
between the spherical and deformed

can be seen clearly
in fig. 27. It
how
the
Pnotcnucleor Cross- Section

trlr.rt*o-(T,2n)-cr(f,pn)
The spreading of
by the theory, and the
Conclusions.
quite well
reproduced, in particular
However,
the
in
some
the giant resonance over energy

"collective" structure
in the stiffer vibrators
'
V,
ss
is
given
is
also qualitatively
Mu, 208 Pb(Hu-67b).
cases the rising side of the resonance, Le. the region below
"main peak", shows structure which
Typical of this situation is
90
the reason for the successes
more fundamental point of
Zr
is
not accounted for by the theory.
(Bl-64, Co-67, Sh-68, Sp-69).
and
the failures of the theory
view, that
one
is,
To
understand
one has
to take a
has to interpret the theory in
terms of the shell model. Both the giant resonance and the vibrational states are
Ip-lh (one-particle/one-hole)
precisely, a
tially
one-phonon
Volume
states (see
state is
a lp-lh
state, a
a 2p-2h (iwo-particle/two-hole) state,
etc.
More
3 of this series).
two-phonon
state
is
essen-
In the vibrational region
of the periodic table the particle states and the hole states contained in the
surface
phonons and the giant resonance are to a
not completely so.
by
side
and
resonance,
It is
thus reasonable that these
interact essentially only via the

i.e.
large extent different, but
two modes can
exist side
boundary conditions of the giant
by the tuning of the dipole mode by the surface and by the
adiabatic reaction of the dipole
when many-phono n
phonon state arises from
mode on
the surface.
The
situation
is
states of the surface vibrations are considered.
the diagonalization of the appropriate lp-lh
state is
In a harmonic description of the surface vibrations a two-phonon
a 2p-2h state consisting of two noninteracting lp-lh
states.
photo nuclear cross-section of ncodymium isotopes. The

is
merely meant to
full line
facilitate the identification
drawn through
or structure [Ca-71].
quite
different
states.
Fig. 27. Total
the experimental points
There
no reason to assume that the two particles or holes of the two lp-lh
states do not interact, and, as a matter of fact, it is frequently impossible
to tell which of the particles and holes are the "real" and which are the
formed limit (
1S0
collective potentials,
which are empirically constructed from the data of the
low energy spectrum
is
140
Nd) and the axially deNd) occurs. This transition is reflected also in the theoretical
transition between the purely spherical limit
(fig.
28).
The
theoretical predictions for the giant
dipole states are then obtained (besides the
common
introduction of arbitrary parameters.
one can doubt whether
sufficient
Still,
merely lo add such anharmonic terms.
It
width) without the

it
is
very well could be true
Nd
387
Theory
k
B2
REFERENCES
CH. 11]
Experirwtl
142
ft
II
Fig. 28.
Dipole strengths, -/-absorption cross-sections, low-energy spectra, potential surfaces,
('
(1
and cms through the
\\
II
poiential energy surfaces [Sc-73].
v\
II
It
'
J
fs
1
1
1
10
12
16
14
that the
i
20
18
they
MeV
many-phonon
may
retain very
into lp 1 h states.
Nd
SO
phonon character completely,
i.e.
of the structure corresponding to the grouping
However, the
results of figs. 27
and 28 show that
in fact
the
phonon character is retained to a good approximation otherwise it would be
Exncrimerrt
1M
states destroy the
tittle
Theory
very difficult to explain the semi-quantitative agreement with the experi-
/J
mental cross sections. In any case, to obtain more precise quantitative
agreement between theory and experiment
F
c
10
12
14
will first
be necessary to give
sufficiently accurate description of the low-energy collective spectrum

+
+
at least as far as the
and 2 states are concerned, which alone can par-
V%.
^
\
fl
J/
it
16
18
ticipate in the dipole states.
20 MeV
The most conspicuous discrepancy between theory and experiment

however, the structure of the low-energy side of the resonance.
It
is,
seems very
>,
likely that the excess cross section
states
which
in the
should be associated with some of those
schematic model (Br- 59) have been swept clear of any
appreciable transition strengths. This leads to the idea of collective correla-
tions (Dr-66, 67)
which also incorporate the following shortcoming: In the
language of the collective model the giant resonance
It
LU
CL
I10
12
14
IE
18
20Me
an isospm wave.
in the calculations
in a splitting
concerning 16 0,
states carry appreciable dipole strength, the
upper being the
of the giant resonance, as observed

g
is
can be coupled to the spin-isospin wave. This would result
'
where two
spin-flip state {sec
o
a.
Volume
of
this series).
It
is
possible that the
same
coupling would lead to a structure on the low-energy side of the giant

resonance.
References
10
12
14
16
18
20
The
MeV
relation of the
dynamic
collective
model to experimental
discussed in the articles of Shevchenko and

Fuller (Da-65),
Ejtpe rlmrnt
using this model
---Theory
10
12
14
16
18
20
MeV
'-0.166
0.1
0.2
03
0A
05
Yudin
(Sh-65),
and Spicer (Sp-69). The description of photon

is
presented in Ar-68.
results is
Danos and
scattering
"DEPORMATION REACTIONS
ch. 12,8 1]
389
A second important property of heavy ions in their interactions with other

nuclei
CHAPTER
is
the possibility of obtaining very high values of angular momentum at
low excitation energies in the two-nucleus system. This can be most simply
recognized by realizing that, for example, in the scattering of a 160 MeV
12
oxygen ion on gold, orbital angular momenta up to 90ft may be important.

It is clear that such high angular momenta can be expected to influence
drastically the
The Application
One
of Nuclear Models to
Ion Scattering
Heavy
new
mechanism by which a nuclear reaction proceeds.
of the most exciting futural prospects in
isotopes in heavy ion reactions.
this
Most important
This
we
only partly true, as
is
for this process
will see in the
However, for such amalgamation processes to be
Coulomb
to overcome the
become an extremely interesting

Heavy ion scattering has in recent years
In fact, the area of heavy-ion
and promising field of nuclear research.
in general. Many such

a microcosm of nuclear reaction physics
evaporationscattering,
of
- among them studies
experiments are performed
pickup in
or
(which are called stripping
is
the
barrier.
The strong
following sections.
possible,
it
is
necessary
electrostatic interactions,
however, can lead to appreciable deformations and polarizations of the
heavy ions during the collision which in turn
Coulomb
barrier
may
effectively raise the
and consequently make fusion processes
less likely.
These
is
type reactions, transfer reactions

other fields), fission,
Coulomb excitation and a number of promising
very interesting and important processes will be discussed in sections 1-5,
which provide an application of the nuclear models developed so far as well

as
applications in nuclear chemistry.
The most important

is its
the discovery of
is
formation of a compound nucleus in the heavy-ion scattering process. One

may expect that the relatively low incident velocities favor such amalgamations.
reactions
area
characteristic
classical nature. Since this is
physics of these reactions
let
of a heavy ion in a nuclear interaction

of the
essential for the understanding
us elaborate somewhat on
this. If
the wave
small compared
distance which is
packet representing the ion extends over a
nuclear reaction, we can use semiwith some characteristic length in a
If we take for the characteristic
classical or even classical approximations.
by
in a head-on collision, given
length the distance of closest approach
length
wave
z
wave packet the reduced
la = Z, 2 e /,and for the size of the
these
treated classically if the ratio of
X = hjtiv, then the collision may be
two distances
^z >1.
Z2
are the atomic
nuclei. It
nuclei involved, n
the
is
in
precisely nuclear molecular states.

1
0- l6
instead.
system,
388
from the general treatment of

shall restrict our discussion
we
The
These
are states
where two
do not form a compound system but an
16
in sections 7-9.
For
all
more
ions, say the
0- l6
discussion of quasi molecular optical potentials
molecule
may be found
other topics on heavy ion reactions
we
refer to
current review articles (Zu-60, Er-60, Bo-62a, Al-63, Fl-64, Gr-65a, Th-68).
Deformation reactions
simplifies calculations in
many
already stated above one of the most fascinating future possibilities in
heavy ion physics
is
the fusion of atomic nuclei leading to the creation of
superheavy nuclei with
Zm
14 and possibly also with Zas 164 (Fi-66, Mo-68a,
Ni-68, Mo-69a). However, during the approach of the heavy particles Cou-
lomb
repulsion occurs, which will excite rotations, vibrations,
resonances in both the target and the projectile.

these interior degrees of freedom
instances.
the varied
to the very fascinating and recent ideas about nuclear molecules, or
As
numbers of the
which Coulomb
evident that this assumption
the deformation (or polarization) reactions,
12.1.
- fcar*
the electron charge and
absolute value of their relative velocity, e
collision
classical
a
by
other words,
the relative energy of the two ions. In
colliding
orbits may be assumed for the
we mean one
topics of heavy ion physics. Therefore, apart
all
CD
hv
Here Z, and
an understanding of the physics of heavy-ion reactions.

We have only limited space available here and cannot cover
It is
and giant
most convenient that
can be described by the
collective variables
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR MODELS TO HEAVY ION SCATTERING
390
ICH. 12, 2
CH.
391
SOME USEFUL PRELIMINARIES
12. 2]
a kls and q Xv since the microscopic description of such effects would be too
Inasmuch as these interior degrees of freedom take up energy,
,
laborious.
the relative orbital motion of the system loses energy. Furthermore, because
of the change of the shapes and the charge distributions of the two nuclei,
Coulomb
the
barrier will deviate
from the simple form
Z Z2 e
t
(2)
where
mass of the two
the distance between the centers of
is
ions.
The
relative energy of the two ions should perhaps just be equal to the energy of
the Coulomb barrier so that amalgamation can take place rather than
dissociation of the system
The
early papers
which might occur
if
the energy were too high.
on more accurate determinations of the Coulomb energy
Fig.
t.
Graphical representation of the coordinates used for the description of the heavy
(Ge-55, Wo-68, Sch-68a) use the adiabatic approximation. In this approx-
imation the distance of the ions
is
fixed
and the
total
energy of the system
ions.
is
minimized as a function of the collective variables of the two nuclei.

Geilikmann (Ge-55) considers quadrupole and octupole deformations,
their relative coordinates R, 9,
only quadrupole deformations and Scharnweber (Sch-68a)
For the Coulomb
Wong (Wo-68)
considers quadrupole deformations and giant multipote resonances. Very

simplified dynamical calculations were first given by Beringer (Be-67) and
by Maly and Nix (Ma-68).
We
treatment which was given by

establish the total
(a)
two spherical
follow here the most complete dynamical
Holm
(Ho-69, 70a,
b).
For
this
purpose
we
which
are fixed in space
(see fig. 1).
which for r, +r 2
explicitly the excitation
and (b) two deformed
nuclei.
We are going to
co
_ y
and the
internal degrees of
numerically. In this
way we can
determine
closest
how much two
the
cigar shaped nuclei have rotated
Coulomb
We
We
if
the process
on
and on the change of the
'i
I
h
r2
Some
r (2
~l
,
C^ (Ca-50)
mi
Znmi
"till 7 Il+Ii-i^GR
= - ti mi
-.(.?)
li
(3)
=..<
''' ,
(-ir
=
{(2f 1
"'(4*)*
+ l)(2/ 2 + l)(2f +2/ 2 + l)} i

1
+ 2 + m +m z)!(l -M 2 -m -m 2 )n *
t(l| +i)!('i -m y.(l 2 + m a )Hf,-m t )\i
f
(i
(4)
'
Since
we
are dealing with a plane scattering problem
The Hamilton
function of the relative motion
is
we can put
<p
0.
then given by
the excitation of the various degrees of freedom,
orbital hyperbola.
ri
Pr
useful preliminaries
where n
A/,
more we have
One of the most important terms in the total Hamilton function is the energy
of the orbital motion. The position of the two nuclei is characterized by
Pa
)2
2ft
12.2.
-1
|
'i
<i
tl
+ lj+l
,1,
are at
thus obtain the desired information on the change of
barrier,
_
i\lj
M r
/
l
also can
when they
approach. (They would always be in a crossed position
were adiabatic.)
oo
the deformation and the change of the
charge distribution of the nuclei at every instant of time.
of mass of the two ions
one needs lr, r 2
where
freedom have to be established and solved

tell
interaction
xy, lffll (S.,9>i)W92,<p 2 ),
time. Therefore Hamilton's equations for the strong coupling between the
orbit
coordinate systems are considered,
in the centers
< R is given by the absolutely convergent series in terms of
i,=o ij=o
study
of the interior degrees of freedom as a function of
Two
spherical harmonics related to the center
Hamiltonian function of the classical two-ion system for

nuclei,
<p.
and centered
M i(M + M
2
2 ) is
the reduced mass of the
for the scattering angle x (see
(5)
'
2fiR*
= ln-2S
|.
fig.
two
nuclei. Further-
2)
(6)
392
lCH, 12,
SOME USEFUL PRELIMINARIES
ch. 12, 5 2]
393
and octupole surface vibrations vary

1 and 2.5 MeV respectively. The
20
oscillation times therefore vary between rvjbqUad = 2 x 10~
and 4 x 10~ 21 s
2l
and 1.6 x 10~ 21 s
for quadrupole vibration and between 7"vlhoc1 = 4x 10"
The
energies of the quadrupole
between 0.3 and
MeV
1.2
for octupole vibrations.
and between
important for our later discussion to
It is
the "time of Coulomb interaction".
and
call
Fig. 2. Relation
between the scattering angle and
also
We therefore consider a central collision
the distance of closest approach
ifivj
know
a,
which
is
given by
= ZjZ 2
(7)
the impact parameter.
is
In spherical nuclei the total Hamilton function contains the energies of the
surface vibrations and giant resonances, the electromagnetic interaction
For any other
distance of the
two ions
R one
has
(8)
between projectile and target and the interaction between giant resonances
and surface
vibrations, eq. (11.1), in addition to
The Coulomb
projectile,
is
shown
repulsion leads to a
which simply means
for
Hb
dynamic deformation of
target
and
and therefore
for the velocity v R at the distance
that surface vibrations will be excited. This
quadrupole and octupole deformations
in
fig. 3.
"
dr
\a
}/i
R/
(9)
where
The
collision time 7"6 is defined as the time the ion needs to
target
from the distance a x to the distance a and
U*) -
r"-_i*_Ja
-R
A(a
= 2A-
approach the
get back to
a x
again:
a*y X(x-l)+ ln(v^W*-l)}.
')*
')
(10)
Choosing as an example x &

2,
finds Jc 2.80k 10s for
Now,
since 7*c
<
7*
yibquid)
3 and
148
an
identical target
and
Nd and TE x 2.78xHT
21
from the ion and
for
one
I22
Sn.
the quadrupole vibrations will not follow the
motion of the ion adiabatically, but, instead, they receive an

transfer
projectile
will
initial
energy
continue vibrating after the collision, since
the ions disengage from each other before the quadrupole vibrational motion
can give back the energy to the orbital motion.

This situation
Fig.
3.
ions leads to a deformation of both.
repulsion between two

Quadrupole and octupole deformations are shown.
The Coulomb
becomes most transparent by looking at the simple

in fig. 4. A harmonic oscillator is coupled to an
mechanical model presented

external force, which
is
represented by the wheel.
The analog of the collision
(CH. 12, 2
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR MODELS TO HEAVV ION SCATTERING
394
TOTAL HAMILTONIAN FUNCTION FOR SPHERICAL NUCLEI
CH. 12, 3]
395
VSi
Fig. 4.
-5>J
Mechanical model for the excitation mechanism of the various nuclear degrees of
freedom,
'-*
i
**
time
is
the time
T during
which the wheel turns from
the mass wilt have just started moving

If
5s
wheel.
If
Tmi.,
when
(1 )
to (2). If
the external force
is
J T^, the oscillator will
follow the external force without any phase
delay. In this case the oscillator will effectively obtain
external force. Precisely this situation
giant resonances.
is fulfilled
no energy from
in the case
""*
A
/ J**
T -C T
5a)
of the octupole resonances.
this case is the excitation
zero again.
the oscillator can give back part of the received energy to the
The analog of
^
V
*y
the
of excitation of
For a detailed investigation of the model suggested
Sbi
Fig.
Illustration of the rotation
of two deformed nuclei:
a collision where
the two "cigars" approach pole against pole; (b) represents a collision where the ellipsoids
5.
approach equator-to-cquator. The motion
is in this
(a) represents
case perpendicular to the plane of the
paper.
in
4 see (Go-74),
fig.
The deformation and
polarization of the nuclei lowers the
Coulomb
seems
energy between the nuclei at each distance R.
to become smaller. However, because of the deformation the centers of mass
The Coulomb
of both ions have to
come
closer before
(see fig. 3). Therefore, effectively, the

will
be especially the ratio
will
be adiabatic or not.
TV JTC
barrier
amalgamation can take place

wall becomes higher. It
Coulomb
which determines whether
this process
Fig. 6.
very similar, and perhaps even more transparent, in the

case of deformed nuclei. Instead of the vibrational amplitudes a 2 the
situation is more easily described by the intrinsic coordinates a ,a 2 and
The
situation
the three Euler angles *,: a v
= ,/&(!
S 2 9 3 )2, eq.
,
(2.2).
The Euler
angles describe the orientation of the intrinsic system with respect to the
laboratory system. In the Hamiltonian function the rotational energy

take into account the rotations through the Euler angles.
We know
will
from
Chapter 6 that the rotational energies are of the order 40 keV to 200 keV.
From our above time estimate we thus conclude that neither target nor
projectile
While the ions approach, the charge distributions tend to polarize because of the
Coulomb
is
repulsion; giant resonances are excited.
necting projectile and target.
resonances (Chapters 10 and
It is
evident from the very nature of giant
) that this separation of protons and neutrons

1
simply means the excitation of giant resonances, especially giant dipole
resonances in both nuclei. The oscillation time TGR which corresponds to
1
MeV
the giant dipole energies in medium and heavy nuclei of 12 to 17

is
zz
22
3.4 x 10"
to 2.4 x 10~
s. Therefore the giant resonances can be expected
to follow the motion of the heavy ions adiabatically.
can rotate into the energetically most favorable crossed position
of the two nuclear ellipsoids during the
collision-
The
external forces,
acting only for a short time, rotate the nuclei through only a few degrees
at the distance of closest
approach
(see
fig. 5).
and spherical nuclei the polarization effect of the charge

occurs during the approach of the ions (see fig. 6). The repul-
In both deformed
distributions
sion of the protons in both nuclei acts mainly along the central line con-
12.3.
The
The
total
arguments
total
Hamiltonian function for spherical nuclei
Hamiltonian function of the system of two ions, indicated by

1
and
2, is
H=
tfbit + tfvib (l) + ffGR (l) + fi- GRihi(i)
+ H,n(2) +HGR (2) + HCR yib (2) + H M
(11)
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR MODELS TO HBAVY ION SCATTERING
396
nians are displayed.
Coulomb
the
lal is
Hamiltonians have been discussed

respectively.
lnt
It
The various collective

(3.2), (10.8), and (11.10)
interaction.
sections
in
initial velocities
become very small
EN = Ec
of the ions are of the order
Hence
for small distances R.)
lat
is
ffpt'i
l(l))d*i
*
JO
JO
where R {1
>
= H (11 (,
flpfa
Vl ,
w (l))
3x10* cm/s and
given by
K 2 )) dT *
The boundary
radii
O 2)
which are not included here,
and R<
>
= R{2) (3 2
<p 2
^ A \2)). A con-
R w (^v. <P
W M) are given by eq. (2.1) and
straightforward, but very involved.
(Ho-69) for this,
and note
be separated from
We
that the point
The computation of eq,
(12)
As soon
two
is
moment
nuclei at this
olb
is
R mlD - R(i, (t)+R< 2) (t).
We
therefore refer to the literature
Hi Bt +
t\ Z*1
shall
now
Nd and
as possible,
of
discuss
122
we
Sn on
l22
Sn. In order to
restrict ourselves
momenta n
Rutherford hyperbolas.
and
Il
scattering of
t48
Nd
on
the treatment as transparent
to central collisions where the effects under
Table
We
Quadrupole
energy
dH
-Pk.
(14)
Qk
time
hm*
(MeV)
Ej
==
nuclei are given in table
Nd
and
energy
time
T$
ft(D$
(MeV)
(s)
1.38x10""
4.01
Ec
(McV)
Vibrational Oscillation
energy
E\
time
= to,
(MeV)
(s)
1.03
" 2 Sn
Giant dipole resonance
Vibrational Oscillation
E$
7V
0.300
14,
Octupole
Nucleus Vibrational Oscillation
x 10-*'
K*+M*
(s)
3.62x10""
1.14
I.65XI0-
2.50
'
15.5
2.66X10""
408.9
12.75
16.6
2.49x10-"
302.8
11.90
up. If surface quadrupole and octupole vibrations and giant
dipole resonances are included, eq. (14) yields a system of 34 coupled

differential equations, which can be solved numerically with relative ease
by means of the Runge-Kutta method

interest
is
(fm)
T,
9Pje
$<1k
Of particular
make
The parameters of the two
&
and the orbital

momenta
Hamilton's
momenta /* and/> s eq. (5), with
p K and the collec1*
coordinates
R and 9 with
and the orbital
and g
tive coordinates a
Hamilton's coordinates gK Then Hamilton*s equations
set
(17)
two examples, namely the
(13)
determines the
the various collective
can easily be
become time-dependent,
since the nuclear radii
Parameters of
identify
barrier (see
to the deformation energy (Mo-69).
".,
which together with
the distance
the time at which the nuclei touch, the distance of the
discussion are maximal.

iat
is
as the internal degrees of freedom are taken into account, eqs. (15)
eq. (2.1). If
148
2
Coulomb energy ZjZ 2 e /,ff can
Coulomb
lower the
will
They also will contribute
and (16) are modified
f"l2
contain the surface collective coordinates a

is
(16)
referred to as the contact distance
venient form for r i2 is shown in eq. (3), and the proton densities e p (r, rj)
of the two nuclei^ contain the fluctuation densities, eqs. (10.148a) and
(10.150).
EK of the ions
between the centers of nuclei when they just touch each other. The nuclear
forces,
Here (Rj^ + R} 25 }
sections 7 to 9).
H,.t
the incident energy
if
is
the electrostatic interaction between nuclei, since the magnetic interactions
are small. (The
can be reached in a scattering process
397
attention, however. It mainly involves
some more
deserves
TOTAL HAMILTONIAN FUNCTION FOR SPHERICAL NUCLEI
CH. 12, 3]
the giant resonance Hamilto-
and
orbital, the surface vibrational,
where the
[CH. 12, 3
Let us
first
far apart,
(see e.g. Zu-65).
the saddle point of the
Coulomb
barrier
which
i.e.
all
is
consider the case of ' 48 Nd-' 48 Nd scattering. If the two ions are
s;
50 fm, the internal degrees of freedom are not yet excited,
corresponding amplitudes are zero.
internal degrees of freedom, the
given by
Ec =
Z,Z 2 e a
l)
Rk +Rf,2)
R m i
(15)
11.77
fm
Coulomb
for the separation of the
closer together before touching.
Due
barrier
two
to the excitation of the
ions; they thus
The amplitudes of
freedom at the touching point are
reached at a distance
is
may come
the various degrees of
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR MODELS TO HEAVY [ON SCATTERING
398
ao(l)
3 oU)
9io(l)
The
=
=
-io(2)
[CH. 12, 3
ch.
in secticn 2.
-0.078,
TOTAL HAMUTONIAN FUNCTION FOR SPHERICAL NUCLEI
12, 3]
From
these results
formed at the barrier
-3(2)
= -- 034
-9io(2)
18 >
<
'
(t
it is
clear that a heavy
t) has not yet taken
compound
up very much
nucleus
collective
energy. Therefore these results are not discouraging for nuclear fusion of
superheavy elements at the barrier (see also the footnote on the next page).
-0.691.
negative sign of the quadrupole deformation indicates that the nuclei
are oblate in shape at the touching point.

as a function of time
is
shown in fig.
7.
The balance of
internal energy
x denotes the time of closest approach.
time axis
Fig, 8, Excitation energy
(*IQ
of the various internal degrees of freedom

head-on collision as a function of time.
Let us
now
time axisMO^sec
Fig. 7. Excitation energy
of the various internal degrees of freedom
in
t the various degrees of
1.94
MeV,
3 -(t) =
0.382
MeV,
0.997
MeV.
E,-(t)
touching point
(/
is
r,
(t
- oo) the energy distribution
RmlR =
2o(l)
MO
M0
(19)
2+ (t)
the following
,-(t)
2 *(oo) =
8.01
MeV
(as
25 phonons),
3 .(oo) =
0.93
MeV (*
2 phonons),
E,.(oo)
Hence
is
phonons, but no gion. This
and
(20)
is
phonons
completely
in
excited,
see
from
fig,
8 that part
is
of the quadrupole
10.47 fm), the amplitudes
and energies of
and about 2 octupole
agreement with our discussion
- -M2) =
= - 30 <2)=
- -9io(2) =
= 1.01 MeV,
- 1.39 MeV,
= 0.892 MeV,
-0.046,
-0.119,
-0-646,
(21)
after the collision the energies contained in the various degrees of
freedom are
=
3 -(oo) =
E,-(oo) =
2
(Ogions).
there are about 25 quadrupole
'"Sn-'"Sn
given back to the orbital during the collision. At the
E 3 -(t)
After the collision
see
the various degrees of freedom are
freedom contain the following energies
a *(t) =
head-on collision as a function of time.
and therefore we
and octupole energy
a ,4S Nd- **Nd
in
turn to the case of l22 Sn- lZ2 Sn scattering. This nucleus
less soft vibrator
At
399
(oo)
MeV
1.60 MeV
2.84
(ss 3
phonons),
(as
phonon),
(Ogions).
(22)
400
[CH. 12, 3
IS
The Coulomb
barrier in principle depends
been reached. So
it is,
on R, on 9 and on
the
way
it
SCATTERING OF DEFORMED NUCLEI ON DEFORMED NUCLEI
CH. 12, 4]
401
has
for example, not symmetric for the approaching and

This is so because of the change of the barrier due
the escaping projectile.
lowering
to the excitation of internal degrees of freedom. Fig. 9 shows the
giant
and
vibrations
surface
excitation
of
of the Coulomb barrier due to the
resonances. If there would be no surface vibrations excited, the saddle point
+ R1^. In fact, however, the nuclear forces can
would be reached at
R^
time
Fig. 10.
axis (xtO "J see
The change of the unperturbed orbit (upper curve) for q =

112
Sn- "Sn collision. The perturbed orbit is the lower
l
impact parameter q
It is
is
and energy
N m Ec
122
Sn
is
i<
Ec
in a
shown
in fig. 10.
dependence of the path of the ion
obvious that the change of the time
However, at impact parameters Q

This leads to a change in the cross
small.
larger.
for
and
curve.
the change might
The
section.
become
particles incident
with an impact parameter between g and Q + dg are scattered into angles
between % and X+&X- The
do
differential cross section is then given
= 2ngdg =
Rtt) im
by
djKx)
2kq(x)
dZ.
(23)
and thus
due to the excitation of internal degrees of
however, effectively raised by 40 MeV, because
The lowering of the Coulomb

in "Sn. The Coulomb barrier is,
nuclei can come closer together (R(j) instead of <" + J?
barrier
Fig. 9.
freedom
the
'
31
)-
(') islhe turning point
of the disturbed Rutherford hyperbola.
d =
e(x)
dfifx)
di?
sin x
dz
The quantity q(x) can be obtained
(24)
analytically only for pure Rutherford
scattering. In general, this function has to be
only act between the two ions
if their
R min =
R(x). It is thus obvious that effectively the saddle

40
MeV*. Consequently, for a given incident energy
point is raised by about
and a given impact parameter q the orbits of the ions will be disturbed
compared to Rutherford scattering. As an example, the changed orbit of
contact distance
12.4,
The
scattering of deformed nuclei on deformed nuclei
The analog of eq.
it
(11) for deformed nuclei
H - H wbh +fl (l)+fl

I
has been shown (Ho-70a, b) that the nuclear forces counteract the Coulomb forces at small distances and, consequently, diminish this effect appreciably.
* Recently,
computed numerically (Ho-69).
separation distance approaches the
is
simply
(i)+fl rt , b (l)+H< Bl(l) + ,
iXl)
+ H (2) + tf ib(2)+ H1ib (2)+ tf GR (2)+H GRib(2) + H

t
!at
(25)
402
The
rotational Hamiltonian
found
in eq. (6.3)
and
in
and
II. //int is again given
now
equations are set
up in analogy with
by
where
eq. (12)
CH. 12,
4]
N =
521.8
SCATTERING OF DEFORMED NUCLEI ON DEFORMED NUCLEI
MeV,
orientation at
then the nuclei touch at
We refer
fl>
discuss here the physical content of
4(1)
the discussion in section (12.3).
and
restrict ourselves further
and
select
only a few very typical
i(l)
cases out of the great variety of possibilities for deformed nucleus scattering.
As a
first
example we choose 1S8 Gd as
eters together with those of a
projectile
and
fm and
10.67
their
=
=
=
<?,,(!)=
-9<*>
ai(2)
a^(2)
= -22.9;
= 0.053,
= -0.107,
-9u(2)=
(26)
-1-07.
param-
target. Its
few other nuclei are given in table
Rmia =
403
% is
goes over the deformed nuclei. The Hamiltonian
for details to the literature (Ho-69)
We
the giant resonance Hamiltonian can be
Chapter
the integration
the results.
[CH. 12,
Again,
only head-on collisions are investigated. Since the nuclei are deformed the
initial
orientation of the nuclear axes relative to each other
in the
dynamics of the
is
2.
also important
collision.
Table
Parameters of the rotational nuclei 15S Gd and 335 U
Nucleus
E,
o
(keV)
158
Gd
<keV)
26.5
0.358
1700
14.9
0.292
994
(keV)
711.9
(MeV)
(fin)
455.2
12.97
15
14.87
15
627
(MeV)
Fig. 12. Initial orientation of
moment can
two deformed nuclei in pole-pole head-on
act only if the
two axes of the nuclei do not coincide
collision.
force
precisely, (b).
Therefore the angles through which the two ions have rotated at the time
of closest approach,
vestigate a
head-on
each other (see

Fig. II. Initial orientation of
two deformed gadolinium
We
therefore at
first
cboose an
2)
means
initial
3'/ 1
nuclei.
shown in fig. 11, which

{ iy
2)
in, 3 3 = 0; 8*t = 0,
energy E = 467.5 MeV
condition as
-|jc,
S2
,}
2)
at / = 0. With an initial
i*, #i = 0; q =
one already obtains a total excitation energy (00) of 22.5
MeV, although
between the two nuclear surfaces a separation distance
J? min
#2
.75
fm
remains.
If,
*i"
on the other hand, the
-K
#> = ft
|g
initial
0;
orientation
is
as
shown
= ft Sf> = ft
in fig. 5(b),
9< 2 >
fig.
0; q
i.e.
0,
R min =
15.43 fm.
between the
are very small (A9 (
x,
0.4).
where the two poles of the
12). In this case the
reached with an energy

at
in terms of Euler angles
collision
N =
428.9
initial axis, fig. 12(b),
saddle of the barrier
MeV, because
,y
small angle 8 2
Finally
ellipsoid
in-
is
already
the nuclei already touch
= -9 22) -T 3
(
so that a
we
approach
has been chosen
moment of force
exists.
At
the
time of closest approach the excitation parameters of the various degrees of
freedom are
#> = _p =
= -0.051,
a(l)
i(2) = -0.0002,
<M1) = $..(2) = 0.038,
a' (l)
=
-
-4.35;
9io(l)=
4(2)
-M2)=
-0-513.
( 27 )
404
They are
thus, at
x,
only rotated through the small angle
[CH. 12,
A9 2 = 1 .35.
In fact, the largest rotations at the distance of closest approach,
x,
ch.
occur
tT
situation
405
QUASI -MOLECULAR STATES: EXPERIMENTAL FACTS
12, g 5]
the initial orientations are as in fig. 5(a); then A3 ss 14". The

238 tJ- z38
system, which is of great
is quite similar for the
importance in the heavy ion reactions for creating superheavy elements.

IS s?
In
90
/V^.
1
OS
EA
excitation
10
'
J-s**
->*>v.
01
02
03
OS
OA
j.
.._.
OS
0?
OS
OS
509.7
McV and EN =
56S.5
*_
10
""Gd on "*U
MeV
18
At the time of closest approach,
already quite large
5 to 6
U-U
bombardment.
MeV)
making
rotational
bands up
to /
It is
most
very interest-
fission
or the individual
Gd-Gd
interesting to see that the rotations
and 7
MeV
and
respectively, while
MeV, This means
that
32 to 35 and y-vibrattons involving up to 10 to
15 y-phonons are excited. This
depends quite strongly on
is
and 15 show the time development of
the ^-vibrations are only weakly excited to about 0.4

as a
character.
the total excitation of the nuclei
x,
thus
The
respectively).
jffy- vibrational
ing:
y-vibrations are strongly excited to about 8
excitation function.
and
giant resonances are clearly not excited. Another point
and
OR is the giant resonance
MeV.
MeV
however, purely of rotational and
nuclei very likely. Figs. 14
Total excitation of target and projectile in the scattering of
function of time. Here Eq
is,
The
is
limt&is (*}*
Fig.
nuclei are very highly excited (16
EaS<H
r~
IS
13 the excitation energies of target and projectile are shown for

158
Gd on 238 as a function of time. It is seen that both
fig.
the scattering of
is
a very interesting result. However,
it
the nuclei participating in the reactions.
10
12.5. Quasi-molecular states: experimental facts

08
In reactions of carbon ions
OS
experiment of
02
ai
as
as
a*
as
as
or
Fig. 14. Excitation
of the
different degrees
of freedom
At low
it
timt axis iVMry
10
that of
in a ,ss Gd- 1,s
energies of about 6
Bromley
90
MeV
Gd
interesting
collision.
(Br-60)
phenomenon seems
barrier,
^flsf
fig.
12
and neutrons
in this reaction
17.
can be seen.
From
5.64, 6.00
there
A
it
is
shown
MeV, which
the
l6
on
0.
scattering.
gamma
rays,
The
alpha
each of these
below the Coulomb

can be seen
in
obvious that the most prominent peaks occur
at
more detailed view of
is
first
system a quite
C- b2 C
just
16
C and
in fig. 16. In
is
The
who measured
in the center-of-rnass
to take place in the
curves a distinct structure around 6
12
C on
for
excitation functions for the production of protons,

particles
MI
CM.
et al.
,2
ii
ik
1)0
was
this sort
elastic scattering cross section at
nuclei, there is very definite structure
the cross section for the production of particular products.
in
on carbon
this structure
and 6.36 MeV.
A quite similar phenomenon occurs in the clastic scattering of 12 C on 12 C,

C on ie O and l6 on 16 0. The measurements are shown in fig. 18. The
16 0_ 16
data have recently been extended (Si-67) up to 35 MeV (see fig. 28)
12
S7
V/v"
a;
a?
03
04
as
s
as
a?
as
rime oris
Fig. IS. Excitation
much structure has been found beyond 17 MeV. In the case of

C- l2 C scattering this structure obviously occurs earlier (at 8 MeV), and
l2
we will see below that this may reflect the relative softness of the C nucleus
and, indeed,
as
12
to
t.i
3e
(ta'
of the different degrees of freedom in a "rj-" a U
collision.
in
comparison with
16
0, Almquist, Bromley, Kuehner and Whalen (Al-63)
406
undertook a rather detailed study of the

20
12
C( 12 C,
a)
20
Ne
[CH. 12, 5 5
reaction leading
ch.
12,
QUASI-MOLECULAR STATES: EXPERIMENTAL FACTS
5]
times the reduced width for a-particle emission and about 100 times the
we
Ne. The angular distributions of these
width for nucleon emission. This
all
er-particles indicated that spins 2 and 4 had to be attributed to the 5.6 and
l2
t2
6
resonances in
scattering. These states are thus states of the
system which strongly resembles a
12
C- 12 C
high reduced width for emission of
,2
C from the compound
to five different final states in
MeV
2
*Mg compound
on
C- C
nucleus. In addition
elastic scattering that the
to
could be concluded from the data
suggests that
are dealing with a
molecule. In particular the very
nucleus supports
this suggestion.
width for decay of the compound nucleus by
it
407
PROTONS
GAMMA
"
RADIATION
ws
2
ALPHA
PARTICLES
f<r
S
D
NEUTRONS
lo-
a.
hi
re
1
C'i C * REACTIONS
5S79t0t112
J
CENTER-OF-MASS ENERQY
Fig.
6,
13
14
IN
Excitation functions for the production of protons,
and neutrons from reactions of
"C on
"C,
54
L
15
Fig,
rays,
re-emission of
C,
i.e.
fission
7.
Excitation function for the production of
alpha particles,
"C,
IN
MtV
gamma
rays
from reactions of
'
on
plotted as a function of centcr-of-mass energy (Br-60).
plotted as a function of centcr-of-mass energy
(Al-60).
12
6.6
CENTER-0F-MASS ENERGY
MV
gamma
62
5.8
of the molecule,
Since the early measurement on the

is
about
10%
width. Furthermore, this reduced width for carbon emission
of the
total
since the
was about ten
the Yale
measurements of the
group
(Si-67),
'
*0-' 6
12
C- 12 C
system, and
more
especially
elastic scattering cross sections
by
a series of theoretical approaches were proposed to
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR MODELS TO HEAVY TON SCATTERING
408
explain the experimental results (Vo-60, Ch-69,
The behavior of
69a).
(<
15
Mo -68,
Br-68a, b, Sch-68b,
the excitation function near the
MeV) was examined
[CH. 12, 5
Coulomb
channel
elastic
is
Above
not yet important.

16
experimental excitation function of the
0- 16
17
12,6. Binding energies of nuclei
MeV, however,
the
system shows a regular
In the following discussions
is its total
energy or mass in
which
k ^
5PiTrFD/M(!
HF&V* IOM FIASTtf
0CM=9O"
If
s
\
*V
>4
v:
rf
!5
**
Vr
A tSc
n.\
A"
in \ ^r
r
>J
'
i_^j
hJ
where
^~
--
^ *>
\\
1r
this
Fig. 18.
Cross sections for
1t
of oxygen and carbon as a function of the
center-of-mass energy (Br-60).
resonance structure (Si-67) as shown in
(Mu-68) demonstrate the
fig.
28. These, as well as other
fits
necessity for an absorptive part in the potential in
order to understand the strong decrease of the excitation function (see the
dotted curves in
the calculation
fig.
18
which indicate the Mott
and understanding of the
real
scattering).
in the
next sections.
is
where
the greatest interest.

is
and
However, there occur
The quantity
the mass of the neutral atom,
then defined as
= Z JW H + AT M n - M(A, Z),
the mass of the hydrogen atom.
Two
(28)
effects obviously
con-
way many
unknown and
known
mass. In
nuclidic masses have been measured (Du-57).
been determined in
this
way
(Ge-58).
The end-point
energies of ^-spectra
(corrected by two electron masses in positron decay) also give the mass
difference between parent and daughter atoms. One must be careful to be
sure that the 0-decay goes to the ground state of the daughter nucleus.
Otherwise the decay y-quanla must of course be included
in
the energy
Sometimes various other quantities are used instead of the binding energy; (a). The
M-A is expressed in mass units. One mass unit (IU =931.44 MeV) is Ti
12
of the mass of the neutral atom C. (b). The packing fraction (A-M)jA. (c). In all work
model for
and imaginary parts of ion-
ion potentials has been given by Scheid and Greiner (Sch-68b, 69a).
be discussed
respectively.
and in this way changes the moment of inertia of the molecule. From the
measurement of the molecular spectrum the change in rotational energies,
and hence in the moment of inertia, can be found. Only a few values have
S5 TNER err MeV )
clastic scattering
expects that the mass of a
Sometimes one can determine the masses of isotopes directly, if the mass
of one isotope is known. One implants the desired isotope into a molecule
c ENTi R-0
mass
arranges a "mass doublet" between the
>
is
One
principle is that atoms of the desired substance are ionized and introduced into the mass spectrometer. In addition, a comparison material of
known mass and almost the same mass-to-charge ratio is added. One
0N CARBON
S
ON CAR SOS
state.
The
>J nn
most basic property of a nucleus
most easily obtained experimentally
MK
the binding energies of
therefore devote this section
hydrogen atoms. Usually the electronic contributions are negligible *.

The nuclear masses arc usually measured by the mass-spectrometric
determination of the mass-to-charge ratio in electric and magnetic fields.
J
'
is
We
tribute to the binding energy, namely the binding energy of the nucleus plus
the difference between the binding energy of the electrons and that of Z
~_
Y vV
12
t~
mass formula
N neutrons is near ZMo + NM
M(A, Z). The binding energy
***
'V*
ground
and they are of
B(A, Z)
V^ ^
%
and
>
Z protons
its
are the proton and neutron
deviations from this value
"
we need information on
to a short discussion of these quantities.
VX
the semi-empirical
nuclei and semi-empirical mass formulas.
nucleus with
w*
409
barrier
with a real potential which was derived from
nuclear matter calculations (Br-60). In this energy region the absorption
from the
BINDING ENERGIES OF NUCLEI - SEMI-EMPIRICAL MASS FORMULA
CM. 12, 6]
It will
mass excess
prior to 1960 a different mass unit, the amu,
defined as
was used. The arau (atomic mass
~ of the mass of the neutral ls O atom.
unit)
is
APPLICATION OP NUCLEAR MODELS TO HEAVY ION SCATTERING
410
[CH. 12, 6
balance. Similarly, a-decay can be used to obtain the mass of the
(A 4,
Z 2) nucleus from that of the {A, Z) nucleus if corrections for the recoil of
other nuclear reactions can also be used for the determination of
BINDING ENERGIES OF NUCLEI - SEMI-EMPIRICAL MASS FORMULA
12, 6]
Clearly there must be a term proportional to
The nuclear radius
Therefore
we
assumed to be given according to
is
includes, however,
energy of a sphere proportional to
Wapstra and Huizenga (Wa-55, 58; Hu-55) put all the various measurements together and checked their consistency. About 750 nuclides were
terms for (a) exchange corrections of the
More
an even more complete and accurate table of

on both the 12 C and the 6 scales has been published
recently
the mass excess based
(Ev-60, Ma-65). In
fig,
Most
the approximate constancy of the binding energies per
interesting
is
19 the binding energies per nucleon are represented.
nucleon which holds for
ail
except the very light nuclei.
The quantity BjA
8.6
R=
Coulomb
r A*.
Coulomb
two correction
and (b) a
The numerical
energy,
constants for the diffuseness are taken from electron scattering data (See-68).
The
fourth term of eq. (29)
is
the asymmetry energy, which played an
important role in our discussion of nuclear hydrodynamics

It
also contains a correction term for surface effects, which
in
is
Chapter
10.
proportional
to n.
-45
-45
z-u\
8*1
//J. It
correction due to the diffuseness of the nuclear surface.
Z=2Q
N=20
and there must also be an
recognize the third term of eq. (29) as essentially the
nuclear masses:
investigated.
411
energy proportional to the nuclear surface and hence a term proportional

to A*.
the nucleus and for the binding energy of the a-particle are made.
Many
CH.
7*50
8.4
Z.i:
82
80
-SO
Z=92
Mi 126
t*
7.8
7.6
7.4
.*
-55
....
50
100
200
150
-55
250
A
Fig. 19. Binding energy per nucleon of the
most
/J-stable isobars.
Each point represents an
average or a few neighboring nuclides: solid circles for even-even nuclei, crosses for
odd-j4 nuclei. (Data from Wa-55.)
Fig. 20. (a).
varies between 7.4
MeV
and
MeV. This
8.8
is
precisely
what one means
Mass excess
by the saturation of nuclear matter. Heisenberg (Hei-32) realized this first

from the measurements of Aston (As-27) and thus proposed the existence
of exchange forces between nucleons. Weizsacker (Wei-35b) and Bethe
(Be-36) interpreted this behavior in terms of a semi-empirical mass formula,
which was based on the liquid drop picture of the nucleus. They proposed a
formula which we write nowadays in the following form (See-68)
B(A)
m H'o^-7/l*-0.864r o
+ M~*-/M
-1
"
Z ^-*[l -0.76361 Z-*~2.453r
-2
X"]
)(tf-Z) +5i4"*(0, 1)
+7e~ 6 '"- Z|A + 14.33 x

,
10" 6
Z 239
in
mass
units for the
two A
24 systems.
The lower curve

(b). Mass
corresponds to the even-even system and the upper curve to the odd-odd system,
excess for the
The
odd A
125 system. (After Pr-62.)
pairing term, proportional to in eq. (29),
positive for even-even
nuclides
and negative
is
zero for odd-A nuclides,
for
odd-odd
nuclides.
As a typical demonstration of the

we show in fig. 20 the mass excesses
(see section 8.5).
pairing effect
binding energies
for the
A =
A =
on
the
124 and
125 systems. Let us attempt to understand these results as well as the
parabolic shapes. If the symmetry energy term proportional to

(29)
It
incorporates the action of the pairing force between nucleons in nuclei
in eq. (29)
were missing,
it
is
clear that
(NZ) 2
B(A) would be a maximum
for
412
Z=
0,
the nuclei
i.e.
would
However,
consist of neutrons.
all
if
[CH. 12, 7
we
replace,
24
Te with 52 neutrons, these could not go

by the protons, but would have to
enter the 37th to 62nd energy levels, since the first 36 levels are already
for example, the 52 protons in
'
into the 26 low-energy levels occupied
occupied by neutrons, Thus, constructing a nucleus totally out of neutrons,
we would
Coulomb
lose the
energy but gain a tremendous increase in
energy due to the Pauli principle (Pr-62). In other words,
N=
Coulomb energy
Z, the
an
leads to
energy.
Z but
favors lowering
increase in energy. This latter energy
It is
known
therefore clear that a term proportional to
contained in the mass formula. Precisely this

parabolic shapes of fig. 20.
odd-A nuclides
nuclides.
is
The
lies in
latter
It
if
we depart from
the exclusion principle
effect is
as the symmetry
(N Z) 1
has to be
manifested in the
can also be clearly seen that the parabola for
between the parabolas for odd-odd and even-even
two are
shifted
by the amount
SA~*
relative to the
odd-/4 parabola, respectively. This clearly indicates pairing. In even-even

nuclei the energy
nuclei
it is
Finally
5/4 ~*
is
gained because of pairing, while in odd-odd
give the various parameters entering in eq. (29). These were
obtained by a least square
fit
of the calculated binding energies of eq. (29)
to 1127 experimental binding energies (Ma-65, See-68).
W =
=
1
p =
=
n
=
r
=
-5
The
coefficients are:
marked by nearly the same characteristic time constant, t = 5xl0"

which gives on the one hand the collision time and on the other hand
classical orbiting time
scattering process
of a nucleon in a nucleus.
which
MeV,
19.655
MeV,
30.586
MeV,
53.767
MeV,
10.609
MeV,
zz
s,
the
We are thus dealing with a
neither adiabatic nor sudden, but something in
is
between. "Adiabatic" means
in this
context that the nuclear orbits are
rearranged in energetically favored positions at every instant during the

if
collision. On the other hand, the sudden approximation may be applied
the process of penetration proceeds so fast that the change in the
31
S compound system.
structure is too small to build up the
ie
Following Sch-68b we choose the sudden approximation as the starting

point for our discussion. Assuming in first approximation that the structure
of the
,6
unchanged during the scattering process we
nuclei remains
calculate the real potential
superposing the
by
16
will
densities additively at
every instant. In a phenomenological picture the overlap region is an unConstable zone which expands and therefore causes inelastic processes.
sequently
we
correct the sudden approximation with the imaginary part of
damping of the
elastic
channel by the outflow
of nuclear matter from regions with highly compressed density (see fig. 24).
We thus have to develop a phenomenological theory of nuclear matter to
calculate the potential energy between two nuclei. The basic idea of the
theory developed here
15.645
413
THOMAS-FERMI -TYPE THEORY OF FINITE NUCLEI
7]
12,
the potential. It describes the
lost.
we
ch.
similar to that of the theories for finite nuclei
is
by Bethe (Be-68) and Brueckner (Br-68b). We prefer a kind

of schematic treatment, which has the advantage that the nuclear densities
of the individual nuclei can be found as the solution of linear differential
recently given
(30)
have to deal with the determination of the

nuclear densities. As a starting point we introduce an ansatz for the binding
energy of a nucleus consisting of A particles. The binding energy depends on
equations. Therefore
1.2025 fm.
we
first
the nuclear density distribution q:

12.7.
Thomas-Fermi-type theory of
Let us discuss the
'
fi
O-
finite nuclei
e(q)
w0J4+i-f(e-eo)
2
this
example.
If the
two
It
'
can then
easily
ions cross the
each other and a number of
identities.
at
be extended to other ion-ion systems.
Coulomb
inelastic
barrier the
nuclei penetrate
or irreversible reactions take place,
such as particle emission and the creation of the
both ions lose their
worked out by looking
32
S compound system where
Therefore we have to distinguish between two
main processes which develop simultaneously: The reversible penetration

of the two 16 Q and the destruction of their shell structure. Both events are
<fr
2 Co*'
system as an example here. The theory for the
optical potentials in heavy ion scattering shall be
11
p-ki-'ii/ni
cO-*)
*Z\*
r
dTl(kj
r(<'>- c < *
fc(r t )c(- 2)
2UlJ
\n-r 2
LZ
2eo\ A
X |Vd*.
(31)
IJ
The various terms of this expression are very plausible. There is an energy
proportional to the number of nucleons and a second term with an essenThe two
tially repulsive character, which describes a compression energy.
414
Yukawa-type interactions with ranges /i, and
[Cff, 12,
arc followed by the
Coulomb
ch.
results (Sch-68b, 69a):
energy and the usual symmetry energy, which we discussed for the neutron-
proton
fluids* in
charge density
is
Chapter
10.
To
simplify the
model
it is
proportional to the nuclear density.
assumed that the
Two Yukawa
actions are introduced only for the sake of generality. In fact,
we
drop one of the Yukawa interactions and develop the theory by

the sum in eq. (31 ) only to one term.
Disregarding the
Coulomb and symmetry
( -V
1 fi i
-V2 n 1 2 + - [2-
Wî+^2+
-1)
will
-=
A
(35)
restricting
where
(36)
energies one can easily calculate
and
the
Coulomb
potential
homogeneous and one has
<p
satisfies
V'q,
(32)
-4ji
This equation shows clearly the meaning of the various constants.

the binding energy of a nucleon
The constant
definition the
if
the density of nuclear matter
is in
is
modulus
K describes
a state
the compressibility of a nucleus with
constant density around the equilibrium radius R,
= '-(>w+
Co
^H'H'f'
Eq. (35) contains
all
potentials
As we will
constants
is
one
if
Km
made.
librium density.
9C.
(34)
is
the binding energy of eq. (32)
densities g -C Q
clearly not correct. Therefore the ansatz (3 1 )
and should be modified
is
also to be contained in the theory.
i(?o
It
can be
if
is
becomes
infinite.
only correct for say
The
of no Coulomb, no
We omit this here.
Instead
= R and
done
in a
We
therefore vary the binding
way
that the particle
number A =
quite analogous to that which
@dr
is
we have
used in section 10.3 (see Appendix D). The following system of equations
proton-neutron densities are allowed, the symmetry energy
should be replaced by
lGg
(&> e>
is
An
it
attractive
Yukawa
force
leads to a decrease of the
indicated by the boundary condition (38).
general solution can be written as (see Appendix
we proceed
energy with respect to the density q under the subsidiary conditions that a
constant. This can be
D)
the proper description of small densities
for the density distribution in finite nuclei.
nuclear surface exists at r
0) causes surface effects; in particular
density in the nuclear surface as
dT.
in cq. (31)
fl
( 40 )
fJo( a r )f
i=i
with deriving a system of differential equations and boundary conditions
If different
solution for a stable equi-
easily seen that in the case
square well with a constant value q
(V <
This
choice of the energy
realistic
symmetry, and no Yukawa force the density distribution has the shape of a
easily finds
For small
to the Bernoulli equation
and corresponds
The above system of equations has a unique

Calculating the compression modulus for the equilibrium density q
(39)
see the density at the nuclear surface q(R) turns
out to be quite small compared to g
dR z \A/
(38)
In addition to these equations one has, of course, to normalize the density.
of hydrodynamics.
(33)
(37)
g,
where
this state the density q
has the equilibrium value p .

has to do with the compression modulus. According to its
eZ
A
with the boundary condition for q at the nuclear surface

e(R)
of equilibrium. In
constant,
soon
>
is
9 =
inter-
the binding energy of a nucleon in infinitely extended nuclear matter. In this
case the nuclear density q
415
THOMAS-FERMI-TYPE THEORY OF FINITE NUCLEI
12, 7]
The
nuclear radius
R and
the various parameters occurring in g are fixed for
a given number of nucleons. The constants
ct,
are the roots of a cubic
equation and are in general complex numbers (Sch-68b, 69a).
From now on we
in the ansatz (31).
restrict ourselves to
We
then have to
fix
only one attractive
the constants
Yukawa
C, q
V,
force
ft
and
C of eq. (31). Some of these, namely Q C, q and G, are approximately

known from nuclear matter work (Be-68, Br-68b) and from the nuclear mass
formula (See-68). The constant
is
chosen such that the proper ratio of
r
43 6
ZjA along
mean square
and
THOMAS-FERMI-TYPE THEORY OF FINITE NUCLEI
12, 7]
32
d4
S and
two other arbitrary (or one may be the same)

Cu. Thus the data of two nuclei essentially fix all the
parameters entering in eq. (31) which are then the same for
only two parameters
0-
Hl
left
C and
are
From
C=
-Hr&
The
all nuclei.
following are results for a
= -
-7
100
SC
0.8 fm,
16.0
it
follows that
MeV,
^ 0.188 fm -3
V = -469 MeV fm,
G = 70 MeV,
C = -^
5
ID
;/:
MeV, p -
<?
From
u
*
The
C and
or
n which are determined directly from the
elastic scattering cross section.
typical set of the parameters
20
MeV,
W
e
y,
417
to the binding energies of
nuclei, say
lf,
CH.
is reproduced (Sch-69a).
0t q and V
radius of one arbitrary nucleus, say 32 S,
the line of beta stability
are adjusted to the
[CH, 12, 7
0.3
fm,
K-
(41)
li-
te
(30
follows that
it
= -15.3 MeV,
= 0.176 fm" 3
= -13012 MeV
= 70 MeV.
IS
Req/A*3
g
L?5
V
G
fm,
2,s
6
E
2.0
-10-
f.5
-5-
m
*
m
Ar)
Q
X
Q
A.
^
>v
j-
\.\^
-11-
*,
^^-
to
^*^
Fig. 22.
_**"*
The binding energy
per nuclcon, the proton
tension y, the equivalent radius

i
02
DENSITY Urn- 3
The binding energy per nuclcon
protons and neutrons and without

results.
The doited curve
is
in infinite
Coulomb
as
The
KtQ and
number
Z, the constant of the surface
the surface thickness
A. In addition the radial densitv distribution for
nuclear matter with an equal
energy.
number
0.1
Fig. 21.
A 'ISO
10
\\
250 are shown for parameter
two
as functions of the nuclcon
set (41
different nuclei
10
and
}.
number of
solid line represents Brueckner's
calculated according to eq. (32) with the parameter set (41).
With these
First
sets
we can
of parameters various nuclear quantities can be calculated.
plot the binding energy of nuclear matter according to eq. (32).
418
This
is
shown
(Br-68a).
It is
in fig. 21
and also compared
[CH.
2, 7
to Brueckner's calculation
seen that for not too small densities (g
>
0.06
fm~
3
)
the
deviations between the schematic results and Brueckner's less schematic

(compressiresults are of the order of 20 %. The curvature of both at e
However,
case.
schematic
the
bility) is also somewhat different, viz. smaller in
one
QUASI- MOLECULAR
CH. 12, 8]
NUCLEAR OPTICAL POTENTIALS
419
With that the constant of the surface energy which includes asymmetry
effects has the form
Yv
^('H^-^l'H-'H''
(45)
say that the schematic ansatz, eq. (31), reproduces the saturation
may
from
curve in an optimal manner.
This results
For a given A one can vary the binding energy with respect to Z. The
resulting binding energy BjA and proton number Z are drawn as functions
of A in fig. 22 for the parameter set (41). Although two binding energies
The empirical mass formula of Seeger (See-68) gives values for y.

of about 7 = 19.6 MeV (see eq. (30)) in good agreement with theoretical
predictions. Furthermore, in fig. 22 are also shown density distributions, their equivalent radii, and their surface thickness. The equivalent
have been adjusted at
A = 34 and A =
sets eqs. (41) the theoretical prediction
deviates by only about
36
of
in
all
obtaining the parameter
the other binding energies
4" from the experimental curve
at
A =
radius
is
in a
slowly varying function of
is
obtained by adjusting the parameters
250.
and V
more distant nuclei, e.g. A = 32 and A = 250.

The constant of the surface energy is also shown in fig. 22. It includes
effects of the finite extension of the nucleus and can be defined as
The surface thickness
indicate the influence of the
u -/ re
of
its
Coulomb
= RA~*
increases slightly with
thickness becomes smaller.

for growing
from the
one has
first
to find the binding energy of infinite saturated nuclear matter
under inclusion of the symmetry energy. Minimizing the extended binding
value g(0) at the origin. All curves
A >
100,
The Coulomb
The
A and
effect
the nuclear matter
A >
100 the specific radius
in contrast to this the surface
depends on the compressibility since
is stiffer
Coulomb
forces.
thickness
and equivalent radius of shapes
and
therefore less influenced
by
C and
n which produce densities

of useful shapes, i.e. v -c 1 (see eq. (38)), have an effective compressibility
which is too low. Therefore the Coulomb force influences the surface
with larger
effects are
v.
Such
sets
of parameters
v <K
more strongly than those
This can, of course, be considerably improved
if
nonlinear
taken into account in the ansatz eq. (31) so that E(g) has the
proper behavior for small densities (Sch-69a).
energy of eq. (32),
^(l-lV + i c(2?-A^,
(43)
12.8. Quasi-molecular nuclear optical potentials
with respect to g one gets the binding energy of saturated nuclear matter as
ion scattering and have developed and tested a
- =
A
(46)
force for
are repelled to the surface. Therefore for
asymmetry energy have been subtracted. If one wants to include these,
dr.
force depresses the nuclear density in the interior region since the protons
In the construction of this formula the surface effects arising
22.
usually defined as the distance in which the
is
density decreases from 90 to 10
at
(42)
fig.
defined as
The error decreases if the assumption of proportionality between proton and

neutron densities is abandoned and if an optimal fit of the experimental
binding energies
as can be seen
+ iC
In the foregoing sections we have introduced the experimental facts of heavy
(?)
- W..C
(J/
1+
I (2f-.)
-l) -
4(aj| -I)'.
(44)
of nuclear matter.
We now
ion-ion potentials.
As
we
wish to apply
already mentioned
are dealing here with
an intermediate
adiabatic approaches apply.
We
Thomas- Fermi-type theory
this theory for the calculation
of
in the beginning of the last section,
situation
where neither sudden nor

elastic heavy ion
have to expect for the
420
[CH. 12, g 8
scattering that strong imaginary potentials can occur. Therefore
with the Sudden approximation and take care of
an imaginary
In
first
all
we
start
adiabatic processes by
potential.
approximation the two
compound system
is
16
nuclei penetrate each other
built up, Le. the structure
of the two
ie
and no
nuclei
is
32
not
QUASI-MOLECULAR NUCLEAR OPTICAL POTENTIALS
ch. 12, S 8]
The
and r 2 measured
nuclei
respectively.
The
centers of mass
two
from the center of mass of the
have the relative distance r as shown in fig. 23. With eq. (47) the real part of
individual densities are functions of the distances r,
the potential can be written as the difference of the total binding energy of
the
I6
+ 16
system and the binding energies Bi*
essentially changed. In other words, we additively superpose the densities

16
nuclei for the calculation of the real part of the potential. The
of both
additive superposition of the densities leads to an unstable state which
decays.
The decay of
of the potential.
the elastic channel
We now
16
16
+ 16
system
is,
in the
16
manner
+ c..o(r 2 ))-2B
l6
nuclei as
(48)
where
Bi*
nuclei, eq. (40).
The
density of
sudden approximation, made up of the single
The function (g)
E(Q>t
(49)
).
(4?)
Qô( r i) + eô( r 2)-
is
the density-dependent expression (31).
The ion-ion
potential thus depends only on the relative distance of the two centers of
mass.
E(<fi. (r 1 )
of the
the energy ansatz eq.
densities,
V(r)
described by the imaginary part
use in a consistent
(31) and the resulting density for the

the
is
421
It is
possible to solve all integrals occurring in (48) analytically for
AH
the density distribution (40).
expressions can be related to the basic
integral
0)
I(r, a,
fi,
p)
j-\
4ft Jo
which can be found
rW^dz, dx
; (r,) 1
\r t
With
in Sch-69a.
r 2 r]
eqs. (40), (47)
(50)
and (50) one obtains for
eq. (48)
V(r)
afdj
Woe
i,J=i
I(r,
a, p)\
<x,
J-o
Ip
+ X v* *fo a " ai ^) +4n rj )

'
J(r>
<*i
-* a>
))
(51)
where
Mis
Fig.
2.1.
The
superposition of the densities: (a)
from the centers of the

centers. <b)
the
The
shadowed
nuclei.
The
coordinates r, and r 2 are measured
The coordinate r denotes
density distributions of nuclei
area, in which the matter
is
two
shown by
the relative distance of the
and 2 overlap
in the region 3
compressed. The lower diagram contains the
density distribution along an intercept through the centers of the
,(i
nuclei.
the step function. Clearly,
interaction
Yukawa
is
effective.
force.
The
for x
the nuclei
The Coulomb
With an
and with them the
if
for
>
<
do not
barrier
0,
0,
overlap, only the
is
Coulomb
lowered by the attractive
increasing degree of overlap, the repulsive forces,
potential, rapidly increase.
potential at the point of
compressibility of the
32
full
overlap,
i.e.
at r
0, is
a measure of the
S compound system. The energy which
is
needed to
422
compress the
32
S nucleus into the volume of the
U=
The
two
difference of the
V(r
lfi
nucleus
[CH. 12, S
is
given by
is
(52)
-16.6MeV.
In
fig.
24 the
made more transparent. There we find the effective compression

modulus of the 32 S compound system by assuming a quadratic increase of
situation
the
is
volume energy with the change of the
radius.
For
finite
range of the
Yukawa forces and on
feature of the potential in
= 0)-(B iis -2B ito).
binding energies
QUASI-MOLECULAR NUCLEAR OPTICAL POTENTIALS
CM. 12, S]
R=
i?u
the energy
which
MeV
24
is
the
Coulomb
force.
The important
minimum
the occurrence of a potential
comes about by virtue of the

which come into action as soon as the ions touch.
It is then quickly overcome by the strong incompressibility of
nuclear
matter which enters as soon as the overlap of the ions becomes larger. The
is
deep. Physically this
attractive nuclear forces,
potential has the typical

physics.
r(fm)
about 6
fig,
423
thus gives
It
to
molecule.
now we have
stressed the
an
for molecular potentials in molecular
to the occurrence of nuclear molecules, in our
16 0- 16
special case
Up
form known
rise
sudden approximation and assumed that
the basic structure of the individual 16
nuclei remains
unchanged during
the scattering process. In reality this structure begins to dissolve in the overlap region in which the density
is
highly compressed and therefore unstable.
This compressed density, of course, immediately tends to expand towards
uncompressed regions. In a microscopic picture

preted as the destruction of the
compound
l6
shells
this process
can be
inter32
and the construction of the
system*.
i
hi
(-27t.t
-4
MfW
The binding energies of the "S system and the I6 + '*0 system and their
,6
to the potential curve. The abscissa represents the relative distance of the two
Fig. 24.
relation
nuclei.
is If.
Using eq. (33) one
H* H
r-
Fig. 25. Model for the calculation of the imaginary part of the ion-ion potential. The
compressed matter flows out of the region of higher density shown by the shadowed area.
The arrows indicate the flow of compressed matter. The cylinder with the constant height
h and the
difference
radial extension
S expands
easily finds
radially to the dotted site
(53)
It is
improbable that the
,e
shells regenerate after the
density, Le. after the formation of the 32 S

32
16
respectively. The effective
where Jtu s and R, so are the radii of S and
compression modulus which results from this is about two times larger than
K=9C.
t(t
drawn
in the right-hand
figure.
depends on the distribution of the nuclear matter as well as on the
compound
expansion of the
system. Therefore,
As tongas the *0 nuclei are distinguishable as distinct clusters the l6 shell structure
and we do not speak of a compound system but of a molecular system. The
31
S compound system is a complicated shell model state of "S where the two 16
ions
have more or less dissolved into each other and lost their original identity.
*
is
intact
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR MODELS TO HEAVV ION SCATTERING
424
we can apply
the never-come-back approximation:
the nuclear matter
(CH.
2,
During the expansion of
in the overlap region (fig. 26) inelastic processes will

16
ch.
12,
QUASI -MOLECULAR NUCLEAR OPTICAL POTENTIALS
8]
panding. The volume of this overlap region can be expressed as a function
of the relative distance of the two nuclei
shells**. The flow of the den-
occur which prevent a regeneration of the

sity out of the compressed region is considered as the beginning state of
inelastic processes.
all
The imaginary
processes on the
"-"HiTK!)
If
part of the potential describes the influence of
For
elastic scattering.
its
calculation
we
425
we
take the position
all inelastic
stage of expansion,
shown
we obtain
(57)
in fig. 25 for the cylinder at the beginning
for h
take the outflow
time of the nuclear matter as the characteristic damping time of the elastic
channel.
A connection
between the damping time and the imaginary potential can
be obtained from the decrease of the probability in time. If the time-dependent wave function decreases exponentially with the time constant T
^*e- f/T
(54)
we easily find the following relation from the Schrodinger equation:
realistic distribution
of matter within the cylinder region
is
on
introducing a simple distribution function depending only
coordinate
region.
r'
The
and normalized by the number of nucleons
final results are actually
obtained by
the radial
in the overlap
not sensitive to the special ansatz for
the density of distribution (Sch-69a):

(59)
The same
can also be derived from Heisenberg's uncertainty relation.

that the time T is connected with an uncertainty Win the energy
where
result
This states
Nm
by
\W-T\^&.
becomes a
on the degree of overlap, the imaginary potential
16
Tigs.
and
23
nuclei (see
25). For
function of the distance between the
the calculation of the outflow time we introduce a few simplifications so
therefore
that the hydrodynamical problem of the outflow
We thus assume that the
is
analytically solvable.
nuclear matter streams out of the region of higher
density perpendicular to the direction of the relative motion. This direction

is
certainly the direction of lowest resistance. Furthermore, the boundaries
of the overlap region are two spherical
shape by a cylinder as shown in

occur
fig.
shells.
We
is
same volume as
cylinder
oscillates.
oscillations with the frequency
given by the
minimum
of the cylinder remains constant
The
cylinder
performs compression
around the equilibrium position, which
o>
is
of the potential energy of the cylinder as a function
ofS.
The cylinder model does not
describe the outflow of matter as an aperiodic
event. Therefore, according to the never-come-back-approximation
the outflow time,
i.e.
the
damping
we
set
time of the elastic channel, equal to the
half-period of the oscillator of frequency
cu,
T=-
supposed to
during the expansion process whereas the radius increases.

The fixed height h of the cylinder is determined by the condition that the
cylinder has the
This idealized
simplify this geometrical
25. Since the outflow
in the radial direction, the height
overlap
region
(56)
Since the outflow time of matter depends on the degree of compression and
e dT.
(60)
(a
We simplify the calculation of co by neglecting the finite range of the Yukawa

forces
and the Coulomb force
in the potential energy of the oscillator,
the original overlap region before ex-
(61)
2 QQ J
** Recent investigation or the fine structure in ion-ion scattering indicates that this
is probably not quite fulfilled (Sch-70). Systematic analyses of various data
assumption
(Oe-70, Vo-69) indicate a strong surface absorption, which can be due to transfer reactions.
See also Da-67,
Inserting g(r')
from
eq. (59) one obtains
W$ = iC
Nz n
{
32AS
l+(2/it)
eo l~(2/it)
-2N + nhS 2 Q
(62)
426
The
density distribution
minimum
in its
at
is
in stable equilibrium
A Co
free cylinder thus
while
amplitudes,
is
ll/ll+W
(63)
4'21-(2M
around the equilibrium radius S
oscillate
The
i.e.
Sa
oscillation variable
is
S.
427
At the
starting point for the imaginary potential the nuclear matter distribu-
tion
in the state
is
of equilibrium. With growing overlap of the two nuclei

it
the outflow time T.
Therefore the imaginary potential decreases according to eq. (55) for closer
approach of the two

in the lower part
ions.
This qualitative behavior of W(r)
is
clearly seen
of fig. 26.
For small
12.9.
The
elastic
,0
O-"G scattering
cross section
,
-pol
constant + 2
distribution of the velocity has to
Cq
h n (S -
fulfil!
The two
the continuity equation.
nuclei are bosons
and therefore the
l6
O+ l6
system has a
symmetrized wave function. The detector cannot decide between the scatter-
We put
ing and the scattered particle. Therefore one measures a scattering cross
(65)
S,
16
(64)
section
S
and
ELASTIC I6 0- l *0 SCATTERING CROSS SECTION
ch. 12, 9]
the outflowing mass increases and, very plausibly, with
in the harmonic approximation, the potential energy can be
expanded around
The
would
height h stays constant.
its
the potential energy
where
JV
The
if
[CH. 12, 8
which
is
symmetric about 90 s
calculate this cross section
With the
the center-of-mass system.
in
To
one requires the following:
scattering amplitude for
Coulomb
scattering
calculate the kinetic energy of the oscillation
T=
iMj^dT=i^Mi
f
S
(3)
*l
2fcsin
(66)
-iiiiii(riii*wHm-zii
(69)
where
Now we
from
can easily compute the frequency of the lowest density oscillation
(totf
k
and
(66),
and
CM
l-6(2/7t) +6(2/Tt )
-6(2/n) +6(2/it)
JVJl/ is
the
NM
in the
CV
Re
NMc
the radius of the individual ion.
compressed
state the cylinder has the
shape shown
is
compressed. In the
in fig. 25.
according to this model nuclear matter can flow out only

inequality
if
Therefore,
the following
R 2 -ir J
<S
shifts a,
and
, for
Coulomb
can be
(68)
(4/+l)e
X
=
M2oj,+,Sj '>
sin 5 2 ,F 2 ,(cos 9).
(70)
Only even angular momenta appear in the scattering amplitude. The phase
shifts <5, have to be calculated numerically. They are complex numbers
since the imaginary part of the potential absorbs probability flux.
We
should stress the point that no new parameters are introduced in the
Thus the only parameters

needed to compute the potentials are the constants of the energy expression
calculation of the imaginary part of the potential.
(31). Since the
asymmetry parameter
is
irrelevant in the
l6
and
32
number of protons and neutrons), one has to determine five

constants,
q q C, ft and V, if we restrict the problem again to one
Yukawa force in eq. (31) only. Although we have earlier found parameters
nuclei (equal
is fulfilled:
2fc-
overlap region, r the distance
the nuclear matter in the cylinder
and using the phase
scattering respectively, the total scattering amplitude
/W =/c(9)+/c(n~S) +
The imaginary part is different from zero, however, if the

cylinder has a smaller volume in the beginning state than in the equilibrium
if
the reduced mass,
(6?)
in this region.
'
written (Sch-55b)
Near the point of contact the density in the overlap region is not compressed so that no matter can flow out. The imaginary part is therefore zero
i.e.
ft is
and nuclear
+ \rjR
mass of the nucleons
between the two ions and
and
(l-ir/R)(l+jr/R)
y(l-.(2/]t))
"
state
=
h k
find
**(l-(2fr))
>
'
where
ij
eqs. (64)
(eq. (41))
which reproduce several nuclear properties over a wide range of
more convenient to apply constants which fit the binding energies

and 32 S and their equivalent radii exactly. Since we examine the
nuclei
of
16
it is
I6
0- 16
scattering cross section as a function of the range
compressibility
fix
we
lCH. 12, 9
428
Kand
IV
and
ELASTIC ls O- l *0 SCATTERING CROSS SECTION
12, 9]
The
positions of the
determined by the
main peaks of
real part
429
the excitation function are essentially
of the ion-ion potential. This
is
demonstrated
in
and of the
only three of those experimental data can be used to

If we choose, for
R tq ( 32 S) =
C = % MeV and
example,
ft
= -127.6 MeV, Bu s
from 5k
find the following results
MeV
ft
ch.
0.3 fm,
-271.8
4.10 fm:
W =
MeV
-14.6
=0.14fm~ 3
(71)
V = -13616 MeV fm
and predict
16
ei,(
0)
fm (experimental
3,33
value
is
3.42)
and the surface thicknesses are

r, so
=1.99fm,
and
(the experimental values are 1.8

eters the real
Ms
2.20fm
2.6 respectively).
and imaginary potentials are shown

40
20
\
\
The parameters
is
calculated
the lower curve the imaginary
entering these calculations are listed in
--s \
fig.
-'
in
eqs. (71).
\l2
11
10
'
potential has been included.
l'l&
V
upper half of the figure the theoretical curve
>
(Si-67). In the
without the imaginary part of the potential while

i
'
by the Yale group

t
35
Comparison of the experimental 90 (cm.) differential cross section for elastic

'0-'*0 scattering with the theory. The experimental points (dots) are measured
'
30
25
CM ENERGY! MeV)
Fig. 27.
'
in fig. 26.
20
15
of param-
REAL POTENTIAL
\
1
this set
'
1
\
For
classical
\6
*-'
standpoint stable orbitals occur
orbital radii b
From
momentum L and
27. This real quasi-molecular potential leads to virtual states.
fulfill
if
the angular
the
the
the equilibrium condition
/^-^"C*
(72)
21
,iii
IMAGINARY
a-*
liiri
dr \
|,
=t
Quantum mechanically such stable orbits are quasi-bound states with even
angular momenta because of the symmetry. Their number is limited since
2
3
the highest angular momentum is given by L = nb (dVfdb) and therefore
12
POT.
determined by the maximal positive slope of V{r). In

effective potentials
-6
"
"
momenta. The quasi-bound

1
'
JO
momenta
8, 12,
highest angular
12
Hint
'0-'*0 elastic scattering potential. The
Fig. 26, The real and imaginary part of the
=
potential energy is added to the
centrifugal
r
0.
The
MeV
for
potential is 115
potential for the angular
VeU = V(r)+L 2 J(2(ir 2 )

up
momentum of about L =
to
shown
fig.
26 a number of
for various angular
an energy of 28
MeV
with a
18. In part these virtual states are
real
responsible for the gross structure of the scattering behavior above the
real
Coulomb
16 (dashed lines), to illustrate the height
the centrifugal barrier and the position of quasi-bound molecular states.
states occur
are
of
barrier. Equivalently
one can attribute the resonances
sections to the interference of the
waves which are
reflected
in the cross
on the core and
APPLICATION OP NUCLEAR MODELS TO HEAVY ION SCATTERING
430
on the Coulomb barrier of the
[t'H. 12, S
Cou-
With changes in the range of the nuclear forces fi

lomb barrier is also changed. For larger fi the Coulomb barrier decreases and
vice versa. The Coulomb barrier fixes the point at which the cross section
starts to deviate from pure Coulomb scattering. Therefore, one can adjust
the range /t according to the behavior of the cross section at low energies
MeV)
17
while the height of the various
higher energies can be fixed by adjusting

potential
Cm
and
i0
maxima
C which
of the cross section at
enters in the imaginary
way
thus influences the absorption of the ions. In this
MeV
has been found from the
16
0- l6
the value
With
elastic scattering.
32
this value the effective compressibility (53) of the
S-system
K -
is
ct{
we
In addition to the occurrence of quasi-molecular structure,
MeV.
between the two
attractive force
potential.
the height of the
(<
NUCLEAR SHOCK WAVES
CH. 12. S 10]
201
thus
12
431
C nuclei could result which effectively can
create a small dip in the ion-ion potential just before the
(Sch-69a).
It
similar potential
should be noticed that the heavy-ion scattering
to the inverse process, namely nuclear fission,
time intervals
in quite different
Coulomb
was proposed by Almquist
the scattering
barrier
et al. (Al-63),
very closely related
is
The two processes develop

can be classified more or less
as a sudden process while fission takes place adiabatically. It seems, however,

that the ion-ion potential
is
identical with the fission potential
beyond
the
point where the imaginary part vanishes. So for heavy nuclei the minimum
of the ion-ion potential, which is produced by nuclear attractive forces, lies
at a distance r
which
approximately the
is
sum of
the radii of the two
fragments*.
have the important result that the nuclear compressibility can probably be
12.10. .Nuclear shock waves in relativistic heavv ion collisions
obtained from ion-ion scattering.
As can be
seen from
fig, 27. the theoretical cross section gives
tion for the fine structure of the
a width of about
ie
the structure of
0.5
'
MeV. This
elastic scattering cross section
fine structure
O itself*. This can be seen by comparison with the

12
closed, the probability of direct inelastic reactions

16
0- l6
the one in
It
case and therefore the
However
structure.
,e
O-
16
which has
seems to be connected with
elastic scattering cross section (fig. 18). Since the
the
no explana-
at higher energies
12
C- 12 C
C shells
is
12
C- U C
are not doubly
much
larger than in
cross section shows
more
a regular resonance pattern similar to
scattering has recently been observed
by the Yale group.
thus seems that the regular structure reflects the coherent collective or
quasi-molecular scattering, which
is
a kind of doorway structure which can
be mixed with the internal excitation modes of the individual nuclei. The
latter
microscopic theory of heavy
have to
start
in the elastic
ion scattering does not yet exist.
It
would
with the oc-ciuster properties of light nuclei. Thus, for example,

l2
,s
C- O
scattering the cross section at
backward angles seems
to be solely determined by an a- particle transfer or exchange (Bo-68),

12
12
We have also seen in section 5 that resonances appear in the C- C
scattering before the
12
nuclei penetrate the
Coulomb
barrier (AI-63).
This could be due to a kind of homopolar binding of the two
which
*
is
arranged by two valence a-particles. In
Recently, Schcidet al.
(Sch-70) proposed that - due
this
way
to inelastic
t2
of molecular
states
compression of nuclear matter
one of the most
is
nuclei
below the Coulomb
nucleus nucleus col-
in
interesting aspects of heavy-ion physics.
It
has been
discussed earlier in connection with the sudden nucleus nucleus potentials
and
their energy dependence, which seem to confirm the experimentally

deduced heavy-ion potentials of the Yale group (Si-67. Ma-69, Go-71),
These
earlier considerations are valid as long as the relative heavy-ion
velocity c r does not exceed the velocity of

i.e.
for r r
<
rs
Here the
sound
first
is
sound
first
an isospin
while the second sound describes an isospin 7
proton-neutron separation travels
Pe
- P9 +pa (we fig.
in
in
nuclear matter,
T = compression
= wave where a
1
constant
c,.
wave
local
nuclear matter density
28).
compression
effects for the cases r,
>
c s in
head-on
nucleus nucleus collisions, the following very simplified model has been
proposed (Sch-74a, Sch-74b).
whose volume
is
We
restrict ourselves to
divided into three parts {see
fig.
29a),
two
identical nuclei
namely an
ellipsoid
with axes a and b sandwiched between two cut-off spheres with radius
and relative distance
around the
lipsoid.
z-axis,
r.
The system
will clearly
connecting the centers of the two spheres and of the
The nuclear matter
is
assumed
be rotalionally symmetric
el-
homogeneously distributed
to be
a longer range
* This could give rise to
channels
("O-Ô*) -
the quasibound molecular states occurring in the potential shown in fig. 26 lead to fine
Structure resonances. This is similar to the mechanism which Imanishi (lm-69) proposed
for the explanation
possibility of
lisions
In order to study local
rise to the fine structure.
then give
The
l2
C~ l *C-system.
barrier in the
an alternative and more satisfactory explanation of the so-
minimum
second minimum in
called second Strutinsky
(St-67b),
similar to the
fig. 4.5.
mediate structure recently observed

mediate quasi-molecular
states,
which
is
minimum in the fission barrier

way the pronounced inter-
In fact, in this
in fission can be interpreted as long-living interwhich occur as an intermediate step in the fission process.
APPLICATION OF NUCl EAR MODEI.S TO HEAVY ION SCATTERING
432
[CH. 12. 10
en.
NUCLEAR SHOCK WAVES
12, 10]
433
= s/2a with s being the distance between the

two spheres with the ellipsoid (see fig. 29a). The
various types of shapes shown in fig. 29b are possible, depending on the
relative size of the ellipsoid and the spheres; they can be characterized by
where a
a)
(s-r)/2R and y
intersection points of the
Protons
Neutrons
the quantity
b)
exclude the case 3
<
Protons
-R + &} 2
2
(74)
Neutrons
We will
Fig. 28. (a)
Schematic model for
first
sound, which manifests
itself in
the traveling of a
T=
disturbance of the total density, (b) Schematic model for second sound, which characterizes
without change
the traveling of a relative proton-neutron de-admixture (T = 1 giant resonances)
of
total density.
The arrows
later
with compressed matter
which
is
unphysical.
The distance
indicate the direction of traveling of the disturbance.
0,
and
full
plicated,
where
we make
kinetic energy
(i)
The
and equal
for
&
(75)
< 0.
hydrodynamical problem
too com-
E = {Mjpv 2 dz:
velocity field of the matter in the cut-off spheres

to the velocity of the respective centers,
The
is
the following approximation for the calculation of the
(ii)
spheres,
We)[(l+4B<5/r )*-l]
Because the solution of the
0,
corresponds to an ellipsoid
it
given by
s is
= b 2 /a 2 - 1,
>
for $
because
embedded completely within the two
= {re z
velocity field in the ellipsoid
is
homogeneous
i.e.
(76)
irrotational
is
and can thus be
derived from a potential through the equations
Fig. 29.
The
basic features of the
model constructed for the investigation of compression

and shock waves in particular.
in
V 2 tp = -IPiV^pJdt.
?fL
(77)
general,
(It is
over the different volumes.
Compression (p >
/>
should only occur in
The four coordinates a, h, r and R define the geometry

However, we take R to be constant in the collision so that we
the ellipsoidal region.
of the system.
worthwhile to note that these assumptions are
The boundary condition

b
considerably.
fS
and
d- e.
along the
circle z
0,
x 2 + y2 =
b,
iix e I+ yer)
,
2B\
(\ dp.
-[-+
J
SeI ,
(78)
density in the cut-off spheres
density in
agreement with the
gives for the solution of (77)
are dealing with three degrees of freedom only. This approximation is rather
inessential for the results, but simplifies the theoretical considerations
If the
in
results for star-star collisions discussed in the literature (see, e.g. Sei-72).)
is
the equilibrium density p
the
the ellipsoidal region follows from matter conservation as
which, together with eq.

Pt
2
3
Pa l(R /ab ii +*)*(!
-fo+U-yfV-Hl
(73)
in the
form
(76),
allows for the calculation of the kinetic energy
[CH. 12, 10
434
kin = \M \pv 2 dx =
mft%%.
(79)
ch.
we may
q,
lithe
boundary
is
the ellipsoidal region,
"poi
According to ordinary hydro-
30.
energy must be continuous
surface.
disregarded, the potential energy
(31
i.e.
is
given by the
plus the heat energy of the Fermi gas (La-58)
by
W{p)fc =
\itab~pi
-I
H%,),
W(p)
ellipsoid.
= (Q2 PoP)(p-p
2
)
+ WT 2 p -\
Transforming to a coordinate system moving with the velocity of the
boundary surface one

being the temperature
in the
gets,
through eq.
(82),
from continuity of mass flow:
compressed region. The expression W(p)
two ways. As mentioned in section 12.7, the

used here is
for large densities the
first term is an expansion of (E/Aip) around p a
correct functional {EjA^p) should be used, supplemented by the Coulomb
approximative
of the boundary situation at the endpoinl of the semi-axis a of ihe
with the energy density per nucleon
fig.
momentum and
fluxes of mass,
435
{r, a, b}.
Coulomb energy
compression energy of eq.

in
illustrate the situation in
dynamics the
at the
where
NUCLEAR SIKK'K WAVES
12, 10]
Pi{v
in
-a)
mp
(v Q
-a),
(83a)
energy per nucleon. The second term

of a Fermi gas expanded
is
valid for nuclear excitations
AE =
To
in
kB T
<
kM
<
avoid unphysical shapes with 5
< 0, to the potential

8 > 0. The strength V
30-40
0,
MeV e E Fc
(81)
forces the system to
energy.
shape with
has negligible influence on the
we have introduced
regions of different densities p
(83b)
from continuity of energy flow:
\VQ &
a potential of constraint
It
~a){v -a) + p
formula used
added, for 5
Since
flow:
Mpitei-Mvt-fy+pi Mp^v
For higher temperatures
T as well (Sch-74b). The

AE for which
TFttmi =
momentum
the excitation energy per particle
for small temperatures.
one has to include higher terms

here
is
from continuity of
/t)
Uh-<i) + Piii\-<i)
2
[iM(ro-a) +vF
(f
-)
+Pofa>-<>).
]/;
83c )
is
results.
and p
assume a
following boundary conditions along the surface between pi and
BMU- -a) 2 +W ]p
After
some manipulations,
these equations lead to the relation (shock
equation of Hugoniot and Rankine (Hu-87, Ra-70))
the
have
(Pi+PojfJ
'-^W-Wol
(84)
to hold (Sch-74a, b):
[pU~\
0,
[pUMt + pn] =
0,
[pU{\M
+ W) + pc
n]
0.
(82)
The pressure p
brackets [/] denote the discontinuity of the quantity / across the
=
surface, Le. [/] = fi~f , n is the unit vector on the surface, and U
is
related to the density of the potential energy according to
The
d-ii-G, where
is
the speed of advance of the surface. In our special case
dH'
dp
= JV-/>3)+*i"V.
constant entropy
2po
(85)
436
From
eqs. (82)
it
[CH, 12, 10
ch.
NIH
12. S 10]
The calculations are carried out
follows that
of he model are chosen as

i
T*
T
P =
b
8
sibility
~~
Po
\2
-Po)
0>i
Pl/Po"
77-
(86)
l-Pi/4/o
= 4p
dependence of the functional
which shows that the temperature becomes very high near the pole p
This pole depends on the ansatz
on p and
T.
coordinates
Because the velocity
field is
100
\K
MKKK
I6
for
-Mr
0-
WW IS
16
437
scattering.
The two parameters
MeV. which corresponds
MeV, and p -
to a
0.138 fm J (see eq.
compres-
The
(41)).
compression p, =2p in the surface zone does not influence the

results, as can be seen from p,(f) in fig. 31. The initial conditions for all other
coordinates a, r and b are determined by eqs. (73), (87), and (88).
initial
for the
K=
constant
C=
Fig. 31
shows the
results for the time
dependence of r,
a, h, rem .,
and p
.
}
MeV
already given as a function of the
and r, the above eqs. (83) connect the velocities &, h, and r.
we only fulfill these equations at the points z = +a, x= y =
a, b,
For simplicity
and obtain
ie
.BOOMe^/
|_2
where
cs
=(C M) 1
is
pa \
4 -/>,//>
the velocity of
This indicates that the coordinate a
first
is
ll
yj
<r
sound, with the nucleon mass M,
not an independent degree of freedom
model. For p x = p and r = 0, a is obviously moving with the velocity

of sound c,. Since r is negative, a can also be negative for p % = p and
in this
c,
<
|f/2|.
In this case the
be
motion of the residual nucleus pushes the overlap
OJ
5fcmN
zone towards higher density.
The
total energy of the system.
a
(88)
poo
show
curves
has to be constant
fulfill
in time,
i.e.
d/dr
= 0. The
it
the contribution from thermal energy.
solutions of eq. (88) must
the additional condition (87), which serves as an equation of motion.
Introducing the
momenta pk = E m u q
t
the three equations of motion to be
dE/dq 3 + p 3
{dEjdq x
+p
Here rcmi means the distance between centers of mass of the two halves ofthc
fig. 29a). Clearly, the model can only be used as long as
%r+R > a is fulfilled. Obviously the radius a(r) increases with nearly constant
nucleus system (see
solved are
)q 1
+(dE/dq 2 + p 2 )q 2
d^/d(
=
=
=
velocity, in contrast to b(t)
0,
means
(89)
0,
0,
of the two nuclei,
which increases
faster for higher energies.
is
for large energies the density p, first increases rapidly
(eq. (87))
This
pushed outwards perpendicular to the relative motion

as we have assumed in section 12.8 (see fig. 25). Note that
that matter
slowly at larger times.
with
The lime dependence of the geometrical parameters ofthc compression zone and
the compression density therein, (b) The potential energy as function of the center-of-mass
distance, (c) The dependence of the potential eompression energy per nucleon. The
dashed
Fig. 31. (a)
l.k
12
The
fast
increase in the beginning
and then decreases

is the development
of the shock wave of the compressed nuclear density. The results are clearly
independent of the initial conditions. The motion along the direction of the
collision axis proceeds
$ = Ui-4a+c*
2
Po\
Po
4-p,/p
JA
always with the same velocity, namely the velocity
^,
438
of
sound, c s
first
in the
31c presents the potential energy per nucleon
Fig.
[CH. 12, 10
ellipsoidal region and the contribution of thermal excitation to
it.
Fig.
31b
shows that at very high collision energy the relative amount of potential
compression and thermal energy
small (10
is
while at energies which correspond to the

large
amount
of internal
sound velocity a
first
APPENDIX A
of the collision energy),
and compression energy
is
relatively
observed (70% of the
collision energy).
According to
effects
this discussion
it
should show up in the strongly energy-dependent nucleus nucleus
and hard cores, which can be deduced from the

scattering excitation functions. These strong cores
inelastic
compression
in
the
effects, (b) internal excitation
potential have three causes:
(a)
(here treated as temperature),
and (c) coordinate-dependent
collective
and perpendicular
to
it
at higher energies
should be observable
the angular distribution of the reaction products relative to the
beam
in
axis.
We mention briefly that these shock waves may have an important possible
application since energyfree pion production* and pionizalion of matter
may occur in
at this time
interest
these superdense zones of nuclear matter. Very
about
this very exciting subject.
and speculation [Sch-74a,
b,
It is
little is
Approximation
masses
and the associated mass flow in the collision. Of course, the pronounced
occurrence of the shock wave along the direction of collision at lower
energies
Vibrations of a
Nucleus in the Hydrodynamical
clastic
potentials with soft
and
Energy of the Classical Surface
seems obvious that the compression
known
presently a subject of great
Lee- 74],
We
present here an example of the calculation of the inertia and stiffness

parameters entering the collective Hamiltonian for surface vibrations from
classical nuclear
the
first
elementary particle physics and
most exciting
future aspects, however,
stable superheavy elements
we
is
Perhaps one of the
the possibility of creating rather
by bombardment of very heavy
will investigate further in
Volume
ions.
This topic
As
a model
problem
we choose
that which
(FI-41, Fi-43),
was
historically
namely the irrotational
We assume that the collective motion of nucleons in nuclei

can be described as the irrotational flow of a fluid. The density q of the
fluid will
by
field theory.
this
flow model.
be taken constant over the nucleus. The nuclear surface
eq. (2.1)
is
described
and thus the deviations from a spherical shape can be written
We thus see that heavy ion physics ranges from nuclear molecules to the
determination of basic nuclear quantities, such as the nuclear compressibility, and into a great number of very exciting considerations in nuclear
fission,
model.
approach to
AR =
R(9, <p)-R
=R
a ^ ^(9,
cp).
(1)
We
assume furthermore that the change of the nuclear shape is caused by

the irrotational flow of nuclear matter. Therefore the velocity of a volume
element can be described by a velocity potential 4* according to
3 of this series, after carrying out an

p
V<P.
(2)
extensive discussion of microscopic approaches to nuclear structure theory.
For constant density over
the nucleus one has
References
Several review articles
written (Zu-60, Er-60, Bo-62, Fl-64, Gr-65, Al-68, Th-68).
of work in this area
on various aspects of heavy-ion physics have been

is
The current
status
= V2 # =
and 1969 {He-66, Bo-69),
in Nashville in 1974 (Ro-74),

*
(3)
with the most general solution of the form
best surveyed by reference to recent conference
proceedings, in particular the conferences in Brookhaven in 1965 (Ho-65),

in Heidelberg in 1966
0,
and
in
in Berkeley in
Because the gap between particle and antiparticle
Munich
in
1974 (Schr-74).
level vanishes.
(4)
1973 (de B-73),

at the origin r =
has been required, and r, 9, <p are the
polar coordinates of an arbitrary volume element of the nucleus. At the
Here regularity
43V
ENERGY OF THE CLASSICAL SURFACE VIBRATIONS OF A NUCLEUS
440
we
surface of the sphere
require that
dR(&,
eqs. (1)
A]
where
AS
is
the change of the surface
(5)
If the
nucleus deforms
If-Ho
(R Q
~*
R +AR)
is
(15)
= iVtfIU-i)(*+2)K,| 2
(16)
The change of the Coulomb energy with deformation can be
(7)
8KC = -J"c p *8pdT+ -(<pB ep *d%+
fc^S^'dT,
<p is
the
Coulomb
potential
and
e (0)=
<? p
the proton charge density. For
'
2/
+1
\dr
and
1
M-m m M) YLU -J&, h

<p)
(9)
is
llt
from
eq. (6)
QY*M
in the nuclear shape
5e p
2
-
(10)
It is easily
must be the
it
case. In order to calculate the
(12)
now- discuss the potential energy, which
shape of the nucleus.
It
consists of
Vs
describes the energy
due to
Vs =
(13)
TQ^-T^y^
Kq
(14)
in the potential 8-
Rq
related to the change of the
two terms,
V = VS +VC
where
is
0,
into spherical harmonics
8<p
We
(19)
nucleus
we expand
eV
AR
e p(0)J? o S(r-J?
checked that
()
parameters are given by
BA =
is
S^di =
as
inertia
one obtains
T = ilB,|dJ
where the
(18)
zero outside the nucleus. Hence the change in the charge density
due to a change
are the vector spherical harmonics, one easily finds
T = tR
simply
r /
where
I (L
is
i^h'
y7CK
(8)
(17)
and remembering the gradient formula (Ro-57)

spherical nuclei the proton charge density inside the nucleus
inserting
written
|V#| dT.
where
Then
the
given by
nucleus
M =
is
and therefore
^
The kinetic energy of the surface vibrations
Tj, l,
Vc
the nuclear surface changes by
AS = iVl(A-0(>l+2)K| 2
(6)
Integrating over the nucleus
the nucleus deforms.
the protons in the nucleus.
(4),
T-
when
ill
\or/
and
AFP.
Coulomb energy of
/3*\
/9#\
q>)
dt
and obtain, with
[AFF.
=Bo-o
coefficients
^
9r
forrSKo
Q
Xjl
=
F
= lt0+0
from the requirement
4jte p(0)AR.
(see
(21)
442
Using
eqs. (I)
and (20) one
one
this
readily obtains
4n Qp (0)R a \
**
Q^ =
With
[aPP.
(22)
2X+1
APPENDIX B
finds
e p *S<pdT
o,
The Rotation Matrices
(23)
UR ^2a+1
2J
For the computation of the second
of eq. (17) we write for the
integral
potential in a small surface layer
eZ
K (H-AR/Rq)
and
Rq/
We have seen in
find
^Mtm-gfTMr.
snR
2 J
(24)
to achieve this (Ro-57).
i,n
eqs. (17), (23)
and (24)
it
follows for the total
Coulomb energy
* ?zMw
AkR
+
i.k(2A
The
eqs. (16)
(25)
stiffness
It is
therefore desirable to present
is
two
steps.
We
ways
follow here a convenient procedure which
We show first that there
is
a correspondence between
unitary matrices and the three-dimensional rotations,
obtain a representation of the unitary group in
2j+
and secondly
dimensions. This
then identified with the (2/+ l)-dimensional representation of the rotation
group.
is
given from
Bl. Let us consider the unitary transformations on two variables Z, and
(25) as
y = iI.C x \*
where the
2x2
we
1)
potential energy for the surface vibrations of eq. (13)
and
that
momentum.
the explicit derivation which leads to eq. (5.146). There are several
consists of
From
Chapter 5 that the rotation matrices play a very important
role in the theory of angular
parameters
c A = a-i)
Cx
X)l
(26)
\\
Zi
Z2 =
are given by
(A + 2)
ff-
2-72
3^Z
2n(2X +
(27)
l)R<,
"i
Z[
+a jj
Z2
(0
a 2 i Zi +fl22Z2i
where the a u are complex numbers which fulfill the orthonormalily relations
&ij and Y* aai aa* ^y- We can thus write eq. (1) in matrix
Y* a bt a)a*
form
Higher-order terms in
a^ can
also be straightforwardly calculated. These
terms are of importance particularly for the
Coulomb energy
in
superheavy nuclei. Then, however, a more accurate method of computation
must be applied (Mo-68,
Z'
heavy and
where the unitary matrix
69).
W must
WZ
{2)
be of the form
-U M
(3)
which can alternatively be written as

a
e'
cos
ca,
44?
= e" sin
to,
(4)
ROTATION MATRICES
444
(aPP. B,
where the normalization condition |a] + |ft| = 1 is

transformation thus depends on the three parameters
2
We now
explicit.
& w and
The unitary
APP. B, I
ROTATION MATRICES
The determinant of a matrix
consider the effect of the unitary transformation denned by ft
on a general
2x2
matrix.
The most
general
2x2
matrix can be given as
ff.
It
Wi
x2 + y 2 + z2
Thus
\x+iy
22/
(5)
y-zj
det (&)
(11)
that
Therefore the matrix

2
unchanged under unitary transformations.
is
det {&')
a linear superposition of the unit matrix and the three Pauli matrices
{ff<r, ( ff,}
445
then follows from
It
tj.
which also would
(ift )
x'
+y' 2 + z' 2
is
excluded, since for a
The transformed matrix
&'
i( a
M2i+*n).
u+
a 22)*
=Kll-22)-
-ii(2i-u).
it
would have
to be for a reflection.
The
can also easily be established. If one puts
9j
(6)
as
one
reflection,
and
ft
it
Since the value of the determinant
continuous function of the parameters on which
follows that
(12)
(8) corresponds to a rotation.
satisfy eq. (12),
found that det
easily
is
$ in eq.
depends,
it
it
is
can never be
relation to the Euler angles
ox
which implies b
0,
finds
(cos 2?
sin 2{
Q\
-sin2
cos 2^
0|,
(13)
is
1/
= ft&W- sy'i + x'dx+y'^+z'd;.

1
$.'
It is clear
matrix
x\ /,
is
z'
(7)
y which states the well-known result that the trace of a

unchanged by unitary transformations. However, the quantities
that y'
depend on
which
is
ij
simply a rotation through 2 around the z-axis.
(cos 2<u
tix
x, y, z,
and i the corre'
which
x', y', z'.
is
simply a rotation through 2co around the
In fact the matrix elements of
Now, with
*--*-(
"3
(9)
where i,k
one
easily finds the matrix elements
of X?
explicitly:
=
Mn =
Af =
M^ =
Af,, =
M^ =
=
Af
M =
M =
Af
IJP
+ a* 2 -ft* 2 ) = cos 2 tocos 2- sin 2 m cos 2jj,

2
2
+ a* 2 + ft* 2 ) m cos 2 to cos 2f + sin 2 co cos 2ij,
i(a +
2
2
= cos 2 a> sin 2 a> = cos 2<u,
|a|
2
2
2
2
2
2
i(a* -a + ft* -ft ) = cos to sin 2 + sin o> sin 2q,
2
2
2
2
2
2
ai sin 2^+ sin a> sin 2if,
ii(a -a* + ft* ) = -cos
sin 2to sin (Z +
i(a* ft* a 6)
i(a*ft-a ft*) = sin 2 sin (
a ft* + 6 a* = sin 2 cos (^ -(a* ft* + oft) = -sin2tacos(?+jf).
(a -ft
"
is
'
ft
tj),
ij),
>j),
2,
lk
= iTT($ W&k #-
z.
obtained by transposing fk,
Since i&
~
i.e. Jfr
'
(15)
),
3 stand for x, y,
j>-axis.
can be expressed quite generally by
fit
is
a real orthogonal matrix,
iQ". It
and
(9) that this is equivalent to the replacements
and
t)
-*
rj.
follows
from
a-* a* and
ft-*
eqs. (3)
ft,
or
This can be checked explicitly in eqs. (10), (13) and
(14).
|ft|
ft
(14)
J,
cos 2co/
2w
sin
sponding vector with components
sin 2co\
1
(8)
where x denotes the vector with the components
one puts
one finds
x, y, z:
x'
If
Furthermore
(10)
The
identity
it is
&=
We now prove
matrix
evident that for every matrix fône can find a matrix J0,
corresponds to the 3 x 3 unit matrix,
i.e,
to the identity
the following: If
then /# 2 Jî results from
W2 W
ifr,
results
from
The statement
fflv
and J& 2 fr
î
from #t means
results
precisely that with
&
= yl+x-a
(16)
ROTATION MATRICES
446
[app. B, 2
the transformation
Iâfr*,
$!'
We
=W
'
Z/
(17)
NJm and
jfr, X.
and determine the constants
iS'
y I+x'-ff
&"
l+J& 2
x'*fr
Z2
**&**&*
are given by eqs. (1) to (3).
it
evident that i# 2 XJ t results from
is
FJm Fjm *.
(24)
+
(ZlZi7 "(ZiZ 2 *y-",
(25)
F'Jm F'jM *
W2 $v
This simply
We
means
and the same group, namely the rotation group.
The correspondence (isomorphism)

most
by inspection of eqs.
easily
(10),
changed simultaneously, the matrix X?

the same
Then by
it?,
same
the
i.e.
eqs. (10)
is
it
multiplets of n, while
r\
is
not one-to-one. This can be seen
Namely
is
if
the signs of
unchanged. Both tf'and
rotation. Let us consider for
necessary and sufficient that
may be
arbitrary.
a and b
example
and be
However, by eqs. (3) and
to
jfr
1.
integral
(4) this
#=
1. The rotation group is thus the smaller group, because it

has one element for every two elements of the two-dimensional unitary
group. This could already have been concluded from eqs. (13) and (14)
yields
Im
angles results in a change of

leads to the
B2.
same
We now
2rt
(/
in these latter
means
0, i, 1, J,
and construct a
is
the only invariant of eq. (1).
\NJm
It
which constitute a respresentation of the

ffi, eq. (3), there exists a
with the same group properties, Le. there
+ |Z2
this
if
Z, and
Z2
(26)
the unitary property eq. (24)
is fulfilled
a function of |Z;|
in eq, (25) is
can be achieved only
if
(25)
is
+ |Zi| 2
a polynomial of
2
\
the binomial theorem
(ZiP+IZy
and therefore one must have
\NJm
From
Thus
sum
total
jgs:
(W+l
^lUfm)l(j-myr\
it
(27)
then follows that
W iW
=
a
+ |Z a ) =
are irrelevant here
I \FM \\ (28)
are transformed according to eq. (1).
It is
imme-
and we have
z/^z^-"
Fim =
(29)
((i+m)!(j-m)!)+*
and
similarly for F'

im . Inserting eq. (1) into eq. (23)
" Jm
2j
it" hi
we obtain
]*>'
and the matrices AK The trivial

an isomorphism between the matrices
where A = 1. The problem
case is A* = (^. Even simpler is the case/' =
is to define (2j+ 1 ) functions of Z x and Z 2 which will undergo unitary transis
formations
such that the
is
obvious that
is
|ZJ[
set
that for any matrix

)
+W -
if
The phases of FJwi
2
|
in the rotation angles and, consequently,
turn to the second part of our argument
unitary group. This
AJ
Thus a change of n
rotation.
of (2j+ 1 )-dimensional matrices

matrix
(4)),
Im |Wim
frf
# (see eqs. (3) and
WouB
which show that the Euler angles are twice the angles which appear n the
unitary matrices
are
Jf'give
m-J
then note that
3) & matrices are representations of one
that the (2 x 2) Jlând (3
The
(20)
yl+Aîf^x-*,
=-/
from which
(23)
normalization constants
are then fixed by requiring
yl + Jft, x-*,
+ *"* =
(22)
F'Jm
where ZJ and
for a normalization constant
Jm such that the linear transformations for the

are unitary. Consider
FJm
9)
thus can write
We allow
(21)
F = AT^Z/ + -Z 2 J -",
(18)
m rfjrfiarV'rV = (*2 *l)$l *iF '
-j&m&j,
Z 2 '-",
write
functions
1
+m
undergo linear transformations.
will
successive transformations one has
&'W2
=yl + x'-ff
such that
i'
Now applying two
-1
447
monomials
diately clear that the (2J+ 1)

&'
defines a matrix
ROTATION MATRICES
APP. B, 2]
-EK-iV -- '
+ m)!(i-m)!]*
s!s'!(/ + m~s)!(/~m-s')!
[(j
xa j + m-i *? f.*j-m ''bt Z l 2J t -'Z 2 ' +J'
(30)
Iapp. B, 2
ROTATION MATRICES
448
Remembering now that 1/w! = for n < we need not specify the limits of
the sums in eq. (30): AH summation indices can range over all positive and
negative integerSj since
= js~s'
m'
all
extra terms thereby introduced vanish. Setting
we obtain
in eq. (30)
lU+m)l(j-m)\f
s\(Jsm')\(j + m s)l(m'+sm)\
J^ = EE(-i) M' + sm
xa J + m-s*j-m'
'b'Zi
with the rotations in the three-dimensional space which are defined by the
three Euler angles
matrices
and
#i5 2 ,S 3
-A
5?
The
j + m'y j m*
(31)
tfi-Ml'Yl*
[U + mV.tJ-m)l(j+my.U-m')]
S ](j-s-m'y.(j+m-s)l(m'+s-m)l
+.-
The transformation matrix
,
K
'
.r (
r
xa J * n-'a* i
where
A{,. m
matrices
AJ
-j|g j and
lV
}
-m
B J We
matrices
where
'
+ '- M
gm'5
j.
An'm("l
t
,
Hence
the matrices
Am m
.
have the
(M)
require s
and
A2
are derived from #, and
respectively according to (33), then the product
W2
same sense from fft
A,A 2
The correspondence of
however, not one-to-one. If a and b change sign,

multiplied by the phase factor
(-1) 2/ which
is
and conclude that for

concerned.
&*
'cosiS 2 e-liSa
*'sini9 2 e-*
= A3 and
,
(36)
*3
,
in detail
2* 3)
g-Jm'Sig-i"!*]
x(cos>a 2)
~ 1^ [(j+ m) \{j-m)\ ( j+ m')\ (j- -)!]*

s!0"-5-m')!(J + m-s)!(m'+s-m)!
2J+B - '- 2l
ffl
(-sini9 2 )
m '" ffl+
(37)
is
namely
for integer j
(38)
2*
is
invariant under interchange of m'
ffi2
matrices
elements of
= di. m îl
and m accompanied by a change

in sign for both m and m'. Furthermore, from the unitarity property of the
l#ltl
one has
rotational operator e"
i.e.
determined in the
# and
all
derived,
dLJLh)
= diU-^l
(39)
is,
are
and -1 for
because the inverse operator
tSltj
is
just e
and since rotations are unitary,

Thus dl m ,(-& 2 )
the inverse operator has to equal the Hermitian adjoint.
obtained by transposing the indices and taking the complex conjugate

of di m -(& 2 ). Since d m is real, the last operation is unnecessary. Now,
m '~ a
t
by replacing S 2 by -S 2 in (5.148) one obtains a phase change (-l)
is
recall the results
ambiguity in
il
di. m (9 2 )
half-integer j.
We now
liS
e-
=e
finds
= m respectively so that the factorial function makes sense. We can

conclude from our result in eq. (33) that for every two-dimensional matrix
W, eq. (3), there is one and only one (2/+l)-dimensional matrix A given
A
One then
One can choose
is in agreement with eqs. (5.143) and (5.146).

Actually from eqs. (5.146) and (5.148) a very important relation can be
so because the factors if and b*'
two matrices
(35)
This
n '* s ~ m
eq. (33). Also, if
They
which yields the
0,
and m'
by
1.
(33)
4,.$**,
is
and
a unitary matrix and a and b are arbitrary.
therefore
j there are two
^respectively.
can write
+ m)!a-m)!0 + m')!0-m')l]*
s!(j-s-m')!(;+m-s)!(m' + s-))!
dimension (2/+1). In the special case a = 1 and 6

unity matrix in eq. (3), we find from eq. (33) that
as expected. This
is
[(j
'-b* m
-j
is
thus define a two-to-one correspondence with the
(32)
introduced in eq. (30)
and
rotation group. These are just the properties required of the rotation
&-0ZW-
(_1)
half-integer
I?'
thus correspond to the same transformation matrix J&. The matrix i# on

the other hand defines the Euler angles within trivial multiples of 2n of the
angles.
'+>- m ,
xa J+m -'a* J m -'b* m
b FJm ..
A j"'"
However, for
which correspond to
and by use of eq. (29)

Fjm
449
ROTATION MATRICES
APP. B, 2]
We
is
of
we obtained
integer j there
no
is
in the first
one matrix
part of our argument

for each rotation.
The
relevance as far as the definition of the rotation
thus have a one-to-one correspondence of the matrices
is
U.
du-9
2)
= (-ir--dU 2 ),
(40)
ROTATION MATRICES
450
and therefore
eq. (39)
[APP. B, 2
becomes
rfi--(2)
C-ir'""rfi--(Sa).
(41)
APPENDIX C
This combined with eq. (38) yields
dLJLh) = (" IF- <*'-* -Jfa
Now
(42)
the inverse of the rotation operator R, eq. (5.140),
R~\S
Thus the
S a S3)
,
inverse rotation
is
eêê *
is
simply
1 *.
Diagonalization of the
(43)
Triaxially
accomplished by performing the rotations
through negative angles about the same axes but
in
Model Hamiltonian
opposite order to eq.
We
use of the unitarity of the rotation operator,
which means that the matrix elements of S.' 1 are identical with those of
(5.140).
can now make
the Hermitian adjoint
A -1 = R* = f
Deformed
Shell
in
Cylindrical Coordinates
or explicitly
The
Om'[A- |J>-Om|*Um'>*.
triaxially
deformed
model Hamiltonian follows from
shell
eqs. (9.5)
Using the definition of the ^-matrices, eqs.

eq. (44) in the following
(44)
(5.50), (5.142),
we can
and
(9.62),
and
is
given by
rewrite
ft
way
= -
or according to eqs. (5.143) and (39)
=
=
iffl
49
Sj
2 )e
<&,(-
'"rfL.(S 2 )e
,Sl "
the
we now
+ im(tf x
(46)
(o
m -..(Si S 2 S 3 ),
i
1
)
(i)
intrinsic
QiQ
fx{a ,a 2 ) =
>
a>z
(47)
-(*)-* o+(AKr*z'
fl
- .//-.,,) - _
l
system, from eq. (9.4),
analogous procedure to that which led to eq. (9.63) we have, in the
^"'
readily obtain
= ( l) m
V +avV +/*'
V1
o)x
use of eq. (42)
term has been corrected by taking only the deviations from its
average value in the JVth oscillator shell (see section 8.3). Following an
Here
'
= Di B .*(9,,S 2 ,9,).
By
V'
+ct"-i'+D<i" 2 -<|r 2 |>).
(45)
DL-J.-9,. -2, -i)
2m
ft>
mr ^. iM -u
'
(2)
/I (a ,a 2) =
and therefore
where volume conservation, eq.
(9.74),
immediately leads to
(48)
This relation has been used quite often
in
Chapters 5 to
- *(fcMr*
( 3)
7.
which
is
the generalized
form of
eq.
(9.75).
Introducing dimensionless
coordinates
(4)
4SI
TRIAXIALLY DEFORMED SHELL MODEL KAMJLTONIAN
452
one obtains for
*,- **.
[APP.
eq. (I)
[/.
(- ,
*)*,(=*
+^ (-*,-)]
+ Cl.*+D(l 1 -<|1 1 |U
is
TRIAXIALLY DEFORMED SHELL MODEL HAMILTONIAN
C]
(5)
t>
an approximation which has been extensively discussed by Nilsson
(Ni-55) and can be justified by the purely model character of the I '-dependent
terms in eq.
(1).
We now
transform to cylindrical coordinates
(p, z, <p)
and
All other matrix elements vanish.

1
N = Np + Nz
(6)
eq, (5)
as good
Q, but
becomes
follows in particular that the
It
and
terms have
put
Then
453
<N,-2N,+2A\P\N F N,A> m l(Np -A)(Np +A)(Nt + l)(Nz +2)f,

<Np +2N z -2A\t 2 \Np Nx Ay = l(N p +A + 2)(N,-A+2)N,(N t -l)p,
(N P N Z A P N Nz Ay = A 2 +2NX NP +2N Z + Np
(11)
<N,-\ Nt + iAir\1-$lNp NI AZ>=il(Np Â)(N1 + iy]K
<N +lN I -iAlX'\hS\Np Nl AZy = ti(N p A+2)Nx,
(Np Nz AI\l-$\Np Nz AEy = A- Z.
I
Here the angular momentum operator V defined in the x'/z'-space has been
replaced by the analogous angular momentum operator I in xj>z-space.
This
APP.
8'
and
Q A+Z
quantum numbers. The operator 8 ', eq.
still
conserves
(8),
mixes states of different
iv".
has to be diagonalized in the basis set given in eq.
of this basis
set is
(12)
(9).
always i(Af+ l)(iY"+2), By use of the
The dimension
virial
theorem one
readily obtains for the matrix elements of fi'i
+8'+Cl-i+D(P-<\l i \> K)
<WV|fl'|JV> =
After transforming
(8)
part of
fl,
is
x y
into cylindrical coordinates one has
*.ir.-
*,/ (-r) {5^+2 [(^-/i)(JVp +^ + 2)]*
The choice of
t
(9)
the basis set given in eqs. (9)
(14)
and (10) has two
advantages over the spherical basis set used in section 9.4 which
where \zy
is
the spin eigenfunction
in polar coordinates.
and
Hamiltonian, eq.
|/i>
(2n)-*e MT
L(r(M|
+n+1 )) 3 J
in eqs. (11)
(10)
p'-'^V).
Here we have put n = |(A/p-|/l|). The functions j*' are the Laguerre
polynomials and the functions
Nt (z) are the Hermite polynomials (see
section 8. 2b in this connection). For the matrix elements of the /-dependent
terms of eq.
(7),
one easily obtains
First,
is
distinct
expressed
the complete axially symmetric part of the
(1), including the
'-dependent terms,
is
diagonal in N,
Second, the basis in eq. (9) leads to the very simple matrix elements given
l^-CViJv.^']"**"* 1 ^-.^).
|JV1>
(13)
+&a-a-i K*-/i+2)(JV,+il)]*}.
diagonal in the basts states
\N,N,Ar> = \N,A>\A>\N t '>\Z>
ilTp N',A>l&'\N,N.Ay
first
2
z
fd <N<t'[x -y \N<iy.
(7)
where
The
& N N-tim
Gordan
and
(14),
coefficients.
which do not involve the computation of Clebsch-
Therefore a diagonalization of B, p
is
achieved about
ten times faster in the basts eq. (9) than in a spherical basis using polar
coordinates.
APP.
455
DENSITY DISTRIBUTION IN NUCLEI
DJ
-Jjdr
and
(4)
APPENDIX D
/
Then
the condition
hp&t= -e(K)4nR 2 SR.
5E =
The Density Distribution
leads to an equation for the potentials
Q+
V1+V2+
q v
in Nuclei
eZ
A
<P
constant,
(5)
and to the boundary condition

[Derivation of the differential equations
(1
2.35) to (12.37)]
e(R)
We
vary the binding energy of eq. (12,31),
(1)
Here
i^,
and
(6)
and
(6) to calculate the density
These equations can be
satisfied
by the general
aj;"o(3t,r).
;
q.
ansatz
with respect to the density
i!
use the system of eqs. (2), (4), (5)
distribution of a nucleus.
We
are the

fP
- k-r'|/ni
-fn
n-^ r
')
(2a)
dT '-
and
-33^
The first term in eq.

(2b)
{;<>(
r)-e- R/" (cos R +
- sin Jt)
/,
(i
-\\
(8)
(8) solves the inhomogeneous differential equation (1 2.36);
the second term only satisfies
its
homogeneous
part. In eq. (5) the
sums
of the homogeneous solutions and the sums of the inhomogeneous solutions
Assuming a surface
at r
= R we
must separately vanish. By requiring
obtain
that the
sum of
parts of the potentials vanish, the parameters x
g+^l + ^2+
J \e v
+ (_-
fl
<P|
Vd
an equation which
is
cubic in (
-^
W)47iR
r
2
inhomogeneous
are fixed as the roots of
2*
*
Vi
(R) + * I (Ji) + f I (j{) +
+ ^(eo Z
2go \
the
Bo"
cp(R))
~z
2
fi l
+a 2
l
2
fi 2
+a
2
i
+4rc
\a)
(9)
2
e(R)4nR 5R
6K.
(3)
The roots are in general complex.

Demanding that the homogeneous solutions of the two Yukawa potentials also vanish we get two relations for the parameters a,-:
(10)
We insert the subsidiary condition of constant particle number

454
1=1
456
(AFP.
and
with
= =
F(ft, )
third equation for a t
xR H
sin
(l
xR
be expressed as functions of the nuclear radius
solving the linear equations (10)
and
(11). Inserting the parameters
we finally obtain an equation

only unknown variable:
the normalization condition eq. (4)

the nuclear radius appears as the
A =
This
last
The
equation
is
47ii?
to be solved
in
If
a in
simplified,
we
!*) =
0.
x,R
a+Rifi)(i-u
P =
(15b)
'
2
)
(16)
sinh(i;R/Li)
restrict further considerations to large radii R, the density
-;)'''-""
< r) . H i=u iM
\-ft{\-v)j(Rv)
which
(12)
by an
* +
cosh(i>R/Lt) + u
R by
"i./i(|Jt)
i=i
(cosh
This leads to
(6)
(11)
The numbers a can
+ *) -
pux
boundary condition
the
is
cos
+or
fi
457
APP. D]
can be
17)
The surface thickness t, defined as the distance in which the density falls
from 90 to 10 % of its central value q(0), is given in the above approximation
as
iteration procedure.
density distribution (7) can be simplified for the special cases
^(!nlO + ln(l-tO).
(18)
Z>0
Z =
v2 =
v2
As an
example, and
*0
in
a3
a,
order to get more insight,
Yukawa
= W
*0
is
we
According to
eqs. (9)
vfeo
(13)
satisfies
1 ,P(sinhar)/ar
qq v
(14)
l-P(sinhaR)/aR
and (10) the parameters x and
have to
fulfill
the
relations.
Q V
+ --2
M
~ 2
0,
6(0)
3
ie fjtR -A]
A + yA*,
(19)
present the density
no Coulomb and asymmetry
For the density we apply the following ansatz which automatically

the boundary condition at the surface r = R:
g(r)
A+C
volume and surface parts
with the constant of the surface energy
splits into
Co
force. Eq. (12.38) for v reduces to
3t|#0
distribution for the special case where there
energy and only one
o3
The binding energy
(15a)
(20)
v
References
General references for an introduction to nuclear physics:
deB-64
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H. D. Jensen, Phys. Rev. 79 (1959) 1019.
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N. L. Lark and R. M. Diamond, Nucl. Phys. 63 (1965) 82.
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St-68
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G. Sucssmann, Z. Physik 139 (1954) 543. [2]
A. Swift and L. R. B. Elton, Phys. Rev. Letters 17 (1966) 484.
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L Talmi and A. de Shalit, Nuclear Shell Theory (Academic
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J.
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T. D. Thomas, Ann. Rev. Nucl.
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A. Tipler, P. A. Axel, P. Stein and D. C. Sutton, Phys. Rev. 129 (1963) 2096.
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M. Foley and W. Low, Phys. Rev. 76 (1949)

H. A. Tolhoek, Physica 21 (1955) 1. [2]
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C. Toepffer, Eintcilchenzustdnde in deformierten Kernen (Diplomarbcit, Phys.

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W, R. Hering,
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12.7, 12.8, 12.9]
[1.1]
Solf,
413. [9.1]
Sp-59a
W.
Scheid, R, Ligensa and
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471
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Sci-72
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Sh-56
R. K. Sheline, Nucl. Phys. 2 (1956) 382.
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Ub-66
H. Uberall, Nuovo Cimento Suppl. 4 (1966) 781.
Sh-6la
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Ur-66
T. D. Urbas and
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Sk-66
S. J.
Sh-68
Si-57
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Letters 19 (1967) 369. [Intro., 12.2, 12.5, 12.9. 12.10]
Sl-60
Skorka,
J,
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L. J. Slater, Confluent Hypergeometric Functions
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W. G.
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R. K. Smither, Phys. Rev. 124 (1961) 183.
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Ann. Rev. Nucl.
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F. Villars, Nucl. Phys. 3 (1957) 240. [2]
Vi-58
F. Villars,
Vo-60
E.
Sci.
7 (1957) 185.
Ann. Phys. 5 (1958) 244.
[2]
[2]
Vo-69
W. Vogt and H. McManus, Phys. Rev. Letters 5 (1960) 518. [12.5]

U. C. Voos, W. von Oertzcn and R. Bock, Nucl. Phys. A135 (1969) 207.
[12.8]
Wa-45
G. N. Watson, Theory of Bessel Functions, 2nd
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Press,
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Sni-eib
112.
[1
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Vi-57a
[6.3]
Sm-61a
I.
W.
JETP
16 (1963)
Wa-55
Wa-58
Wa-63
A. H. Wapstra, Physica 21 (1955) 367, 385. [12.6]

A. H. Wapstra, in Handbuch der Physik 38 (Springer, Berlin, 1958) 1 [8.5, 12.6J
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.
2180. [3,3]
472
We-65
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We-67
Subject Index
1397. (II. 10]
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Wei-51
V. F. Weisskopf, Phys. Rev. 83 (1951) 1073.
Wi-31
E.
[1.2]
Wi-33a
Wigner, Gruppentheorie (Vieweg, Braunschweig, 1931) 180, 252.

E. P. Wigner, Phys. Rev. 43 (1933) 252. [10.12]
Wi-33b
E. P Wigner, Z. Physik 83 (1933) 253. [10.12]
Wi-55
W. Wild,
P.
Sitz. ber.
[5.6]
Math. Naturw. Kl. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. Munchen (1955).
[11.9]
Wi-59
E. P. Wigner,
Group Theory and
Atomic Spectra (Academic

Wi-60
D. H. Wilkinson,
Press.
Wo- 54
R. D.
Wo-68
Wy-60
Wy-65
C. Y.
P. J.
J.
New
in
Application to the
its
New
Press,
York, 1959).
Nuclear Spectroscopy, F. Ajzenberg-Selove, ed. (Academic
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[1.2]
Woods and D. S. Saxon, Phys. Rev. 95 (1954)

Wong, Phys. Letters 260 (1968) 120. [12.1]
Wyatt,
J.
G. Wilts and A. E.
M. WyckofT,
Quantum Mechanics of
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B. Ziegler,
H.
S.
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[8.1, 8.3]
Green, Phys. Rev. 119 (I960) 1031.
W. Koch and
[9.8]
Absorption 279
Absorption cross section, classical 301 ff
Absorption cross section, electric dipole
280, 381, 383
Absorption cross section, electric quadru-
ple
R. Uhlig, Phys. Rev. 137 (1965)
576. [11.10]
121, 124
281
Absorption cross
378ff, 382
section,
experimental
Y. Yoshizawa, Phys. Letters 2 (1962) 261. [3,3]
Zi-58
B. Ziegler. Z. Physik 152 (1958) 566. [11.10]
Zi-60
B, Ziegler, Nucl. Phys. 17 (1960) 238,
Zu-60
A. Zuckcr, Ann. Rev. Nucl.
Zu-65
R. Zurmuhl, Praktisclte Malhematik,
Sci.
231
Absorption cross section of y-radiation

279, 319ff, 350
Absorption cross section, theoretical 382
[11.10]
10 (1960) 27. [12]

5.
Aufl. (Springer, Berlin, 1965) 41
[12.3]
Angular momentum, commutation
rela-
tions with respect to body-fixed system 97
Absorption cross section, magnetic dipole
Yo-62
Angular momentum 96ff, 237

Angular momentum, commutation relations for 96ff, 237
Angular momentum, commutation relations in r-space and Eulcr angle space
Absorption ofy-radiation 279, 319ff

-dependence of giant resonance frequen.(4
Angular momentum, commutation relations with respect to lab system 98

Angular
momentum
contained
in
heavy
ions 389
Angular momentum, D
as eigenfunctionsof 122ff
Angular momentum eigenfunctions, D.
functions as 122ff
cies 279, 298ff
Angular
/1-depcndence of oscillator frequency 202
^-dependence of shell model oscillator 202

Adiabaticity between collective and singlepar tide motion 231
Adiabaticity between surface vibrations
and density fluctuations 332
Adiabaticity in heavy ion reactions 390,
413. 419
Admixture of 3 gion states to giant resonances 377
Alaga-rule 166
a [tl -dependence of fluctuation densities 356

Amalgamation of heavy ions 389
a.m.u. (sec atomic mass unit) 409
Analysis of experimental data for spherical
nuclei 381
Angular momenta, coupling of, notation 43
momentum
formation under
Angular
momentum
in
rotations
trans-
of
15
heavy ion reactions
389
Angular
momentum
in r-space
and Eulcr
angle space 121
Angular
momentum
in
terms of Enter
angles 96
Angular momentum matrix elements,

phase convention for 114
Angular momentum of core 237
Angular momentum of gions 318
Angular momentum of individual particles 237
Angular momentum of phonon 50, 53
Angular momentum operator 96fl", 107ff,
114, 121ff
473
eigenvectors,
finite
474
Angular
momentum
operator in collective
Angular
momentum
tion relations
of
operators,
96ff,
commuta-
23?
1
fixed system 961T

Angular momentum with respect to lab
system 96ff
Anharmonicity effects on giant resonances
385
Anharmonicity of quadrupole vibrations
56
Anti-pairing effect, Coriolis 181
Application of dynamic collective model
362
(asymmetric rotator model) I68ff
ARM, ^-vibrations in the 178

ARM, comparison with the RVM 179,
ARM, E2-transition probabilities in
181
the
176ff
system, angular
with respect to 96ff
Body-fixed coordinate system, commuta-
Asymmetric rotator model
(see
momentum
339ff,
for density distribu-
for
the
two
fluid
I50IT,
Basic symmetry transformation 76

Bcssel functions 1 85fi", 297ff, 323, 335ff
band
150, 157, 370
^-vibrations 144ff, 25 Iff, 346

^-vibrations in the
178
ARM
Binding energy 409

Binding energy as a function of nuclear
number 413
Blocking effect 181
Body-fixed coordinate system (see also
intrinsic coordinate system and principal
axis coordinate system) 921T
quadrupole 3
IT,
sentation of 35, 308ff
coordinates,
time
derivatives
of 92, 312, 338

Collective coordinates, transformation properties
475
Commutation
relations
of gion operators
42
Commutation
relations of
phonon opera-
tors 41
Comparison of RVM and ARM 179ff

Complex nuclei. Coulomb interaction
between 391
Compressibility, nuclear 417, 430
356, 439
Collective
system 38, 285, 305, 309, 311, 333ff

Branching ratios I65ff
Breit-Wigner resonance 322
Brcmsslrahlung spectrum 276
of 30ff
Compression
Compression
Compression
Compression
energy 413, 434
energy modulus 414

energy modulus, etfective 422
of nuclear matter 43 IT, 4371'f
1
Conservation of center of mass 32

Contact distance of ions VP
Collective correlations 371
Continuity equations 285
Canonically conjugate momenta 40, 332

Canonically conjugate momenta for collective coordinates 40, 332
Carbon-carbon molecule 407
Cartesian solutions of harmonic oscillator
189
Cauchy's theorem 299
Collective energy surface 70(T
Coordinate system, body-fixed 92ff
Collective Hamiltonian 43
Coordinate system,
C-"C
Collective motion 7
Change
in
operators 48, 317
sum
sum
moment
rule,
surface
Classical
solutions 296
vibrations 30ff,
I27ff,
439ff
Classical surface vibrations, kinetic energy
Classical surface vibrations, potential ener-
gy of 441
Classical treatment of heavy ions 388
Collective and singe-particle degrees of
freedom, decoupling of 141, 256
Collective and single particle motion,
ad a bat city between 231
Collective coordinates 29ff
Collective coordinates, canonically conjugate momenta for 40, 332
i
Collective coordinates, dipolc 3 Iff

Collective coordinates, dipole
quadrupole
energy
surface,
quadrupole energy surface,

schematic model of 82ff
Collective variables, angular momentum
operator in 59ff, 318
Collective variables, giant resonance energies in terms of 314
Collective
exhaustion of 280, 303
moment
32,37
Collective coordinates, octupole 3 Iff
in
Collective
Coordinates, collective (see collective coorcurvilinear
(see
curvilinear
coordinates) 128, I36ff

dinates) 36, 337
Core, angular
momentum of 237
Coriolis anti-pairing effect 131

Coriolis force 255
geometric symmetries of 79ff
rule 303
Coordinate system, principal axis 35
Coordinates, intrinsic (sec intrinsic coor-
86
Collective
401
I03ff,
dinates) 29ff
Collective quadrupole energy surface 79ff,
ff
Iff,
Coordinate system, space-fixed 92 ff
Coordinates,
pendence of 58
Classical absorption cross section 301
Collective kinetic energy in terms of phonon
Collective potential energy surface 70iT
mean square deformation 64
Classical dipolc
10311'
Collective multipolc operators, state de-
57IT
Classical differential scattering cross section
Classical
Collective kinetic energy in terms of Eulcr
angles and intrinsic variables
intrinsic 36, 7
335, 394
356ff
53
Centrifugal parameter
Collective kinetic energy 45, 103ff
Collective multipolc operators 56, 3181T,
of 440
54ff
Bands, rotational and vibrational

405 AT
coordinates,
70ff
Collective coordinates, surface 30ff, 330,
tion function 415, 455
Boundary conditions
Classical
Band, ^-vibrational 150,157,370

Band, ^-vibrational 50, 56, 262ff, 370
Band mixing due to Coriolis force 257
Band mixing due to rotation-vibration
resonances 37, 314, 331, 337ff

Collective coordinates of the surface motion
30
Collective coordinates, rectangular repre-
344
Boundary conditions
Centrifugal potential 145
Asymmetry of nuclei 75
Asymptotic quantum numbers 249
Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) 409
Axial symmetry 36, 135, 172, 175, 241
Axial symmetry, departure from 259
Collective coordinates of giant multipolc
Collective
with respect to 97
Bom-Oppenhcimer approximation
Centrifugal effect
ARM)
168ff
^-vibrational
of angular
molecule 407
Center of mass, conservation of 32
Hamiltonian of the 168

wave functions of the 170
interaction
coordinate
tion relations
Angular momentum, representation of 15

Angular momentum, transformation properties of 61
Angular momentum with respect to body-
ARM,
ARM,
Body-fixed
momentum
variables 59ff, 318
ARM
SUBJECT INDtX
SUBJECT INDEX
wave
functions, symmetries of
78, 79, 147ff, 240ff
Collision time 393
Commutation relations of angular momentum 96ff, 237

Commutation relations of angular momentum in r-space and Euler angle space
121, 124
Commutation relations of angular momentum operators 96ff, 237

Commutation relations of angular momentum with respect to body-fixed system 97
Commutation relations of angular momentum with respect to lab system 98
Coriolis force,
Coulomb
Coulomb
Coulomb
band mixing due
barrier
3'JO.
to 257
42^
barrier, lowering
of 390
corrections for giant resonances
305
Coulomb
interaction
between
complex
nuclei 391
Coulomb
scattering amplitude 427
Coupling constants between surface

brations
and
vi-
giant resonances 333, 340,
373
Coupling constants, determination of 340IT

Coupling, Nordheim 273
Coupling of angular momenta, notation 43
Coupling scheme, Jensen-Mayer 203
Coupling scheme, seniority 3, 203, 205
1
Coupling, spin-orbit 192ff, 220ff

Coupling, strong 230, 236ft*
Coupling, weak 230, 232ff
Curvilinear coordinates 128, I36IF
Curvilinear coordinates, hydrogen
in 137
atom
SUBJECT INDEX
476
Curvilinear
in
coordinates,
element
Icnght
129
momentum
Curvilinear coordinates,
ope-
rators in 142
Curvilinear
coordinates,
quantization
in
Density, equilibrium 284,414
Effective compression
Density fluctuations and surface vibrations,

adiabaticity between 352
Density fluctuations, eigenmodes of 309ff
Effective deformation 165
Density fluctuations in a weakly deformed
128, 136
nucleus, normal
Curvilinear coordinates, volume element

in
129
for giant resonances
fsee also width of giant resonances) 281
states 405, 423
Decoupling of collective and single-particle

degrees of freedom 4 , 256
Decoupling parameter 2S6
Definition of 0-functions 102, 1 18, 449
Deformation, effective 165
Deformation energy 397
Del urination, mean square 62ff
Deformation of heavy ions 389ff
Deformation, oscillator frequency of 245,
248
Deformation reactions 389
Deformation, regions of 28
Deformation, volume conservation during
247
Deformed ions, Hamilton function for 401
1
Deformed nuclear potential 86ff

Deformed nuclei, dynamic collective model
for 3420"
nuclei,
even-even
of quadrupolc
moments
14ff
D-functions as angular
momentum
properties of 449IT
.^-functions, time derivatives of 102

Differential scattering cross section, classi-
cal 401
Dipolc absorption cross section, electric

280, 381, 383
281
Dipolc collective coordinates

Dipolc moment 10, 299
in
collective coordinates
nuclei,
odd-odd 270ff
ff
spectrum of giant dipotc
resonances in 349ff, 360ff
Deformed Saxon-Woods potential 269

Deformed shell model 230ff, 245ff
Deformed shell model extensions 268fT
Deformed shell model wave functions 250
Deformed shell model wave functions,
tables for 249
model wave functions, use
of tables for 249
Dipolc transitions, electric 22

Direct transitions 379
Distribution of nucleons 200ff
1
.
Double scattering experiment 22

Dynamic collective model 331 ff
Dynamic collective model, application of
362
269
Density distribution
Dynamic
function,
boundary
conditions for 415, 455

Density distribution in nuclei 200, 414, 454
cross
quadrupole operator
163,
356ff
quadrupole transitions 23
Electromagnetic transitions 18ff

Energies of dynamic collective model 345ff,
350ff, 354ff
Energy, compression 413
Energy, giant muttipolc 314, 338, 345ff,
collective
model
for
deformed
model
for
spherical
nuclei 342ff
collective
nuclei 37
Energy, pairing 41
Energy, phonon 50
Energy, potential collective 70ff
Energy, rotational 26, 103, 124,
Dynamic collective model, wave functions

and energies of 345 ff
E2-transition
probabilities
in
the
RVM
E2-transition
probability
operator
I8ff,
68, 163, 259ff
Eulcr angles 36, 73, 92ff, 128, 237ff, 358,

394, 449
momentum
in
terms
Euler angles, collective kinetic energy in

terms of I03ff
momentum
in
121
Eulcr angle space, commutation relations

for angular momentum in 121, 124
Evaporation of nucleons 28
Even-even nuclei, deformed 342ff, 345ff

Even rotational band 272
Evidence for spin-orbit force 220ff
Exchange corrections 304ff, 329
Exchange operators 325
Excitation of phonons and gions in heavy
ion collisions 398ff
of phonons and gions in photonuclear reactions 378ff

Excited states, quadrupole moments of
I6ff,
68ff
Exhaustion of classical sum rule 280, 303

Expansion of fcrmi sphere 327
Expansion of potential around minimum
I30fr, 345,
1, 418, 440
Energy surface, collective 70ff
Energy surface, collective kinetic 45, I03ff
Energy surface, collective potential 70ff
Energy surface, collective quadrupole 82

Energy surface, collective quadrupole po86
Energy, symmetry 284, 314, 41 Iff

Energy, vacuum 50
Energy, vibrational 3 Iff, 345, 350, 354,
1
Iff
ARM
Excitation
Energy, giant resonance 314
tential 79ff,
the
Euler angle space, angular

10, 59,
Energy, surface 41
momen-
tum I22ff
Doorway structure 430
Dynamic
absorption
350, 354
as cigen functions of angular
Deformed triaxial shell model 270, 451 IT

Deformed velocity-dependent potential
quadrupolc
Energy kinetic collective 45, 103ff

solutions, classical 296
Dipolc moment, sum rule for 280, 303

Dipolc operator, magnetic 213, 260
nuclei, scattering of 401

nuclei,
moment
in
of 96
350, 354, 374
275ff. 33 Iff
probabilities
Eulcr angles, angular
Energy constant, surface 418, 457

Energy, deformation 397
Energy gap 205
3 Iff
32, 37
Dipolc
cross section
section 281
Electric
2 -transition
I63ff
Energy, binding 409
Dipolc absorption cross section, magnetic
moment
(sec
cigen-
Electric
Dipole
dipole absorption
l-
176ff
Electric dipole transitions 22
D-funcl ions, definition of 102, 118, 449
some
momentum,
Elastic scattering cross section 427ff
Electric
Equivalent radius 13,419

Erbium, photo nuclear cross sections of 360ff
Escape, more-particle 378
of angular
Eigenvectors of angular momentum, transformation under finite rotations 115
functions 122
>-functions,
mass 38, 269, 304, 329

modulus of compression energy
280,381,383
Deviations from Schmidt limits 217
477
Equipotcntial surface, nuclear surface as

231
422
Electric
342ff, 345ff
nuclei, odd-,4 233ff, 262, 263ff,
shell
Determination
Dipolc moment, giant resonance of 23,
353ff
Deformed
Destruction of shell structure 423
Determination of coupling constants 340ff
2S7
Dumping of molecular
Deformed
Deformed
Deformed
216
lines
Effective
modulus 422
flj^ as I22ff
Eigenmodes of density fluctuations
also normal modes) 309ff
Density, reduced 285
Departure from Schmidt
Effective
Eigenfunctions
modes of 333ff
Departure from axial symmetry 259
Damping mechanism
Deformed
Deformed
SUBJECT INDEX
374, 439
Equations of motion, hydrodynamic 291,

293
Equilibrium density 284, 414
88ff, 127,
169
Expansion of single-particle wave functions

242
Experimental absorption cross section
3781T, 382
Experimental giant resonance 275
Fast neutron emission 379
l-crmi gas 434
Fcrmi sphere, expansion of 327
Finite and intinitcsimal rotation, relation
between H9ff
Finite rotations 115ff, I19ff
Fission of nuclear molecule 406

Fission of the nucleus 9
Fission, photo- 27S
478
SUBJECT TNDEX
Fission, Strutinsky
minimum
in 431
Flow of energy 435. 438

Flow, irrotattonal 439
Flow of mass 435, 438

Flow of momentum 435, 438
Fluctuation densities, a">-dependence of
*
356
Fluctuation density,
trial
function for 335
and neutrons 37, 283ff

Foundations of nuclear hydrodynamics
Fluids of protons
324ff
two
fluid
system 287, 320
Fusion of nuclei 389

/-absorption cross section 279, 319fT, 350
/-band
in
odd-/4 nuclei, splitting of 262
-/-radiation, absorption
of 279, 3l9ff
band
150, 156, 262ff,
/-vibrations I45ff, 251
ff,
collective qua-
drupole surface 79fT

g-faclor (see gyro magnetic factor) 213
gyromagnetic
rotational
{see
gtr factor
167, 260ff
Giant dipolc resonances in deformed nuclei, spectrum of 349ff, 360ff

Giant dipolc resonances in spherical nuclei,
spectrum of 381
Giant mullipolc energy 314, 338, 345fl", 350,
354, 374
Giant multipolc resonances 39, 310, 339ff
Giant multipole resonances,
coordinates of 37, 314, 331
Giant resonance 9
Giant
resonance,
resonance, photoscattering via 369,

resonance, quadrupole 336, 350ff
resonance, satellites of 350
resonance, splitting of
5,
306, 348ff,
relations of
42
states 320, 345ff,
Heavy ion
state
rotational
150,
156,
175,250
Gyromagnetic factor (^-factor) 213
Gyromagnetic factor, rotational (g*- factors)
167, 260(f
momentum
ions,
amalgamation of 3S9
ions, angular
momentum
389
gion
states to 377
Giant resonance, anharmonicity effects on
387
Giant resonance, collective coordinates of
37, 314,331,337ft"
Giant resonance, Coulomb corrections for

305
Giant resonance, damping mechanism for
(see also width of giant resonances) 281
287
Giant resonance energies in terms of col*
lective variables 314
Giant resonance, experimental 275
Hamiltonian, collective 43
Hamiltonian for deformed even-even nuclei 342fT
Hamiltonian for deformed odd-,4 nuclei

353ff
ARM
Hamiltonian for the

Hamilton's equations 396
Hamilton's principle 284
Harmonic
168
ion scattering 388, 439

ions, classical treatment
ions,
of 388
38, 309,
oscillator, Cartesian solutions
of
333
Harmonic
Harmonic
291,
Hydrodynamic model 283ff

Hydrodynamic pressure 291, 293
Hydrodynamics for a spherical nucleus
296ff
Hydrodynamics, nuclear 37, 38, 275 IT

Hydrodynamics, quantum 317ff
Hydrogen atom in curvilinear coordinates
194
oscillator shells with /
s-foree
energy
terms of 103ff
Ions, contact distance

Ions,
of 397
heavy (see heavy ions) 388
Irrotational flow 439
Isomeric shift 67
Jensen-Mayer coupling scheme

rity coupling scheme) 203
Kinetic energy,
collective
(sec senio-
collective
(see
kinetic energy) 45, 48, 103ff, 317
Kinctie energy of classical surface vibrations 440

tf-quantum number 126,
170, 179,240, 351
!45ff, 150, I54ff,
Laboratory-fixed coordinate system, angu-
Hyperfine structure
Hypergeometric functions 146
lar
moments of
I05ff,
124,
128, 135.
with respect to 96ff
mutation relations of angular momenwith respect to 98

Lcnght element in curvilinear coordinates
tum
129
Lorentz force 287

Lorentzian shape of resonance 302
Lowering of Coulomb barrier 390
/ s-forcc
92ff, 220, 228. 45
1
/ s-forcc,
parameter 45, 47, 372, 440
Infinite oscillator
momentum
Laboratory-fixed coordinate system, com-
Imaginary potential 423, 428

Imaginary potential, quasimolccular 423
Incomprcssibtlity of nuclear matter 33,
247, 283
Individual particles, angular momentum of
237
187
harmonic oscillator
shells with
194
/- s-force, oscillator with 192IT
Unite oscillator well 184
and
between I19ff
Infinitesimal
oscillator shells 188
in
Ionization, photo- 282
Homopolar nuclear binding 430

Hydrodynamic equations of motion
Iti
337
volume clement
Intrinsic variables, collective kinetic

in
157, 169
189
lab system to the 36, 73, 103, 338
131, 132, I341T
Hclmholtz equation, variational solution

of 334
Holmium, photonuclcar cross section of
364
Inertia
from the
Intrinsic coordinates,
deformation and polarization
Helm lio It/, equation
Inertia,
system (see also princicoordinate system and bodyfixed coordinate system) 36, 7 Iff, I03ff,
335, 394
Intrinsic coordinates 36,
Hamilton function for deformed ions 401

Hamilton function for orbital motion 390
Hamilton function for spherical ions 395
Intrinsic coordinate
Intrinsic coordinate system, transformation
contained
137ff
collective
admixture of
reactions, angular
293
band
Interaction time 391
pal axis
in 387
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Interaction of giant resonance with surface
Interval rule 14
ton reactions, adiabaticity in 390,
413, 419
Heavy
Heavy
square well 184

square well 184, 185ff
Influence of odd particle on giant resonance
353, 365, 367
Infinite
vibrations 33 Iff
ion collisions, excitation of phonons
and gions 398 ff
377
Cions, angular momentum of 318

Goldhabcr-Tellcr model 4, 283
Ground
434
Ileal energy
Heavy
479
Infinite
of 389ff
Gion 42, 398ff

Gion operators 42, 339, 343
Gion operators, commutation
Gion
of
Harmonic quadrupole vibrations 471V

Harmonic quadrupole vibrator, spectrum
of 25, 54
in
Giant resonances and surface vibrations,

coupling constants between 333, 340, 373
Giant resonance, width of 359, 370
370
346fT
Gap, energy 205

Geometric symmetries of
factor)
2751T, 33 Iff
oscillator, spherical solutions
188ff
Heavy
Giant resonance, mass and stiffness parameters of 45, 47, 169, 316, 372, 440, 442
Giant resonance, multipolarity of 310
Giant resonance, normal modes of 312
Giant resonance of dipole moment 23,
Giant
383
Giant
Giant
Giant
Harmonic
374ff
/unstable potential 38
/-vibrational
Giant resonance frequencies, /4 -dependence

of 279, 29Sff
Giant resonance, influence of odd particle
on 353, 365, 367
Giant resonance, interaction with surface
vibrations (see dynamic collective model)
331ff
Fluctuation density 37, 296ff, 311, 334ff
Friction in the
SUBJECT INDEX
finite rotations, relation
Infinitesimal rotations
116,
U9fT
Magic nuclei 14, 27, 127

Magic numbers 14, 26, 192, 198
Magnetic dipole absorption 281
Magnetic dipolc absorption cross section
Magnetic dipolc operator 213, 260

Magnetic moments 2 Off
Magnetic moments of odd -.4 deformed
nuclei 263ff
Mass doublet 409

Mass, effective 38, 269, 304, 329
Mass excess 409
Mass formula 409
Mass, nuclear measurement of 409
Mass parameter (see also inertia parameter)
45,440
Mass parameter of surface vibrations 440
Mass parameters of giant resonance 45, 47,
169,316, 372,440^442
Mass unit, atomic (a.m.u.) 409
Matrix elements, oscillator 234
Matrix elements, phase convention for
momentum
Nuclei,
157, 169
Momentum
281
angular
SUBJECT INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
480
operators in curvilinear coor-
dinates 142
63
escape 378
Motion, collective 7
Muliipolarity of giant resonance 310
Multipolc operators, collective 56, .11 8 IT,
356lf
Multipolc operators, state dependence of

collective 58
Neutron emission, fast 379

Neutron fluid 37, 283fT
Neutron multiplicity correction 380
Neutron yield cross section 379
Never-come-back approximation 423
Nilsson model (see deformed shell model)
245
Non-adiabatic
114
effects 255ff
Matter conservation 432

Matter distribution, surface thickness of
4l71f, 419
Mean square deformation 62ff
Nordheim coupling 273

Normal modes of density
Mean square deformation, change
Normal modes, normalization of 313

Normal modes, orthogonality of 312
Nuclear binding, homopolar 430
in
64
Microscopic foundations of nuclear hydro-
dynamics 324ff
Model, asymmetric rotator (ARM) 168fT
Model, deformed shell 230ff, 245ff
Model, dynamic collective 331 ff
Model, Goldhaber-Tellcr 4, 233
Model, hydrodynamic 283ff
Model, Nilsson 245
Model, rotation-vibration (RVM) 127ff
Model, schematic 389
Model, single- particle II, I83ff
Model, spherical shell I83ff
Model, spherical single-particle IS4IT
Model, Steinwedc'-Jcnsen 283
Model, triaxial deformed shell 270, 45 Iff
Model, unified 2.10tr
Modified single-particle wave functions 326
Molecular states, damping of 405. 423
Molecular system 423
Molecule, nuclear 389. 423
Molecule, nucleon 423
Momenta, canonically conjugate 40, 332
Moment, dipolc 10,299
Moment, magnetic 2l3fT
Moment, octupole 10
Moment, quadrupole 10ff,

Moments of inertia I05ff,
17
124.
128,
135,
Oscillator, infinite, 187
Nuclei, density distribution in 200,414, 454
Oscillator matrix elements 234
Nuclei, fusion of 389
Oscillator well, infinite 184

Oscillator with / s-force I92fT
Nuclei, magic 14, 27, 127

Nuclei, standing sound waves in 335
Monopole operator
Mo re- particle
asymmetry of 175
fluctuations in
a weakly deformed nucleus 3.1.1ft"

Normal modes of giant resonance 312
Nuclear compressibility 418, 430

Nuclear hydrodynamics 37, 38, 275ff
Nuclear hydrodynamics, foundations of
Oxygen-oxygen system
Nuclear mailer compression 4.1 Iff. 437ff

Nuclear matter, incompressibility of 33,
247, 283
Nuclear matter, saturation of 410

Nuclear measurement of mass 409
Nuclear molecule 387,423
Nuclear molecule, fission of 406
Nuclear number, binding energy as a function of 413
Nuclear optical potential, quasimolccular
Nuclei, Thomas- Fermi theory of 412ff

Nucleon molecule 423
Nucleons, dislribution of 200fT
Nucleons, evaporation of 281
Packing fraction 409

Pairing energy 41
Pairing of nucleons 183, 202
Particle
Nucleons, pairing of 183, 202

Nucleus, fission of the 9
Nucleus, polarizability of 303
Number of particles contributing to quadrupole moments
deformed
Nuclear potential,
Nuclear rotation 9, 26
Nactsar shock wave 43 Iff
Nuclear surface 31 439
Nuclear surface as equipotcntial surface
231
Nuclear surface motion, quadrupole 44fT
,
861T
transitions
(see
single-particle
transitions) 19
Periodic table 27
Phase convention for angular

matrix elements 114
momentum
Phonon 41
Phonon, angular momentum of
Octupole collective coordinates 3 Iff

Octupole moment 10
Odd rotational band 272
Odd -,4 deformed nuclei, magnetic
mo-
ments of 263fF
Odd -A deformed nucleus, spectrum of 250fT
Odd-/* nuclei, splitting of y-band in 262
Odd-.-! spherical nucleus, spectrum of 2330*
Odd-odd deformed nuclei 270ff
"0-"0
system 389ff, 4121T

Operator, angular momentum
96fT,
07 IT,
114, I2lff
Operator, collective multipole 56, 58, 318fT,

356ff
356ff
Operator,
E2-transition
50, 53
Phonon energy 50
Phonon number operator 48, 50
Phonon operators, collective kinetic energy
in
terms of 48, 317
Phonon operators, commutation
relations
of 41
Phonon, seniority of 54
Phonon
stales
54
Phonons, total number of 50
probability
Phonon vacuum 48, 50

Phonon vacuum energy 50
Photo
fission 275
Photo-ion izat ion 282
Photon uclcar cross sections for erbium 360ff

Photonuclear cross sections for holmium
ISff,
363fT
68, 163, 259fT
Operator, exchange 325

Operator, gion 42, 339, 343
Operator, magnetic dipolc 213, 260
Operator, momentum 142
Operator, monopole 63
Operator, one-part tele 207

Operator, phonon number 48, 50
Operator, rotation H6ff
Optical potential, quasimolccular nuclear
4l9ff
Orbital motion, Hamilton function for 390
4l9fT
387, 412ff
Nuclei, superheavy 389
Operator, electric quadrupole 10, 59, 163,
324ff
Nuclear hydrodynamics, microscopic foundations of 324ff

Nuclear masses (sec mass) 409
481
Orbitals, stable 429
Photonuclear reactions 27KIT

Photonuclear reactions, excitation of pho-
nons and gions
in 37311'
Photoscattcring via giant resonances 369,
383
Poisson bracket 136
Polarization of heavy ions 389ff
Polarizability
of nucleus 303
Potential, centrifugal
Potential energy
145
of classical surface vibra-
tions 441
Potential energy surface, collective 70ff
Potential energy surface, quadrupole col-
Orthogonality of normal modes 312

,4 -dependence of shell model
202
Oscillator frequency as a function of A 202
lective 79ff
Potential expansion
Oscillator frequency of deformation 245,
Potential, y-unstable 88
Oscillator,
248
around minimum
127, 169
Potential, imaginary 423, 428
88ff,
SUBJECT IV DFX
482
Potential, quasimolecular imaginary 423
Potential, quasimolecular nuclear optical
SUBJECT IVDEX
Quasimolecular real potential 420

Quasimolecular states 4050"
r-spacc,
419ff
Saxon-Woods
RVM
200, 269
Potentials, real ist ic singl e-pa rt icl e I98JT
Potential, velocity 294ff, 439ft*
Realistic single-particle potentials 193ff
Potential, velocity-dependent 269
Rectangular representation
coordinates 35, 3081T
Reduced density 285
Regions of deformation 28
Pressure 435
hydrodynamic 291, 293
Principal axis coordinate system (see also
body-fixed coordinate system and intrin-
coordinate system) 35
Projection theorem 214
Proton fluid 37, 283ff
sic
Relatjvistic
contributions
spin-orbit
force 222IT
section, elec-
230, 381, 383
Quadrupole
Quadrupolc
collective coordinates 3 Iff, 70ff
collective
potential
energy
surface 79rT, 86
Quadrupole giant resonance 336, 350ff

Quadrupole moment for single nucleon [0
Quadrupolc moment, number of particles
contributing to
Quadrupolc moments Oil", 17

Quadrupolc moments, determination of
I
14ff
Renormalization of potential for surface

vibrations 376
Reorientation effect
Representation of angular momentum 1 15
Representation of tensors 308ff
Residual two body forces 325
Resonance, Breil-Wigncr 322
Resonance, giant 9
I6ff,
68fT
167, 260ff
Quadrupole moments, sign of 17

Quadrupolc nuclear surface motion 44ff
Quadrupole operator, electric 10, 59, 63,
1
356ff
Quadrupole transitions, electric 23

Quadrupolc vibrational states, transitions
between 67
Quadrupole vibrations, anharmonicity of 56
Quadrupole vibrations, harmonic 47ff
Quantization 40, 136ff, 317ff
Quantization in curvilinear
Rotational spectrum 25ff

Rotation, finite
coordinates
Quantum conditions 136

Quantum hydrodynamics 317ff
Quantum mechanics of the rotator 9 Iff
Quantum numbers, asymptotic 249
Quasi-deutcron 282
Quasimolecular imaginary potential 423
Quasimolecular nuclear optical potential
ISff,
I9ff
Saxon-Woods
deformed 269
Scattering amplitude, Coulomb 427
Solutions of harmonic oscillator, Cartesian

189
Scattering amplitude, total 427
Solutions of harmonic oscillator, spherical

188ff
Scattering,
Coulomb 427
401
Scattering cross section, elastic 427tT
and
finite
infi-
Rotations, infinitesimal
16,
I'M
due
to I54ff
Rotator, spectrum of the 150, 172

Rotator, symmetric 170ff
RPC
(see rotation-particle coupling)
r-spaee, angular
momentum
in
121
240
Sound waves in nuclei, standing 335

Sound velocity in two fluid system (second
sound) 295
Spherical nuclei, analysis of experimental
Scattering of spherical nuclei 395IT

Scat te ring, photo- 369, 383
Spherical nuclei, dynamic collective model
Schematic model 389

Schematic model for collective quadrupolc
energy surface 82IT
Schmidt limits 216IT
Schmidt limits, deviations from 217
Schmidt lines, departure from 216
Seniority 54
Sen iority coupling schema (see also JensenMayer coupling scheme) 13, 203, 205
Seniority of phonon 54
Seniority scheme, quadrupolc moments in
deformed 2301T, 245ff

model extensions 268ff
model extensions, deformed 26S(T
model oscillator, A -dependence of 202
183ff
harmonic
oscillator
Spherical ions, Hamilton function for 395
data for 381

for 37 Iff
Spherical nuclei, scattering of 395ff

Spherical nuclei, spectrum of giant dipole
resonances in 381
Spcrical
nucleus,
hydrodynamics
for
296ff
Spherical shell model

Spherical
IS3flf
si ngle-p article
model
Spherical single-panicle orbits
184ff
1
S4JT
Spherical solutions of harmonic oscillator
IBM
Spectrum, brcmssl rah lung 276
Spectrum of giant dipole resonances in deformed nuclei 349ff, 360ff
Spectrum of giant dipole resonances in
spherical nuclei 381
Spectrum of harmonic quadrupole vibra-
Shell model, triaxial deformed 270, 45IJT

Shell model wave functions, deformed 250
188
Shell structure J831T
Shell structure, destruction of 423

Shift, isomeric
Rotation-vibration model (see RVM) 127ff

Rotator, quantum mechanics of the 91 ff
Single-particle wave functions, modified 326
Scattering, heavy ion 388,. 43i

Scattering of deformed nuclei 40I1T
Shells,
Rotation-vi brat ion interaction I35ff

Rotation-vibration interaction, band mixing
functions, expansion
Space-fixed coordinate system 92ff
Shell model, spherical
H9ff
wave
of 242
Scattering, elastic 427 !T
Shell
quantum mechanics of 9 Iff
Rotation relation between
potential,
Scattering cross section, classical differential
Shell
(RPC) 240
I84ff
Single-particle
the 203, 205ff
I6IT
Single-particle orbits, spherical

Single-particle transitions 19ff
Shell
Rotation,
the
II, I831T
of giant resonance 350

Saturation of nuclear matier 410
Saxon-Woods potential 200, 269
Rotation operator
in
model
Stngle-particle model, spherical 184ff

Single-particle potentials, realistic 19Sff
Shell model,
Rotation-particle coupling
Single-particle
179,181
163rT
Rotation, infinitesimal 116, I19ff

Rotation matrices 92, I02ff, 443fT
Rotation, nuclear 9, 26
nitesimal
128, I36ff
419ff
Resonance, Lorcntzian shape of 302

Resonances, giant multipolc 39, 310, 339ff
Rotational band, even 272
Rotational band, ground state 150, 156,
175, 250
Rotational band, odd 272
Rotational bands 50ff, 405ff
Rotational energy 26, 103, 124, 130tT,
345, 350. 354
Rotational gyromagnctic factor {gK -factor)
1
Quadrupole moments in the seniority

scheme 203, 205ff
Quadrupole moments of excited states
(rotation-vibration model) I27ff
Satellites
to
freedom, decoupling of 141, 256

and collective motion, adiabat icily between 231
Single-particle
of collective
Quadrupolc absorption cross

tric
relations for angular
121, 124
RVM, comparison with the ARM

RVM, E2 -transition probabilities
Radius, equivalent 13,419

Real potential, quasimolecular 420
Pressure,
in
Runge-Kutta method 396
Potential, quasimolecular real 420
Potential,
commutation
momentum
67
Shock equation 435
Shock wave, nuclear 43 Iff
Short-range correlations 282
Sign of quadrupole moments 17
Single nucleon, quadrupole moment for 10
Single-particle and collective degrees of
tor 25, 54
Spectrum of harmonic quadrupole vibrations 54

Spectrum atodd-A deformed nucleus 2331T,
250tT
Spectrum of rotator 150, 172

Spectrum, vibrational 25, 54
Spin-isospin modes 370
Spin-orbit coupling 192ff, 2201T

Spin-orbit force, evidence for 220ff
Spin-orbit force, rclativistic contributions
to 222ff
SUBJECT INDEX
4S4
ofy-band
Splitting
odd- A nuclei 262
in
Splitting of giant resonance
S,
306,
348ft",
SUBJECT INDEX
Symmetry energy 284, 314,

Symmetry transformations,
41 Iff
Use of tables for deformed

wave functions 249
basic 76
374ff
Spreading width 359, 370

Square well, infinite 184, 185ff
Stable orbitats 429
Standing sound waves in nuclei 333

State dependence of collective multipolc
operators 58
States, gion 320, 345ff, 377
Steinwcdel-Jcnscn model 283
Stiffness, parameters of giant resonance
45,47, 69, 316, 372,440,442

Strong coupling 230, 236ff
Strong coupling wave functions, symme-
Tables for deformed shell model wave

functions 249
Temperature in compressed nuclear nutter
434IT
Tension, surface 4l7ff, 440

Tensors, representation of 308 ff
Theoretical absorption cross section 382
Thomas-Fermi theory of nuclei 4121T
Time
derivatives of collective coordinates
tries
of 240ff
Sum
Sum
minimum
moment
rule for dipolc
280, 303
Surface collective coordinates
3 Off,
330,
356, 439
the 30
439
Surface tension 417ff, 440
Surface thickness of matter distribution
1 ,
419
Surface vibrations
coordinates
25, 30fF, 44ff, 47ff,
I27ff, 169, 230ff, 342,
37 Iff, 392. 439ff
of
properties
collective
3 Off
Transitions between quadrupole vibrational
67
Transitions, direct 379

Transitions, electric dipole 22
Surface vibrations and density fluctuations,

adiabaticity between 332
Transitions, electric quadrupole 23
Surface vibrations and giant resonances,

coupling constants between 333, 340, 373
Surface vibrations, classical 30 ff, 127ff,
Transitions, single-particle
439ff
Surface vibrations, kinetic energy of classical 440

Surface vibrations, mass parameter of 440
Surface vibrations, potential energy of
classical 441
Surface
vibrations,
renormalization
of
potential for 376
Symmetric rotator 170ff

Symmetries of collective wave functions
78, 79, 147ff, 240ff
Symmetries of strong coupling wave functions 240ff
Symmetry
axial 36, 135, 172, 175,241
Transitions, electromagnetic 181T

1
9ff
Trial functions for fluctuation density 335
Triaxial
deformed
shell
model 270, 45 Iff
Two body forces, residual 325

Two fluid system 37, 28 Iff
Two fluid system, boundary
conditions
for the 38. 285, 305, 309, 311, 333ff
Two
Two
fluid
system, friction in the 287, 320
fluid
system, sound velocity in 295
Two- phono n
states 53ff, 181
Unified model 230ff
Unitary transformation in two dimensions

443
Unitary transformation in 2/
446
Vacuum, phonon
48, 50
334
Velocity- dependent
potential,
deformed
269
dimensions
shell
model 250
242
functions,
modified single-particle
Wave
functions
of dynamic
Wave
Wave
collective
345fT, 350ff, 354fT
ARM
functions of the
170
functions, symmetries of collective
78. 79, I47ff, 240ff
Velocity potential 294ff, 439ff

Velocily ofsooad 411.437
Wave
3 Iff,
345,
Wave
350, 354,
symmetries
Volume conservation during dcformaiuin

247
functions, tables for
shell
functions, transformation properties
Yield 275IT
deformed
orsj, 6i
Weak coupling 230, 232ff
Weisskopf units 21
Width of giant resonance 359, 370
curvilinear coordinates
129
in
of strong
model 249
Wave
in
functions,
coupling 240ff
Vibrations, harmonic quadrupole 471Y
Volume clement
deformed
functions, expansion of single-parti-
model
Velocity-dependent potential 269
Volume element
functions,
326
Variational solution of Hclmholtz equation
131, 132, 1341T
Transformation properties of wavr functions 51,61

Transformation, unitary 443, 446
states
7,
61
Transformation
Surface motion, collective coordinates of
4l7ff,
of angular momentum
eigenvectors under Unite rotations
15
Transformation properties of angular mo-
mentum
Surface energy 411,418, 440

Surface energy constant 418, 457
cle
374, 439
Transformation
Wave
Wave
Wave
Vibrational spectrum 25, 54
Transformation from the lab to the intrinsic system 73, 36, 103, 338
Superheavy nuclei 389
Surface, nuclear 3
number of phono ns 50
Transformation, basic symmetry 76
in fission 431
model
Vacuum energy 50
Vibrational energy
Total scattering amplitude 427
303
rule, classical
shell
Vibrational bands I50ff, 405fT
derivatives of ^-functions 102
Total
Structure of collective Hamiltonian 43
Strutinsky
92, 312, 338
Time
485
Yukawa
interaction 4l4ff
NUCLEAR THEORY
U.S. A.,
El SEN BERG, Professor of Physics, University of Virgin/a, Charlottesville;

and W. G REINER, Professor of Theoretical Physics, Johann Wolfgang
Goethe
Universitat, Frankfurt
by
J.
M.
Volume
2:
am
Main, Germany.
EXCITATION MECHANISMS
OF THE NUCLEUS
Electromagnetic and Weak Interactions
1976 2nd rev. ed.
Paperback.
In preparation
Concerned with electromagnetic and weak interactions of nuclei and their usein obtaining information on nuclear structure, this volume is self-contained
and can readily be followed by readers familiar with the contents of a conventional
one-year course in quantum mechanics. Background material on multipole fields
and on the quantization of the electromagnetic field is set forth in the early chapters,
The subject matter is presented in detail and is closely reasoned so that the book
fulness
is particularly suitable for use in graduate-level nuclear physics courses, as well as

being of value to research workers in this field.
A review
of the first edition:

'The present work and its two companion volumes will certainly be among the
most effective and widely used... This volume stands alone, however, and can be
warmly recommended to all nuclear physicists, student and professional alike, who
have an interest in mechanisms of nuclear
Volume 3
American Scientist
excitation.'
MICROSCOPIC THEORY
OF THE NUCLEUS
1976
2nd
rev. ed.
Paperback.
In preparation
Completing the three-volume series, this book opens with a discussion of the twoand three- nucleon problems. The theory of infinite nucfear matter is then developed
as an example of a problem which may in the near future be subject to rather
complete solution starting from first principles. The treatment of realistic nuclei
begins with the particle- hole formalism and its applications. Subsequently, microscopic theories of deformed light nuclei and their rotational properties are covered.
Attention then shifts to concepts which are generally applied for microscopic
treatments of heavier nuclei, notably pairing, seniority and the quasiparticle transformation. These ideas are applied in some detail to the microscopic construction
of collective potential energy surfaces and of the inertial parameters of collective
motion.
review of the first edition:

'The book is well- written and pleasant to read. It provides the reader with a gooi'
introduction to many of the theoretical tools used In present-day nuclear physics..
constitutes an admirable attempt to summarize and present to the student the status
of the field. It succeeds to do so in concise and clear form. It can be warmly
recommended.'
Applied Physics
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000 596 541

M. EISENBERG and W. GREINER

by North-Holland Publishing Company:

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, U.S.A.

Professor of Theoretical Physics

EXCITATION MECHANISMS OF THE NUCLEUS

Johann Wolfgang Goethe

MICROSCOPIC THEORY OF THE NUCLEUS

SECOND. REVISED EDITION

NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

North- Holland Publishing Company, 1975

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may

be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

Card Number; 72-102719

American Elsevier ISBN: 0444 10790 S

Preface to the second edition

NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

The quadrupole moments

AMERICAN ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY,

Discussion of empirical data

1,2.2a. Electric dipole transitions

1.2.2c. Low-energy spectra (vibrations'and rotations)

revised edition 1975

surface variables c&n

collective variables for density vibrations

momenta and phonon

operators for the col-

structure of the collective nuclear Hamiltonian

nuclear quadrupole surface motion

vibrations of the nuclear surface

Multipole operators in collective variables

Construction of a general angular momentum operator in collective variables

Simple applications of the harmonic oscillator model

The mean square deformation

The mean square charge

Electromagnetic decay of the quadrupole vibrational states

Quadrupole moments of excited

radius of excited states

The intrinsic coordinate system

the asymmetric rotator

8.1. Spherical single-particle orbits

quadrupole energy sur-

square well single-particle Hamiltonian and wave

A schematic model for the collective quadrupole energy surface

coordinate system, the body-fixed

momentum with respect

of the components of the angular

The symmetric top

The rotation-vibration model (RVM)

The Hamiltonian of the rotation-vibration model

The strong-coupling Hamiltonian

and symmetries of strong-coupling wave functions

Spectra of odd-^ deformed nuclei

Departure from axial symmetry

Magnetic moments of odd-even deformed nuclei

Extensions of the deformed- shell model

The symrnetrization of the wave functions

Solution of the rotation-vibration Hamiltonian

Experimental evidence for strong spin-orbit coupling