Lecture Notesjm

Analytical Mechanics.
Phys 601
Artem G. Abanov
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Contents
Analytical Mechanics. Phys 601
Lecture 1. Oscillations. Oscillations with friction.
Lecture 2. Oscillations with external force. Resonance.

2.1. Comments on dissipation.
2.2. Resonance
2.3. Response.
3
3
3
4
Lecture 3. Work energy theorem. Energy conservation. Potential energy.

3.1. Mathematical preliminaries.
3.2. Work.
3.3. Change of kinetic energy.
3.4. Conservative forces. Energy conservation.
7
7
7
7
7
Lecture 4. Central forces. Effective potential.

4.1. Spherical coordinates.
4.2. Central force
4.3. Kepler orbits.
11
11
12
13
Lecture 5. Kepler orbits continued

5.1. Keplers second law
5.2. Keplers third law
5.3. Another way
~
5.4. Conserved Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector A
5.5. Bertrands theorem
17
18
18
19
19
20
Lecture 6. Scattering cross-section.
23
Lecture 7. Rutherfords formula.
25
Lecture 8. Functionals.
8.1. Difference between functions and functionals.
8.2. Examples of functionals.
8.3. Discretization. Fanctionals as functions.
8.4. Minimization problem
8.5. The Euler-Lagrange equations
8.6. Examples
29
29
29
29
29
29
30
Lecture 9. Euler-Lagrange equation continued.

9.1. Reparametrization
31
31
SPRING 2016, ARTEM G. ABANOV, ANALYTICAL MECHANICS. PHYS 601
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
The Euler-Lagrange equations, for many variables.

Problems of Newton laws.
Newton second law as Euler-Lagrange equations
Hamiltons Principle. Action. Only minimum!
Lagrangian. Generalized coordinates.
32
32
32
32
32
Lecture
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10. Lagrangian mechanics.

Hamiltons Principle. Action.
Lagrangian.
Examples.
33
33
33
33
Lecture
11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
11.5.
11.6.
11. Lagrangian mechanics.

Non uniqueness of the Lagrangian.
Generalized momentum.
Ignorable coordinates. Conservation laws.
Momentum conservation. Translation invariance
Noethers theorem
Energy conservation.
35
35
35
35
36
36
37
Lecture 12. Lagrangians equations for magnetic forces.
39
Lecture
13.1.
13.2.
13.3.
13.4.
41
41
42
42
42
13. Hamiltonian and Hamiltonian equations.

Hamiltonian.
Examples.
Phase space. Hamiltonian field. Phase trajectories.
From Hamiltonian to Lagrangian.
Lecture 14. Liouvilles theorem. Poisson brackets.

14.1. Liouvilles theorem.
14.2. Poisson brackets.
43
43
44
Lecture
15.1.
15.2.
15.3.
15.4.
15.5.
15. Hamiltonian equations. Jacobis identity. Integrals of motion.

Hamiltonian mechanics
Jacobis identity
How to compute Poisson brackets.
Integrals of motion.
Angular momentum.
47
47
48
48
49
49
Lecture
16.1.
16.2.
16.3.
16. Oscillations.
Small oscillations.
Many degrees of freedom.
Oscillations. Many degrees of freedom. General case.
51
51
52
53
Lecture 17. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Kapitza pendulum.

17.1. Kapitza pendulum
55
55
Lecture 18. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Kapitza pendulum.

Horizontal case.
59
Lecture 19. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Foucault pendulum.

19.1. General case.
63
64
Lecture 20. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Parametric resonance.

20.1. Generalities
20.2. Resonance.
67
67
68
Lecture 21. Oscillations of an infinite series of springs. Oscillations of a rope. Phonons. 71

21.1. Series of springs.
71
21.2. A rope.
72
Lecture
inertia.
22.1.
22.2.
22.3.
22.4.
22. Motion of a rigid body. Kinematics. Kinetic energy. Momentum. Tensor of

Kinematics.
Kinetic energy.
Angular momentum
Tensor of inertia.
75
75
76
76
76
Lecture 23. Motion of a rigid body. Rotation of a symmetric top. Euler angles.
23.1. Eulers angles
79
80
Lecture 24. Symmetric top in gravitational field.
81
Lecture 25. Motion of a rigid body. Euler equations. Stability of asymmetric top.
25.1. Euler equations.
25.2. Stability of the free rotation of a asymmetric top.
83
83
84
LECTURE 1. OSCILLATIONS. OSCILLATIONS WITH FRICTION.
LECTURE 1
Oscillations. Oscillations with friction.
Oscillators:
ml = mg sin mg,
m
x = kx,
=
LQ
Q
,
C
All of these equation have the same form
k/m
02 = g/l
,
1/LC
x = 02 x,
x(t = 0) = x0 ,
v(t = 0) = v0 .
The solution
x(t) = A sin(t) + B cos(t) = C sin(t + ),
B = x0 ,
A = v0 .
Oscillates forever: C = A2 + B 2 amplitude; = tan1 (A/B) phase.

Oscillations with friction:
= Q + RQ,
m
x = kx x,
LQ
C
Consider
x = 02 x 2 x,
x(t = 0) = x0 ,
v(t = 0) = v0 .
This is a linear equation with constant coefficients. We look for the solution in the
form x = <Ceit , where and C are complex constants.
2 2i 02 = 0,
= i
02 2
Two solutions, two independent constants.

Two cases: < 0 and > 0 .
In the first case (underdamping):
h
x = et < C1 eit + C2 eit = Cet sin (t + ) ,
02 2
Decaying oscillations. Shifted frequency.

In the second case (overdamping):
x = Ae t + Be+ t ,
2 02 > 0
+
For the initial conditions x(t = 0) = x0 and v(t = 0) = 0 we find A = x0 +
,
. For t the B term can be dropped as + > , then x(t)

B = x0 +
+
x0 +
e t .
At ,
honey.
02
2
0. The motion is arrested. The example is an oscillator in
LECTURE 2
Oscillations with external force. Resonance.
2.1. Comments on dissipation.
Time reversibility. A need for a large subsystem.
Locality in time.
2.2. Resonance
Lets add an external force:
x + 2 x + 02 x = f (t),
x(t = 0) = x0 ,
v(t = 0) = v0 .
The full solution is the sum of the solution of the homogeneous equation with any
solution of the inhomogeneous one. This full solution will depend on two arbitrary
constants. These constants are determined by the initial conditions.
Lets assume, that f (t) is not decaying with time. The solution of the inhomogeneous
equation also will not decay in time, while any solution of the homogeneous equation
will decay. So in a long time t 1/ The solution of the homogeneous equation can
be neglected. In particular this means that the asymptotic of the solution does not
depend on the initial conditions.
Lets now assume that the force f (t) is periodic. with some period. It then can be
represented by a Fourier series. As the equation is linear the solution will also be a
series, where each term corresponds to a force with a single frequency. So we need
to solve
x + 2 x + 02 x = f sin(f t),
where f is the forces amplitude.
Lets look at the solution in the form x = f =Ceif t , and use sin(f t) = =eif t . We
then get
1
= |C|ei ,
C= 2
2
0 f + 2if
1
2f
|C| = h
i1/2 , tan = 2
0 2f
(2 2 )2 + 4 2 2
f
x(t) = f =|C|eif t+i = f |C| sin (f t ) ,

3
Resonance frequency:
rf =
02 2 2 =
2 2 ,
where = 02 2 is the frequency of the damped oscillator.

Phase changes sign at f = 0 > rf . Importance of the phase phase shift.
To analyze resonant response we analyze |C|2 .
The most interesting case 0 , then the response |C|2 has a very sharp peak at
f 0 :
|C|2 =
1
(2f
02 )2
4 2 2f
1
1
,
2
40 (f 0 )2 + 2
so that the peak is very symmetric.

|C|2max 4 212 .
0
to find HWHM we need to solve (f 0 )2 + 2 = 2 2 , so HWHM = , and
FWHM = 2.
Q factor (quality factor). The good measure of the quality of an oscillator is Q =
time
0 /FWHM = 0 /2. (decay time) = 1/, period = 2/0 , so Q = decay
period .
For a grandfathers wall clock Q 100, for the quartz watch Q 104 .
2.3. Response.
Response. The main quantity of interest. What is property?
The equation
x + 2 x + 02 x = f (t).
The LHS is time translation invariant!
Multiply by eit and integrate over time. Denote
x =
x(t)eit dt.
Then we have

2i +
02
x =
f (t)e
dt,
f (t0 )eit dt0

x = 2
+ 2i 02
R
it
The inverse Fourier transform gives

x(t) =
Z
Z
Z
d it
d
ei(tt )
0
0
e
x = f (t )dt
= (t t0 )f (t0 )dt0 .
2
2
2
2 + 2i 0
Where the response function is ( < 0 )
sin(t 02 2 )
Z
it
d
e
,
e
02 2
(t) =
=
2
2
2 + 2i 0
0
,
t>0
= i
02 2
t<0
Causality principle. Poles in the lower half of the complex plane. True for any
(linear) response function. The importance of > 0 condition.
LECTURE 2. OSCILLATIONS WITH EXTERNAL FORCE. RESONANCE.

3000
6
=0.01
2000
1000
=0.8
=0.6
=0.4
=0.2
0
Figure 1. Resonant
response. For insert Q = 50.
LECTURE 3
Work energy theorem. Energy conservation. Potential
energy.
3.1. Mathematical preliminaries.
Functions of many variables.
Differential of a function of many variables.
Examples.
3.2. Work.
A work done by a force: W = F~ d~r.
Superposition. If there are many forces, the total work is the sum of the works done
by each.
Finite displacement. Line integral.
3.3. Change of kinetic energy.

If a body of mass m moves under the force F~ , then.
d~v
m = F~ ,
md~v = F~ dt,
m~v d~v = F~ ~v dt = F~ d~r = W.
dt
So we have
mv 2
d
= W
2
The change of kinetic energy equals the total work done by all forces.
3.4. Conservative forces. Energy conservation.
Fundamental forces. Depend on coordinate, do not depend on time.

Work done by the forces over a closed loop is zero.
Work is independent of the path.
Consider two paths: first dx, then dy; first dy then dx

W = Fx (x, y)dx + Fy (x + dx, y)dy = Fy (x, y)dy + Fx (x, y + dy)dx,

7
Fy
Fx
=
.
x y
y x
So a small work done by a conservative force:

Fx
Fy
=
x
y
W = Fx dx + Fy dy,
is a full differential!
W = dU
It means that there is such a function of the coordinates U (x, y), that
Fx =
U
,
x
Fy =
U
,
y
~
or F~ = gradU U.
So on a trajectory:
mv 2
+U
d
2
= 0,
K + U = const.
If the force F~ (~r) is known, then there is a test for if the force is conservative.
F~ = 0.
In 1D the force that depends only on the coordinate is always conservative.

Examples.
In 1D in the case when the force depends only on coordinates the equation of motion
can be solved in quadratures.
The number of conservation laws is enough to solve the equations.
If the force depends on the coordinate only F (x), then there exists a function
potential energy with the following property
U
x
Such function is not unique as one can always add an arbitrary constant to the
potential energy.
The total energy is then conserved
F (x) =
K + U = const.,
mx 2
+ U (x) = E
2
mv 2
Energy E can be calculated from the initial conditions: E = 2 0 + U (x0 )

The allowed areas where the particle can be are given by E U (x) > 0.
Turning points. Prohibited regions.
Notice, that the equation of motion depends only on the difference E U (x) =
mv02
+ U (x0 ) U (x) of the potential energies in different points, so the zero of the
2
potential energy (the arbitrary constant that was added to the function) does not
play a role.
We thus found that
s
dx
2q
=
E U (x)
dt
m
Energy conservation law cannot tell the direction of the velocity, as the kinetic energy
depends only on absolute value of the velocity. In 1D it cannot tell which sign to
use + or . You must not forget to figure it out by other means.
LECTURE 3. WORK ENERGY THEOREM. ENERGY CONSERVATION. POTENTIAL ENERGY. 9
We then can solve the equation

r
dx
m
q
= dt,
2 E U (x)
t t0 =
dx0
mZ x
q
2 x0 E U (x0 )
Examples:
Motion under a constant force.
Oscillator.
Pendulum.
Divergence of the period close to the maximum of the potential energy.
LECTURE 4
Central forces. Effective potential.
4.1. Spherical coordinates.
The spherical coordinates are given by

x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin .
z = r cos
The coordinates r, , and , the corresponding unit vectors er , e , e .
the vector d~r is then
d~r = ~er dr + ~e rd + ~e r sin d.
d~r = ~ex dx + ~ey dy + ~ez dz
Imagine now a function of coordinates U . We want to find the components of a
~ in the spherical coordinates.
vector U
Consider a function U as a function of Cartesian coordinates: U (x, y, z). Then
U
U
dx +
dy +
x
y
~ = U ~ex + U ~ey +
U
x
y
dU =
11
U
~ d~r.
dz = U
z
U
~ez
z
12
~ in the spherical
On the other hand, like any vector we can write the vector U
coordinates.
~ = (U
~ )r~er + (U
~ )~e + (U
~ )~e ,
U
~ )r , (U
~ ) , and (U
~ ) are the components of the vector U
~ in the spherwhere (U
ical coordinates. It is those components that we want to find
Then
~ d~r = (U
~ )r dr + (U
~ ) rd + (U
~ ) r sin d
dU = U
On the other hand if we now consider U as a function of the spherical coordinates
U (r, , ), then
U
U
U
dr +
d +
d
dU =
r
Comparing the two expressions for dU we find

~ )r = U
(U
r
~ ) = 1 U
(U
.
r
1
U
~ ) =
(U
r sin
In particular
~ = U ~er 1 U ~e 1 U ~e .
F~ = U
r
r
r sin
4.2. Central force

Consider a motion of a body under central force. Take the origin in the center of
force.
A central force is given by
F~ = F (r)~er .
~ F~ = 0, so there is a potential energy:
Such force is always conservative:
~ = U ~er ,
F~ = U
r
U
= 0,
U
= 0,
so that potential energy depends only on the distance r, U (r).

The torque of the central force = ~r F~ = 0, so the angular momentum is conserved:
J~ = const.
The motion is all in one plane! The plane which contains the vector of the initial
velocity and the initial radius vector.
We take this plane as x y plane.
~ = const.. This constant is given
The angular momentum is J~ = J~ez , where J = |J|
by initial conditions J = m|~r0 ~v0 |.
J
=
mr2
In the x y plane we can use the polar coordinates: r and .
The velocity in these coordinates is
J
e = r~
~v = r~
er + r~
er +
~e
mr
mr2 = J,
LECTURE 4. CENTRAL FORCES. EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL.
13
The kinetic energy then is

K=
mr 2
J2
m~v 2
=
+
2
2
2mr2
The total energy then is

J2
mr 2
+
+ U (r).
2
2mr2
If we introduce the effective potential energy
E =K +U =
Uef f (r) =
J2
+ U (r),
2mr2
then we have
Uef f
mr 2
+ Uef f (r) = E,
m
r=
2
r
This is a one dimensional motion which was solved before.
4.3. Kepler orbits.

Ueff HrL= r12 - 3r
Ueff HrL= r12 + 3r
10
-1
-2
Historically, the Kepler problem

the problem of motion of the bodies in the Newtonian gravitational
field is one of the most important problems in physics. It is the
solution of the problems and experimental verification of the results
that convinced the physics community in the power of Newtons new
math and in the correctness of his
mechanics. For the first time people could understand the observed
motion of the celestial bodies and
make accurate predictions. The
whole theory turned out to be much
simpler than what existed before.

In the Kepler problem we want to consider the motion of a body of mass m in the
gravitational central force due to much larger mass M .
As M m we ignore the motion of the larger mass M and consider its position
fixed in space (we will discuss what happens when this limit is not applicable later)
The force that acts on the mass m is given by the Newtons law of gravity:
GmM
GmM
F~ = 3 ~r = 2 ~er
r
r
where ~er is the direction from M to m.
The potential energy is then given by
U (r) =
GM m
,
r
U
GmM
= 2 ,
r
r
U (r ) 0
14
The effective potential is

Uef f (r) =
J2
GM m
,
2
2mr
r
where J is the angular momentum.

For the Coulomb potential we will have the same r dependence, but for the like
charges the sign in front of the last term is different repulsion.
In case of attraction for J 6= 0 the function Uef f (r) always has a minimum for some
distance r0 . It has no minimum for the repulsive interaction.
Looking at the graph of Uef f (r) we see, that
for the repulsive interaction there can be no bounded orbits. The total energy
E of the body is always positive. The minimal distance the body may have with
the center is given by the solution of the equation Uef f (rmin ) = E.
for the attractive interaction if E > 0, then the motion is not bounded. The
minimal distance the body may have with the center is given by the solution of
the equation Uef f (rmin ) = E.
for the attractive for Uef f (rmin ) < E < 0, the motion is bounded between the
two real solutions of the equation Uef f (r) = E. One of the solution is larger
than r0 , the other is smaller.
for the attractive for Uef f (rmin ) = E, the only solution is r = r0 . So the motion
is around the circle with fixed radius r0 . For such motion we must have
mv 2
GmM
=
,
r0
r02
J2
GmM
=
,
3
mr0
r02
r0 =
J2
Gm2 M
and
mv 2 GmM
1 GmM
=
2
r0
2 r0
these results can also be obtained from the equation on the minimum of the
U
effective potential energy ref f = 0.
In the motion the angular momentum is conserved and all motion happens in one
plane.
In that plane we describe the motion by two time dependent polar coordinates r(t)
and (t). The dynamics is given by the angular momentum conservation and the
effective equation of motion for the r coordinate
Uef f (r0 ) = E =
J
,
mr2 (t)
m
r=
Uef f (r)
.
r
For now I am not interested in the time evolution and only want to find the trajectory
of the body. This trajectory is given by the function r(). In order to find it I will
use the trick we used before
dr
d dr
J dr
J d(1/r)
=
=
=
,
2
dt
dt d
mr (t) d
m d
d2 r
J 2 d2 (1/r)
=
dt2
m2 r2 d2
On the other hand

Uef f
J2
= (1/r)3 + GM m (1/r)2 .
r
m
LECTURE 4. CENTRAL FORCES. EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL.
Now I denote u() = 1/r() and get

J 2 2 d2 u
J2 3
u GM mu2
u
=
2
m d
m
or
u00 = u +
GM m2
J2
15
LECTURE 5
Kepler orbits continued
We stopped at the equation

u00 = u +
GM m2
J2
The general solution of this equation is

GM m2
+ A cos( 0 )
J2
We can put 0 = 0 by redefinition. So we have
u=
1
GM m2
= + A cos ,
=
r
J2
If = 0 this is the equation of a straight line in the polar coordinates.
A more conventional way to write the trajectory is
1
1
J2
1
= (1 + cos ) ,
c=
=
2
r
c
GM m
where > 0 is dimentionless number eccentricity of the ellipse, while c has a

dimension of length
We see that
If < 1 the orbit is periodic.
If < 1 the minimal and maximal distance to the center the perihelion and
aphelion are at = 0 and = respectively.
c
c
rmin =
,
rmax =
1+
1
17
18
If > 1, then the trajectory is unbounded.

If we know c and we know the orbit, so we must be able to find out J and E from
c and . By definition of c we find J 2 = cGM m2 . In order to find E, we notice, that
at r = rmin , r = 0, so at this moment v = rmin = J/mrmin , so the kinetic energy
2
, the potential energy is U = GmM/rmin . So the total
K = mv 2 /2 = J 2 /2mrmin
energy is
1 2 GmM
,
J 2 = cGM m2 ,
2
c
Indeed we see, that if < 1, E < 0 and the orbit is bounded.
The ellipse can be written as
E =K +U =
(x + d)2 y 2
+ 2 = 1,
a2
b
with
c
c
, b=
, d = a, b2 = ac.
2
2
1
1
One can check, that the position of the large mass M is one of the focuses of the
ellipse NOT ITS CENTER!
This is the first Keplers law: all planets go around the ellipses with the sun at
one of the foci.
a=
5.1. Keplers second law

The conservation of the angular momentum reads
1 2
J
r =
.
2
2m
We see, that in the LHS rate at which a line from the sun to a comet or planet sweeps out
area:
J
dA
=
.
dt
2m
This rate is constant! So
Second Keplers law: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas
during equal intervals of time.
5.2. Keplers third law

Consider now the closed orbits only. There is a period T of the rotation of a planet around
the sun. We want to find this period.
The total area of an ellipse is A = ab, so as the rate dA/dt is constant the period is
T =
A
2abm
=
,
dA/dt
J
Now we square the relation and use b2 = ac and c =
J2
GM m2
4 2 3
to find
m2 3
a c=
a
J2
GM
Notice, that the mass of the planet and its angular momentum canceled out! so
T 2 = 4 2
19
LECTURE 5. KEPLER ORBITS CONTINUED
Third Keplers law: For all bodies orbiting the sun the ration of the square of the
period to the cube of the semimajor axis is the same.
This is one way to measure the mass of the sun. For all planets one plots the cube of the
semimajor axes as x and the square of the period as y. One then draws a straight line through
all points. The slope of that line is GM/4 2 .
5.3. Another way

Another way to solve the problem is starting from the following equations:
=
mr 2
+ Uef f (r) = E
2
J
,
mr2 (t)
For now I am not interested in the time evolution and only want to find the trajectory
of the body. This trajectory is given by the function r(). In order to find it I will
express r from the second equation and divide it by from the first. I then find
s
q
r
dr
2 2m
=
=
r
E Uef f (r)
d
J2
or
dr
J
q
= d,
2m r2 E Uef f (r)
J Z
2m
dr0
r0 2 E Uef f (r0 )
The integral becomes a standard one after substitution x = 1/r.
~
5.4. Conserved Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector A
The Kepler problem has an interesting additional symmetry. This symmetry leads to the
~ If the gravitational force is F~ = k2 ~er ,
conservation of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector A.
r
then we define:
~ = p~ J~ mk~er ,
A
where J~ = ~r p~ This vector can be defined for both gravitational and Coulomb forces: k > 0
for attraction and k < 0 for repulsion.
An important feature of the inverse square force is that this vector is conserved. Lets
check it. First we notice, that J~ = 0, so we need to calculate:

~ = p~ J~ mk~e r
A
Now using
p~ = F~ ,
We then see
1 ~
~e r =
~ ~er =
J ~er
mr2
!
~ = F~ J~ k J~ ~er = F~ + k ~er J~ = 0
A
r2
r2
So this vector is indeed conserved.
~ an independent conservation law? If it
The question is: Is this conservation of vector A
~ are three new conservation laws. And the answer is
is the three components of the vector A
that not all of it.
20
~ = 0. So the component of A
~
As J~ = ~r p~ is orthogonal to ~er , we see, that J~ A
perpendicular to the plane of the planet rotation is always zero.
Now lets calculate the magnitude of this vector
~A
~ = p~2 J~2 (~p J)
~ 2 + m2 k 2 2mk~er [~p J]
~ = p~2 J~2 + m2 k 2 2mk J~ [~r p~]
A
r
!
p~2
k ~2
= 2m
J + m2 k 2 = 2mE J~2 + m2 k 2 = 2 k 2 m2 .
2m r
~ is not an independent conservation law.
So we see, that the magnitude of A
~ within the orbit plane. Lets check this
We are left with only the direction of A
direction. As the vector is conserved we can calculate it in any point of orbit. So
~ where the subscript
lets consider the perihelion. At perihelion p~per ~rper J,
per means the value at perihelion. So simple examination shows that p~per J~ =
~ = (pper J mk)~eper . However, vector A
~ is a constant
pJ~eper . So at this point A
of motion, so if it has this magnitude and direction in one point it will have the
same magnitude and direction at all points! On the other hand J = pper rmin , so
2
~ = mrmin (2 pper k )~eper = mrmin (2Kper + Uper ). We know that rmin = c ,
A
2m
rmin
1+
Kper = 12 kc (1 + )2 and Uper = kc (1 + ). So
~ = mk~eper .
A
~ points to the point of the trajectory where the planet
We see, that for Kepler orbits A
or comet is the closest to the sun.
~ provides us with only one new independent conserved quantity.
So we see, that A
~
5.4.1. Kepler orbits from A
The existence of an extra conservation law simplifies
many calculations. For example we can derive equation for the trajectories without solving any differential equations. Lets do just that.
Lets derive the equation for Kepler orbits (trajectories) from our new knowledge of the conservation of
~
the vector A.
~ = ~r [~p J]
~ mkr = J 2 mkr
~r A
On the other hand
~ = rA cos ,
~r A
so rA cos = J 2 mkr
Or
1
mk
A
= 2 1+
cos ,
r
J
mk

c=
J2
,
mk
=
A
.
mk
5.5. Bertrands theorem

Bertrands theorem states that among central force potentials with bound orbits, there are
only two types of central force potentials with the property that all bound orbits are also
closed orbits:
LECTURE 5. KEPLER ORBITS CONTINUED
21
(a) an inverse-square central force such as the gravitational or electrostatic potential

k
,
V (r) =
r
(b) the radial harmonic oscillator potential
1
V (r) = kr2 .
2
The theorem was discovered by and named for Joseph Bertrand.
The proof can be found here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand%27s_theorem
LECTURE 6
Scattering cross-section.
Set up of a scattering problem. Experiment, detector, etc.
Energy. Impact parameter. The scattering angle. Impact parameter as a function
of the scattering angle ().
Flux of particle. Same energy, different impact parameters, different scattering angles.
The scattering problem, n the flux, number of particles per unit area per unit
time. dN the number of particles scattered between the angles and + d per unit
time. A suitable quantity do describe the scattering
dN
.
n
It has the units of area and is called differential cross-section.
If we know the function () , then only the particles which are in between () and
( + d) are scattered at the angle between and + d. So dN = n2d, or
d =
d = 2d =

d

2 d
d
(The absolute value is needed because the derivative is usually negative.)

Often d refers not to the scattering between and + d, but to the scattering to
the solid angle d = 2 sin d. Then

d
d =
d
sin d
Examples
Cross-section for scattering of particles from a perfectly rigid sphere of radius R.
The scattering angle = 2.
R sin = , so = R sin(/2).

1
d
=
d = R2 d

sin d
4
Independent of the incoming energy. The scattering does not probe what is
inside.
23
24
The total cross-section area is

Z
Z
1
= d = R2 2
sin d = R2
4
0
Cross-section for scattering of particles from a spherical potential well of depth U0
and radius R.
Energy conservation
s
q
mv02
mv 2
2U0
=
U0 ,
v = v0 1 +
=
v
1 + U0 /E
0
2
2
mv02
Angular momentum conservation
v0 sin = v sin ,
sin = n(E) sin ,
n(E) =
1 + U0 /E
Scattering angle
= 2( )
Impact parameter
= R sin
So we have
q
= n sin( /2) = n sin cos(/2) n cos sin(/2) = n cos(/2) n 1 /R sin(/2)

R
R
2
2
n sin (/2)
2 = R 2
.
1 + n2 2n cos(/2)
The differential cross-section is
R2 n2 (n cos(/2) 1)(n cos(/2))
d =
d
4 cos(/2)
(1 + n2 2n cos(/2))2
Differential cross-section depends on E/U0 , where E is the energy of incoming
particles. By measuring this dependence we can find U0 from the scattering.
The scattering angle changes from 0 ( = 0) to max , where cos(max ) = 1/n
(for = R). The total cross-section is the integral
=
Z max
d = R2 .
It does not depend on energy or U0 .

Return to the rigid sphere but with U0 .
LECTURE 7
Rutherfords formula.
Consider the scattering of a particle of initial velocity v from the central force given by
the potential energy U (r).
The energy is
2
mv
E=
.
2
The angular momentum is given by
L = mv ,
where is the impact parameter.
The trajectory is given by
L Z r 1
dr
q
( 0 ) =
,
2m r0 r2 E Uef f (r)
Uef f (r) = U (r) +
L2
2mr2
where r0 and 0 are some distance and angle on the trajectory.

At some point the particle is at the closest distance r0 to the center. The angle at this
point is 0 (the angle at the initial infinity is zero.) Lets find the distance r0 . As the
energy and the angular momentum are conserved and at the closest point the velocity is
perpendicular to the radius we have
mv02
+ U (r0 ),
2
so we find that the equation for r0 is
E=
L = mr0 v0 .
Uef f (r0 ) = E.
This is, of course, obvious from the picture of motion in the central field as a one dimensional
motion in the effective potential Uef f (r).
The angle 0 is then given by
(7.1)
L Z 1
dr
q
0 =
.
2m r0 r2 E Uef f (r)
From geometry the scattering angle is given by the relation

(7.2)
+ 20 = 2.
25
26
So we see, that for a fixed v0 the energy E is given, but the angular momentum L
depends on the impact parameter . The equation (7.1) then gives the dependence of 0
on . Then the equation (7.2) gives the dependence of the scattering angle on the impact
parameter . If we know that dependence, we can calculate the scattering cross-section.

d
d
d =
sin d
Example: Coulomb interaction. Lets say that we have a repulsive Coulomb interaction
U= ,
>0
r
In this case the geometry gives
= 20 .
Lets calculate 0
L Z 1
r
0 =
2m r0 r2
dr
E
L2
2mr2
where r0 is the value of r, where the expression under the square root is zero.
Lets take the integral
Z
r0
dr
1
r
r2
E r
v
u
Z
u 2m 1/r0
t
r
2
changing
2mE
L2
L2
2mr2
Z 1/r0
dx
r
E x
x2
L2
2m
Z 1/r0
0
dx
r
E+
dx
2mE
L2
2 m2
L4
2 m2
L4
(x +
sin = x +
m
L2
m 2
)
L2
we find that the integral is

v
u
Z
u 2m /2
t
d,
L2
where sin(1 ) =
m
L2
2mE
L2
2 m 2
L4
1/2
So we find that
0 = /2 1
or
m
cos 0 = sin 1 = 2
L
Using L = 2mE this gives
2mE 2 m2
+
L2
L4
2
sin =
2 +
2
2E
4E 2
or
2
cot2 = 2
2
4E
2
!1/2
!1/2
2 m
2L2
L2
(x
2m
m 2
)
L2
LECTURE 7. RUTHERFORDS FORMULA.
The differential cross-section then is

2
d2 1
1
d =
d =
d
4
d 2 sin
4E sin (/2)
Notice, that the total cross-section diverges at small scattering angles.
Discussion.
The beam. How do you characterize it?
The statistics. What is measured?
The beam again. Interactions.
The forward scattering diverges.
The cut off of the divergence is given by the size of the atom.
Back scattering. Almost no dependence on .
Energy dependence 1/E 2 .
Plot d as a function of 1/(4E)2 , expect a straight line at large 1/(4E)2 .
The slope of the line gives 2 .
What is the behavior at very large E? What is the crossing point?
2
The crossing point tells us the size of the nucleus d = R4 d.
How much data we need to collect to get certainty of our results?
27
LECTURE 8
Functionals.
8.1. Difference between functions and functionals.
8.2. Examples of functionals.
Area under the graph.
Length of a path. Invariance under reparametrization.
It is important to specify the space of functions.
Energy of a horizontal
sting in the gravitational field.
R x2
General form x1 L(x, y, y 0 , y 00 , . . . )dx. Important: In function L the y, y 0 , y 00 and so
on are independent variables. It means that we consider a function L(x, z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . )
of normal variables x, z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . and for any function y(x) at some point x we
calculate y(x), y 0 (x), y 00 (x), . . . and plug x and these values instead of z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . in
L(x, z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . ). We do that for all points x, and then do the integration.
Value at a point as functional. The functional which for any function returns the
value of the function at a given point.
Functions of many variables. Area of a surface. Invariance under reparametrization.
8.3. Discretization. Fanctionals as functions.

8.4. Minimization problem
Minimal distance between two points.

Minimal time of travel. Ferma Principe.
Minimal potential energy of a string.
etc.
8.5. The Euler-Lagrange equations

The functional A[y(x)] = xx12 L(y(x), y 0 (x), x)dx with the boundary conditions y(x1 ) =
y1 and y(x2 ) = y2 .
The problem is to find a function y(x) which is the stationary point of the functional
A[y(x)].
Derivation of the Euler-Lagrange equation.
R
29
30
The Euler-Lagrange equation reads

d L
L
.
=
0
dx y
y
8.6. Examples
Shortest path
R x2 q
1 + (y 0 )2 dx, y(x1 ) = y1 , and y(x2 ) = y2 .
x1
L(y(x), y 0 (x), x) =
L
= 0,
y
1 + (y 0 )2 ,
the Euler-Lagrange equation is

y0
y0
d
q
q
= 0,
= const.,
dx 1 + (y 0 )2
1 + (y 0 )2
L
y0
q
=
.
y 0
1 + (y 0 )2
y 0 (x) = const.,
y = ax + b.
The constants a and b should be computed from the boundary conditions y(x1 ) = y1
and y(x2 ) = y2 .
Shortest time to fall Brachistochrone.
What path the rail should be in order for the car to take the least amount of
time to go from point A to point B under gravity if it starts with zero velocity.
Lets take the coordinate x to go straight down and y to be horizontal, with the
origin in point A.
The boundary conditions: for point A: y(0) = 0; for point B: y(xB ) = yB .
The time of travel is
T =
.
We have
ds
=
v
L(y, y 0 , x) =
1 + (y 0 )2
,
2gx
Z xB
L
= 0,
y
1 + (y 0 )2
dx
2gx
L
1
y0
q
=
.
y 0
2gx 1 + (y 0 )2
The Euler-Lagrange equation is
d 1
y0
= 0,
q
dx
x 1 + (y 0 )2
1 (y 0 )2
1
= ,
0
2
x 1 + (y )
2a
s
0
y (x) =
x
2a x
So the path is given by

Z xs
x0
dx0
2a x0
0
R
The integral is taken by substitution x = a(1 cos ). It then becomes a (1
cos )d = a( sin ). So the path is given by the parametric equations
y(x) =
x = a(1 cos ),
y = a( sin ).
the constant a must be chosen such, that the point xB , yB is on the path.
LECTURE 9
Euler-Lagrange equation continued.
9.1. Reparametrization
The form of the Euler-Lagrange equation does not change under the reparametrization.
Consider a functional and corresponding E-L equation
A=
Z x2
x1
d L
L
=
0
dx yx
y(x)
L(y(x), yx0 (x), x)dx,
Lets consider a new parameter and the function x() converts one old parameter x to
another . The functional
A=
Z x2
x1
L(y(x), yx0 (x), x)dx
Z 2
y(), y0
d
dx
,x
d,
dx
d
where y() y(x()). So that

!
L = L
y(), y0
dx
d
,x
dx
d
The E-L equation then is

d L
L
=
0
d y
y()
Using
L
dx L d
L
=
= 0,
0
0
y
d yx dx
yx
L
dx L
=
y()
d y(x)
we see that E-L equation reads

d L
dx L
=
,
0
d yx
d y(x)
d L
L
=
.
0
dx yx
y(x)
So we return back to the original form of the E-L equation.

What we found is that E-L equations are invariant under the parameter change.
31
32
9.2. The Euler-Lagrange equations, for many variables.

9.3. Problems of Newton laws.
Not invariant when we change the coordinate system:
(
Cartesian:
m
x = Fx
,
m
y = Fy
m r r 2 = Fr

Cylindrical:
+ 2r = F .
m r
Too complicated, too tedious. Consider two pendulums.

Difficult to find conservation laws.
Symmetries are not obvious.
9.4. Newton second law as Euler-Lagrange equations

9.5. Hamiltons Principle. Action. Only minimum!
9.6. Lagrangian. Generalized coordinates.
LECTURE 10
Lagrangian mechanics.
10.1. Hamiltons Principle. Action.

For each conservative mechanical system there exists a functional, called action, which is
minimal on the solution of the equation of motion
10.2. Lagrangian.
Lagrangian is not energy. We do not minimize energy. We minimize action.
10.3. Examples.
Free fall.
A mass on a stationary wedge. No friction.
A mass on a moving wedge. No friction.
A pendulum.
A bead on a vertical rotating hoop.
Lagrangian.
m
m
L = R2 2 + 2 R2 sin2 mrR(1 cos ).
2
2
Equation of motion.
R = (2 R cos g) sin .
There are four equilibrium points
g
2 R
Critical c . The second two equilibriums are possible only if
q
g
<
1,
>
=
g/R.
c
2 R
Effective potential energy for c . From the Lagrangian we can read the
effective potential energy:
m
Uef f () = 2 R2 sin2 + mrR(1 cos ).
2
sin = 0,
or
33
cos =
34
Assuming c we are interested only in small . So

3
1
Uef f () mR2 (2c 2 )2 + mR2 2c 4
2
4!
3
Uef f () mR2 c (c )2 + mR2 2c 4
4!
Spontaneous symmetry breaking. Plot the function Uef f () for < c , = c ,
and > c . Discuss universality.
Small oscillations around = 0, < c
mR2 = mR2 (2c 2 ),
Uef f
2c 2 .
Small oscillations around 0 , > c .

m
Uef f () = 2 R2 sin2 + mrR(1 cos ),
2
2 Uef f
= mR(2 R cos g) sin ,
= mR2 2 sin2 mR cos (2 R cos g)
2

2 Uef f
Uef f

= 0,

= mR2 (2 2c )
=0
2 =0
So the Tylor expansion gives
1
Uef f ( 0 ) const + mR2 (2 2c )( 0 )2
2
The frequency of small oscillations then is
=
2 2c .
The effective potential energy for small and | c |

1
1
Uef f () = a(c )2 + b4 .
2
4
0 for the stable equilibrium is given by Uef f / = 0
(
0 =
0q
a
(
b
for < c
c ) for > c
Plot 0 (). Non-analytic behavior at c .

Response: how 0 responses to a small change in .
for < c
0 0 q
=
1
a 1
2 b (c ) for > c
0
Plot
vs . The response diverges at c .
A double pendulum.
Choosing the coordinates.
Potential energy.
Kinetic energy. Normally, most trouble for students.
LECTURE 11
Lagrangian mechanics.
11.1. Non uniqueness of the Lagrangian.

11.2. Generalized momentum.
For a coordinate q the generalized momentum is defined as
p
L
q
For a particle in a potential field L =
m~
r 2
2
p~ =
L
= m~r
~r
For a rotation around a fixed axis L =

p=
U (~r) we have
I 2
2
U (), then
L
= I = J.

The generalized momentum is just an angular momentum.
11.3. Ignorable coordinates. Conservation laws.

If one chooses the coordinates in such a way, that the Lagrangian does not depend on say
one of the coordinates q1 (but it still depends on q1 , then the corresponding generalized
is conserved as
momentum p1 = L
q1
d
d L
L
p1 =
=
=0
dt
dt q1
q1
Problem of a freely horizontally moving cart of mass M with hanged pendulum of
mass m and length l.
35
36
11.4. Momentum conservation. Translation invariance

Lets consider a translationally invariant problem. For example all interactions depend only
i
on the distance between the particles. The Lagrangian for this problem is L(~r1 , . . . ~ri , ~r1 , . . . ~r).
Then we add a constant vector to all coordinate vectors and define
i ) L(~r1 + ~, . . . ~ri + ~, ~r1 , . . . ~r)
i
L (~r1 , . . . ~ri , ~r1 , . . . ~r,~
It is clear, that in the translationally invariant system the Lagrangian will not change under
such a transformation. So we find
L
= 0.
~
But according to the definition
L X L
=
.
~
ri
i ~
On the other hand the Lagrange equations tell us that
X L
d X L
d X
=
p~i ,
=
ri
dt i ~ri
dt i
i ~
so
X
d X
p~i = 0,
p~i = const.
dt i
i
We see, that the total momentum of the system is conserved!
11.5. Noethers theorem

Lets assume that the Lagrangian has a one parameter continuous symmetry. Namely
t) = L(h q, hq, t), where h is some symmetry transformation which depends on
L(q, q,
t) = 0. On the
the parameter . Then using notations Q(, t) = h q(t) we find L(Q, Q,
other hand
!
!
L Q L d Q
d L Q d L Q
L
L Q L Q
+
=
+
=
+
L(Q, Q, t) =

Q Q

Q Q
dt
Q dt Q
dt Q
We see, that if Q is a solution of the Lagrange equation, then we find the
d
dt
Or that
L Q

Q
=0
L Q
= const.
Q
during the motion.

So the message is that for every symmetry of the Lagrangian there is a conserved quantity.
Examples:
Momentum conservation: ~r ~r + ~e . The Noethers theorem gives
L
~e = p~ ~e = const.
~r
Angular momentum: ~r ~r + d~e ~r. The Noethers theorem gives
L
~e ~r = p~ (~e ~r) = ~e (~r p~)
~r
37
LECTURE 11. LAGRANGIAN MECHANICS.
11.6. Energy conservation.

Lets compare
Consider a Lagrangian, which does not depend on time explicitly: L(q, q).
the value of the action
Z t2
A=
L(q, q)dt,
q(t1 ) = q1 ,
t1
q(t2 ) = q2
with the value of the action

A =
Z t2 +
L(Q, Q)dt,
Q(t1 + ) = q1 ,
t1 +
Q(t2 + ) = q2
on the functions q(t) and Q(t) = q(t ). It is clear, that if q satisfies the boundary
conditions, then so does Q(t). Then by changing the variables of integration we find, that
the value of the action is the same for both functions and does not depend on . So in this
case A |=0 = 0. On the other hand
!
Z t2
L Q L Q
A |=0 = L|t2 L|t1 +
+
dt =
Q
t1
Q
=0
Z t2
Z t2
L
d L
L Q
Q
+

dt
L|t2 L|t1 +

Q dt Q
=0
t1
t1
Q
=0
=0
If we now consider the value of the action on the solutions of the Lagrange equations,
then we see, that

the last term is zero. We also can substitute q and q instead of Q and Q,

Q
and q = . We then find:
d
dt
=0
L
q L
q
=
t2
L
q L
q
As times t1 and t2 are arbitrary, then we conclude, that

L
E=
q L
q
is a conserved quantity. Its called energy.
Example:
2
L = m2~v U (~r).
A particle on a circle.
A pendulum.
A cart with a pendulum.
A string with tension and gravity.
.
t1
LECTURE 12
Lagrangians equations for magnetic forces.
The equation of motion is
~ + ~r B)
~
m~r = q(E
The question is what Lagrangian gives such equation of motion?
Consider the magnetic field. As there is no magnetic charges one of the Maxwell equations
reads
~ =0
B
This equation is satisfied by the following solution
~ = A,
~
B
~ r, t).
for any vector field A(~
For the electric field another Maxwell equation reads
~
~ = B
E
t
we see that then
~
~ = A ,
E
t
where is the electric potential.
~ and the potential are not uniquely defined. One can always
The vector potential A
choose another potential
F
~0 = A
~ + F,
A
0 =
t
Such fields are called gauge fields, and the transformation above is called gauge transformation. Such fields cannot be measured.
~ and E
~ are zero, the gauge fields do not have to be zero. For example if
Notice, that if B
~ and are constants, B
~ = 0, E
~ = 0.
A
Now we can write the Lagrangian:
L=
m~r 2
~
q( ~r A)
2
~ and E!
~
It is impossible to write the Lagrangian in terms of the physical fields B
39
40
The expression
~
dt d~r A
is a full differential if and only if
~
A
~ = 0,
= 0,
A

t
which means that the it is full differential, and hence can be thrown out, only if the
physical fields are zero!
The generalized momenta are
L
~
p~ = = m~r + q A
~r
The Lagrange equations are :
L
d
p~ =
dt
~r
Lets consider the x component
d
L
px =
,
dt
x
Ax
Ax
Ax
Ax
Ay
Az
Ax
+ q y
+ q z
+q
= q
+ q x
+ q y
+ q z
m
x + q x
x
y
z
t
x
x
x
x
"
#
"
#!
Ax
Ay Ax
Ax Az
m
x=q
+ y
x
t
x
y
z
x
m
x = q (Ex + yB
z zB
y)
LECTURE 13
Hamiltonian and Hamiltonian equations.
13.1. Hamiltonian.
Given a Lagrangian L({qi }, {qi }) the energy
E=
pi qi L,
pi =
L
qi
is a number defined on a trajectory! One can say that it is a function of initial conditions.
We can construct a function function in the following way: we first solve the set of
equations
L
pi =
qi
with respect to qi , we then have these functions
qi = qi ({qj }, {pj })
and define a function H({qi }, {pi })
H({qi }, {pi }) =
pi qi ({qj }, {pj }) L({qi }, {qi ({qj }, {pj })}),
This function is called a Hamiltonian!

The importance of variables:
A Lagrangian is a function of generalized coordinates and velocities: q and q.
A Hamiltonian is a function of the generalized coordinates and momenta: q and p.

Here are the steps to get a Hamiltonian from a Lagrangian
(a) Write down a Lagrangian L({qi }, {qi }) it is a function of generalized coordinates
and velocities qi , qi
(b) Find generalized momenta
L
pi =
.
qi
(c) Treat the above definitions as equations and solve them for all qi , so for each velocity
qi you have an expression qi = qi ({qj }, {pj }).
41
42
(d) Substitute these function qi = qi ({qj }, {pj }) into the expression

X
pi qi L({qi }, {qi }).
The resulting function H({qi }, {pi }) of generalized coordinates and momenta is called a
Hamiltonian.
13.2. Examples.
A particle in a potential field.

Kepler problem.
Motion in electromagnetic field.
Rotation around a fixed axis.
A pendulum.
A cart and a pendulum.
New notation for the partial derivatives. What do we keep fixed?
Derivation of the Hamiltonian equations.
H
H
,
p =
.
q =
p
q
Energy conservation.
Velocity.
H(p, x) = m2 c4 + p2 c2 + U (x).
13.3. Phase space. Hamiltonian field. Phase trajectories.
Motion in the phase space.

Trajectories do not intersect. (Singular points)
Harmonic oscillator.
Pendulum.
13.4. From Hamiltonian to Lagrangian.
LECTURE 14
Liouvilles theorem. Poisson brackets.
14.1. Liouvilles theorem.

Lets consider a more general problem. Lets say that the dynamics of n variables is given by
n equations
~x = f~(~x).
These equations provide a map from any point ~x(t = 0) to some other point ~x(t) in our
space in a latter time. This way we say, that there is a map g t : ~x(0) ~x(t). We can use
this map, to map an original region D(0) in ~x space to another region D(t) at a later time
D(t) = g t D(0). The original region D(0) had a volume v(0), the region D(t) has a volume
v(t). We want to find how this volume depends on t. To do that we consider a small time
increment dt. The map g dt is given by (I keep only terms linear in dt)
g dt (~x) = ~x + f~(~x)dt.
The volume v(dt) is given by
v(dt) =
dn x
D(dt)
We now consider our map as a change of variables, from ~x(0) to ~x(dt). Then
v(dt) =
det
D(0)
g dt (xi ) n
d x.
xj
Using our map we find that the matrix

g dt (xi )
fi
= ij +
dt = E + dtA.
xj
xj
We need the determinant of this matrix only in the linear order in dt. We use the following
= tr log M
to find
formula log det M
det E + dtA = etr log(E+dtA) edttrA 1 + dttrA,
and find
v(dt) = v(0) + dt
Z
D(0)
43
X
i
fi (~x) n
d x,
xi
44
or
X fi (~
x) n
dv Z
=
d x.
dt
xi
D(t) i
For the Hamiltonian mechanics we take n to be even, half of xs are the coordinates qi ,
and the other half are momenta pi . Then we fave
n/2
fi (~x) X
2H
2H
=
= 0.
pi qi
i=1 xi
i=1 qi pi
n
X
"
So the Hamiltonian mechanics conserves a volume of the phase space region. Minus sign is
very important.
14.2. Poisson brackets.

Consider a function of time, coordinates and momenta: f (t, q, p), then
!
f
f H
df
f X f
f X f H
qi +
pi =
=
+
+
dt
t
qi
pi
t
qi pi
pi qi
i
i
f
+ {H, f }
t
where we defined the Poisson brackets for any two functions g and f
{g, f } =
g f
g f
pi qi qi pi
X
i
In particular we see, that

{pi , qk } = i,k .
Poisson brackets are
Antisymmetric.
Bilinear.
For a constant c, {f, c} = 0.
{fi f2 , g} = f1 {f2 , g} + f2 {f1 , g}.
Lets consider an arbitrary transformation of variables: Pi = Pi ({p}, {q}), and Qi =
Qi ({p}, {q}). We then have
Pi = {H, Pi },
Q i = {H, Qi }.
or
Pi =
X
k
H Pi H Pi
pk qk
qk pk
H Q
H P
+
P pk
Q pk
X
k,
Pi
H P
H Q
+
qk
P qk
Q qk
!
H
H
{Pi , P } +
{Pi , Q }
P
Q
Analogously,
H
H
{Qi , Q } +
{Qi , P }
Q
P
We see, that the Hamiltonian equations keep their form if

Q i =
{Pi , Q } = i, ,
{Pi , P } = {Qi , Q } = 0
Pi
pk
LECTURE 14. LIOUVILLES THEOREM. POISSON BRACKETS.
45
The variables that have such Poisson brackets are called the canonical variables, they are
canonically conjugated. Transformations that keep the canonical Poisson brackets are called
canonical transformations.
LECTURE 15
Hamiltonian equations. Jacobis identity. Integrals of
motion.
15.1. Hamiltonian mechanics

The Poisson brackets are property of the phase space and have nothing to do with
the Hamiltonian.
The Hamiltonian is just a function on the phase space.
Given the phase space pi , qi , the Poisson brackets and the Hamiltonian. We can
construct the equations of the Hamiltonian mechanics:
pi = {H, pi },
qi = {H, qi }.
In this formulation there is no need to distinguish between the coordinates and

momenta.
Time evolution of any function f (p, q, t) is given by the equation
df
f
=
+ {H, f }.
dt
t
difference between the full and the partial derivatives!
The Poisson brackets must satisfy:
Antisymmetric.
Bilinear.
For a constant c, {f, c} = 0.
{f1 f2 , g} = f1 {f2 , g} + f2 {f1 , g}.
Jacobis identity: {f, {g, h}} + {g, {h, f }} + {h, {f, g}} = 0. (I will prove it
later.)
Given the phase space equipped with the Poisson brackets with above properties any
function on the phase space can be considered as a Hamiltonian. The Hamiltonian dynamics
is then fully defined.
47
48
15.2. Jacobis identity

First: Using the definition of the Poisson brackets in the canonical coordinates it is easy, but
lengthy to prove, that for any three functions f , g, and h:
{f, {g, h}} + {g, {h, f }} + {h, {f, g}} = 0
As it holds for any functions this is the property of the phase space and the Poisson brackets.
Second: Without referring to canonical coordinates we can do the following. Lets consider
three time independent functions on the phase space f , g, and h. Lets think of the function
h as a Hamiltonian of some dynamics. We then can write
df
dg
d
{f, g} = { , g} + {f, } = {{h, f }, g} + {f, {h, g}}.
dt
dt
dt
On the other hand
d
{f, g} = {h, {f, g}}.
dt
Comparing these two expressions we see, that the Jacobis identity must hold in order for the
dynamics to be consistent. If the functions f , g, and h are time dependent the calculation is
similar, but lengthier.
15.3. How to compute Poisson brackets.

Lets say, that we have a phase space with coordinates {qi }. The phase space is equipped
with the Poisson brackets, which we know for the coordinates {qi , qj } we do not distinguish
between the coordinates and momenta, and the Poisson brackets do not have to be canonical,
but they satisfy all the requirements. Lets say, that we have two functions on the phase space
f ({qi }) and g({qi }). The question is how to compute the Poisson bracket {f, g}?
We start from computing the Poisson bracket {f, qi }. A qi is a function on the phase
space, so we can consider it as a Hamiltonian. Then we have
df
= {qi , f }.
dt
On the other hand
f
f
df
=
qj =
{qi , qj }.
dt
qj
qj
Comparing the two expressions we find
{f, qi } =
f
{qj , qi }.
qj
Notice, that at the end the dynamics does not matter. The above formula is just a relation
between two Poisson brackets.
Now consider the two functions f ({qi }) and g({qi }). Lets take the function f as a Hamiltonian. Then we have
dg
= {f, g}.
dt
On the other hand
dg
g
g
g f
=
qi =
{f, qi } =
{qj , qi }.
dt
qi
qi
qi qj
LECTURE 15. HAMILTONIAN EQUATIONS. JACOBIS IDENTITY. INTEGRALS OF MOTION.49
Again, comparing the two expressions we find

f g
{qj , qi }.
{f, g} =
qj qi
15.4. Integrals of motion.

= 0 under the evolution of a
A conserved quantity is such a function f (q, p, t), that df
dt
Hamiltonian H. So we have
f
+ {H, f } = 0.
t
In particular, if H does not depend on time, then obviously {H, H} = 0 and the energy is
conserved.
Lets assume, that we have two conserved quantities f and g. Consider the time evolution
of their Poisson bracket
(
) (
)
(
) (
)
d
f
g
f
g
{f, g} =
, g + f,
+ {H, {f, g}} =
, g + f,
+ {f, {H, g}} + {{H, f }, g} =
dt
t
t
t
t
)
g
df
dg
f
+ {H, f }, g + f,
+ {H, g} =
, g + f,
=0
t
t
dt
dt
So if we have two conserved quantities we can construct a new conserved quantity! Sometimes
it will turn out to be an independent conservation law!
15.5. Angular momentum.

~ = ~r p~.
Lets calculate the Poisson brackets for the angular momentum: M
Coordinate ~r and momentum p~ are canonically conjugated so
{pi , rj } = ij ,
{pi , pj } = {ri , rj } = 0.
So

{M i , M j } = ilk jmn {rl pk , rm pn } = ilk jmn rl {pk , rm pn } + pk {rl , rm pn } =

ilk jmn rl pn {pk , rm } + rl rm {pk , pn } + pk pn {rl , rm } + pk rm {rl , pn } =

ilk jmn rl pn km pk rm ln = ilk jkn ikn jlk pn rl = pi rj ri pj = ijk M k

In short
{M i , M j } = ijk M k
We can now consider a Hamiltonian mechanics, say for the Hamiltonian
~
H = ~h M
LECTURE 16
Oscillations.
16.1. Small oscillations.

Problem with one degree of freedom: U (x). The Lagrangian is
L=
mx 2
U (x).
2
The equation of motion is

U
x

If the function U (x) has an extremum at x = x0 , then U

= 0. Then x = x0 is a (time
x x=x0
independent) solution of the equation of motion.
Consider a small deviation from the solution x = x0 + x. Assuming that x stays small
during the motion we have
1
1
U (x) = U (x0 + x) U (x0 ) + U 0 (x0 )x + U 00 (x0 )x2 = U (x0 ) + U 00 (x0 )x2
2
2
The equation of motion becomes
= U 00 (x0 )x
mx
m
x=
If U 00 (x0 ) > 0, then we have small oscillations with the frequency

2 =
U 00 (x0 )
m
This is a stable equilibrium.

If U 00 (x0 ) < 0, then the solution grows exponentially, and at some point our approximation becomes invalid. The equilibrium is unstable.
Look at what it means graphically.
Generality: consider a system with infinitesimally small dissipation and external perturbations. The perturbations will kick it out of any unstable equilibrium. The dissipation will
bring it down to a stable equilibrium. It may take a very long time.
After that the response of the system to small enough perturbations will be defined by
the small oscillations around the equilibrium
51
52
16.2. Many degrees of freedom.

Consider two equal masses in 1D connected by springs of constant k to each other and to
the walls.
There are two coordinates: x1 and x2 .
There are two modes x1 x2 and x1 + x2 .
The potential energy of the system is
U (x1 , x2 ) =
kx21 k(x1 x2 )2 kx22

+
+
2
2
2
The Lagrangian
mx 21 mx 22 kx21 k(x1 x2 )2 kx22
+
2
2
2
2
2
The equations of motion are
L=
m
x1 = 2kx1 + kx2
m
x2 = 2kx2 + kx1
These are two second order differential equations. Total they must have four solutions. Lets
look for the solutions in the form
x1 = A1 eit ,
x2 = A2 eit
then
2 mA1 = 2kA1 + kA2
2 mA2 = 2kA2 + kA1
or
(2k m 2 )A1 kA2 = 0
(2k m 2 )A2 kA1 = 0
or
A1
2k m 2
k
=0
2
A2
k
2k m
In order for this set of equations to have a non trivial solution we must have
det
2k m 2
k
k
2k m 2
(2k m 2 )2 k 2 = 0,
= 0,
(k m 2 )(3k m 2 ) = 0
There are two modes with the frequencies

a2 = k/m,
b2 = 3k/m
and corresponding eigen vectors

!
Aa1
Aa2
=A
1
1
Ab1
Ab2
=A
1
1
The general solution then is

x1
x2
!
a
=A
1
1
!
b
cos(a t + a ) + A
1
1
cos(b t + b )
What will happen if the masses and springs constants are different?
Repeat the previous calculation for arbitrary m1 , m2 , k1 , k2 , k3 .
LECTURE 16. OSCILLATIONS.
53
General scheme.
16.3. Oscillations. Many degrees of freedom. General case.

Lets consider a general situation in detail. We start from an arbitrary Lagrangian
L = K({qi }, {qi }) U ({qi })
Very generally the kinetic energy is zero if all velocities are zero. It will also increase if any
of the velocities increase.
It is assumed that the potential energy has a minimum at some values of the coordinates
qi = qi0 . Lets first change the definition of the coordinates xi = qi q0i . We rewrite the
Lagrangian in these new coordinates.
L = K({x i }, {xi }) U ({xi })
We can take the potential energy to be zero at xi = 0, also as xi = 0 is a minimum we must
have U/xi = 0.
Lets now assume, that the motion has very small amplitude. We then can use Taylor
expansion in both {x i } and {xi } up to the second order.
The time reversal invariance demands that only even powers of velocities can be present in
the expansion. Also as the kinetic energy is zero if all velocities are zero, we have K(0, {xi }),
so we have

1 X K
1
K({x i }, {xi })

x i x j = kij x i x j ,
2 i,j x i x j x=0,x=0
2
where the constant matrix kij is symmetric and positive definite.

For the potential energy we have

1
1 X U

xi xj = uij xi xj ,
U ({xi })

2 i,j xi xj x=0
2
where the constant matrix uij is symmetric. If x = 0 is indeed a minimum, then the matrix
uij is also positive definite.
The Lagrangian is then
1
1
L = kij x i x j uij xi xj
2
2
where kij and uij are just constant matrices. The Lagrange equations are
kij xj = uij xj
We are looking for the solutions in the form
xaj = Aaj eia t ,
then
(16.1)
a2 kij uij Aaj = 0
In order for this linear equation to have a nontrivial solution we must have

det a2 kij uij = 0

After solving this equation we can find all N of eigen/normal frequencies a and the eigen/normal
modes of the small oscillations Aai .
54
We can prove, that all a2 are positive (if U is at minimum.) Lets substitute the solutions
a and Aaj into equation (16.1), multiply it by (Aai ) and sum over the index i.
X
a2 kij uij Aaj Ai = 0.
ij
From here we see
uij Aaj Ai
= P
a
ij kij Aj Ai
As both matrices kij and uij are symmetric and positive definite, we have the ration of to
positive real numbers in the RHS. So a2 must be positive and real.
Examples
Problem with three masses on a ring. Symmetries. Zero mode.
Two masses, splitting of symmetric and anitsymmetric modes.
P
a2
ij
LECTURE 17
Oscillations with parameters depending on time.
Kapitza pendulum.
1
1
L = m(t)x 2 k(t)x2 .
2
2
The Lagrange equation
d
d
m(t) x = k(t)x.
dt
dt
We change the definition of time
m(t)
d
1
=
dt
m(t)
d
d
=
,
dt
d
then the equation of motion is

d2 x
= mkx.
d 2
So without loss of generality we can consider an equation
x = 2 (t)x
We call the frequency of change of .
Different time scales. Three different cases: , , and .
17.1. Kapitza pendulum

17.1.1. Vertical displacement.
Set up of the problem.
Time scales difference.
Expected results.
The coordinates
x = l sin
,
y = l(1 cos ) +
55
x = l cos
y = l sin +
56
The Lagrangian
L=
ml2 2
+ ml sin + mgl cos
2
The equation of motion
+ sin = 2 sin
l
Look for the solution
= 0 + ,
= 0
What does averaging means. Separation of the time scales. Time T such that
1 T 1 .
We expect to be small, but and are NOT small. The equation then is
(17.1)
0 + + sin 0 + cos 0 = 2 sin 0 2 cos 0
l
l
The frequency of the function 0 is small, so the fast oscillating functions must cancel each
other. So
+ sin 0 + cos 0 = 2 cos 0 .

l
l
Neglecting term proportional to small we get
= sin 0 .
l
As = 0, the requirement = 0 fixes the other terms coming from the integration.
Now we take the equation (17.1) and average it over the time T .
0 +
cos 0 = 2 sin 0
l
We now have
1
= 2 sin 0 ,
l
Our equation then is
1ZT 2
1ZT
2
dt =
() dt = ()
T 0
T 0
2
2
()
2
()
= 2 sin 0 + 2 sin 20 =
cos 0 2 cos 20
2l
0
4l
So we have a motion in the effective potential field
Uef f = 2 cos 0
2
()
cos 20
4l2
The equilibrium positions are given by

2
U
()
= 2 sin 0 + 2 sin 20 = 0,
0
2l
We see, that if
2 l2
2
()
2
()
sin 0 2 + 2 cos 0 = 0
l
< 1, a pair of new solutions appears.
The stability is defined by the sign of

2
2U
()
2
=
cos
+
cos 20
0
20
l2
LECTURE 17. OSCILLATIONS WITH PARAMETERS DEPENDING ON TIME. KAPITZA PENDULUM.

57
One see, that

0 = 0 is always a stable solution.
2 2
0 = is unstable for l2 > 1, but becomes stable if
()
The new solutions that appear for
2 l2
2
()
2 l2
2
()
< 1.
< 1 are unstable.
For 0 close to we can introduce 0 = +
(
)
= 2 2 2 1
l
We see, that for
frequency
2
()
l2 2
> 1 the frequency of the oscillations in the upper point have the
2
()
2 = 2 2 2 1
l
Remember, that above calculation is correct if of the is much larger then . If is
2 2 2 , where 0 is the amplitude
oscillating with the frequency , then we can estimate ()
0
of the motion. Then the interesting regime is at
l2
2 > 2 2 2 .
So the interesting regime is well withing the applicability of the employed approximations.
LECTURE 18
Kapitza pendulum. Horizontal case.
Lets consider a shaken pendulum without the gravitation force acting on it. The fast
~
shaking is given by a fast time dependent vector (t).
This vector defines a direction in space.
~ = z(t).
I will call this direction z, so (t)
The amplitude is small l, where l is the length of the pendulum, but the shaking
is very fast , the frequency of the pendulum motion (without gravity it is not well
defined, but we will keep in mind that we are going to include gravity later.)
Lets now use a non inertial frame of reference connected to the point of attachment of the
pendulum. In this frame of reference there is a artificial force which acts on the pendulum.
This force is
z.
f~ = m
If the pendulum makes an angle with respect to the axis z, then the torque of the force f~
is = lf sin . So the equation of motion
= sin
ml2 = lm sin ,
l
Now we split the angle onto slow motion described by 0 a slow function of time, and
fast motion (t) a fast oscillating function of time such that = 0.
We then have
0 + = sin(0 + )
l
Notice the non linearity of the RHS.
As 0 , we can use the Taylor expansion
(18.1)
0 + = sin(0 ) +
cos(0 )
l
l
Double derivatives of and are very large, so in the zeroth order we can write
= sin(0 ),
= sin(0 ).
l
l
Now averaging the equation (18.1) in the way described in the previous lecture we get
0 =
cos(0 ) =
sin(0 ) cos(0 )
l
l
59
60
or
2
cos(0 ) = 2 sin(0 ) cos(0 )
0 =
l
l
What is happening is illustrated on the figure. If is positive, then is negative, so the torque is negative and is larger,
because the angle = 0 + is larger. So the net torque is
negative!
18.0.2. Vertical.
Now we can get the result from the previous lecture. We just
need to add the gravitational term 2 sin 0 .
2
0 = 2 sin 0 2 sin(0 ) cos(0 ).
l
So we have a motion in the effective potential field
Uef f = 2 cos 0
Figure 1. The Kapitza
pendulum.
2
()
cos 20
4l2
The equilibrium positions are given by
2
()
U
= 2 sin 0 + 2 sin 20 = 0,
0
2l
We see, that if
2
()
sin 0 2 + 2 cos 0 = 0
l
2 l2
2
()
< 1, a pair of new solutions appears.
The stability is defined by the sign of

2
2U
()
2
cos 20
=
cos
+
0
20
l2
One see, that
0 = 0 is always a stable solution.
2 2
0 = is unstable for l2 > 1, but becomes stable if
()
The new solutions that appear for
2 l2
2
()
2 l2
2
()
< 1.
< 1 are unstable.
For 0 close to we can introduce 0 = +
2
()
= 2 2 2 1
l
We see, that for
frequency
2
()
l2 2
> 1 the frequency of the oscillations in the upper point have the
2
()
2 = 2 2 2 1
l
LECTURE 18. OSCILLATIONS WITH PARAMETERS DEPENDING ON TIME. KAPITZA PENDULUM. HORIZONT
Remember, that above calculation is correct if of the is much larger then . If is

2 2 2 , where 0 is the amplitude
oscillating with the frequency , then we can estimate ()
0
of the motion. Then the interesting regime is at
l2
2 > 2 2 2 .
So the interesting regime is well withing the applicability of the employed approximations.
18.0.3. Horizontal.
If is horizontal, the it is convenient to redefine the angle 0 /2 + 0 , then the shake
contribution changes sign and we get
2
()
Uef f = 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 20
4l
The equilibrium position is found by
2
Uef f
(
)
= sin 0 2 2 cos 0 .
0
l
Lets write Uef f for small angles, then (dropping the constant.)
Uef f
If
2
()
2 l2
2
2
2
()
2 ()
1 2 2 20 +
4 2 2 1 40
2
l
24
l
1, then
Uef f
2
2
2
()
1 2 2 20 + 40 .
2
l
8
Spontaneous symmetry braking.
LECTURE 19
Foucault pendulum.
The opposite situation, when the change of parameters is very slow adiabatic approximation.
In rotation
~ ~r.
~r =
In our local system of coordinate (not inertial) a radius-vector is
~r = x~ex + y~ey .
So
~ ~ex + y
~ ~ey
~r = x~
ex + y~
e y + x
~ Then
I chose the system of coordinate such that ex .
~v 2 = x 2 + y 2 + y 2 2 cos2 + 2 x2 + 2(xy y x)
cos
For a pendulum we have
x = l cos ,
y = l sin
so
x 2 + y 2 = l2 2 + l2 2 2
xy y x = l2 2
and
v 2 = l2 2 + l2 2 2 + 2l2 2 cos + 2 l2 2 (cos2 + sin2 cos2 )
The Lagrangian then is
mv 2
mv 2 1
L=
+ mgl cos =
mgl2
2
2
2
In fact it is not exact as the centripetal force is missing. However, this force is of the
order of 2 and we will see, that the terms of that order can be ignored.
and the Lagrangian equations
= 2 + 2 + 2 cos + 2 (sin2 cos2 + cos2 )
cos = 1 2 2 sin 2 sin2
2 + 2 + 2
2
63
64
We will see, that . Then neglecting all terms of the order of 2 we find
= 2
= cos
The total change of the angle for the period is
= T cos = 2 cos .
Geometrical meaning.
19.1. General case.

We want to move a pendulum around the world along some closed trajectory. The question
is what angle the plane of oscillations will turn after we return back to the original point?
We assume that the earth is not rotating.
We assume that we are moving the pendulum slowly.
First of all we need to decide on the system of coordinates. For our the simple case we
can do it in the following way.
(a) We choose a global unit vector z. The only requirement is that the z line does not
intersect our trajectory.
(b) After that we can introduce the angles and in the usual way. (strictly speaking
in order to introduce we also need o introduce a global vector x, thus introducing
a full global system of coordinates.)
(c) In each point on the sphere we introduce its own system/vectors of coordinates
e , e , and n
, where n
is along the radius, e is orthogonal to both n
and z, and
e = n
e .
We then have
e2 = e2 = n
2 = 1,
e e = e n
= e n
= 0.
Lets look how the coordinate vectors change when we change a point where we siting.
So let as change our position by a small vector d~r. The coordinate vectors then change by
e e + d
e , etc. We then see that
e d
e = e d
e = n
d
n = 0,
e d
e + d
e e = e d
n + d
e n
= e d
n + d
e n
= 0.
or
d
e = a
e + b
n
d
e = a
e + c
n
d
n = b
e c
e
Where coefficients a, b, and c are linear in d~r.
Lets now assume, that our d~r is along the vector e . Then it is clear, that d
n =
(d~
r
e )
(d~
r
e )
sin() R e , and d
e = R tan e .
If d~r is along the vector e , then d
e = 0, and d
n = (d~rRe ) e .
LECTURE 19. OSCILLATIONS WITH PARAMETERS DEPENDING ON TIME. FOUCAULT PENDULUM.

65
Collecting it all together we have

(d~r e )
(d~r e )
e
n
R tan
R
(d~r e )
(d~r e )
d
e =
e sin()
n
R tan
R
(d~r e )
(d~r e )
e + sin()
e
d
n=
R
R
Notice, that these are purely geometrical formulas.
Now lets consider a pendulum. In our local system of coordinates its radius vector is
~ = x
e + y
e = cos
e + sin
e .
d
e =
The velocity is then
e d~r
sin
~ = (cos
e + sin
e ) + (
e + cos
e ) + (cos
+ sin
) .
~r
d~r dt
When we calculate ~2 we only keep terms no more than first order in d~r/dt
1 e d~r
e
e d~r
= 2 + 2 2 + 2 2
~2 2 + 2 2 + 2 2
~r dt
R tan dt
The potential energy does not depend on , so the Lagrange equation for is simply
d L
. Moreover, as is fast when we take the derivative dtd we differentiate only . Then
dt
4 + 4
so
=
1 e d~r
=0
R tan dt
1 R sin d
d
= cos
R tan
dt
dt
Finally,
d = cos d.
LECTURE 20
Parametric resonance.
20.1. Generalities
Now we consider a situation when the parameters of the oscillator depend on time and the
frequency of this dependence is comparable to the frequency of the oscillator. We start from
the equation
x = 2 (t)x,
where (t) is a periodic function of time. The interesting case is when (t) is almost a
constant 0 with a small correction which is periodic in time with period T . Then the case
which we are interested in is when 2/T is of the same order as 0 . We are going to find the
resonance conditions. Such resonance is called parametric resonance.
First we notice, that if the initial conditions are such that x(t = 0) = 0, and x(t
= 0) = 0,
then x(t) = 0 is the solution and no resonance happens. This is very different from the case
of the usual resonance.
Lets assume, that we found two linearly independent solutions x1 (t) and x2 (t) of the
equation. All the solutions are just linear combinations of x1 (t) and x2 (t).
If a function x1 (t) a solution, then function x1 (t + T ) must also be a solution, as T is
a period of (t). It means, that the function x1 (t + T ) is a linear combination of functions
x1 (t) and x2 (t). The same is true for the function x2 (t + T ). So we have
x1 (t + T )
x2 (t + T )
a b
c d
x1 (t)
x2 (t)
We can always choose such x1 (t) and x2 (t) that the matrix is diagonal. In this case
x1 (t + T ) = 1 x1 (t),
x2 (t + T ) = 2 x2 (t)
so the functions are multiplied by constants under the translation on one period. The most
general functions that have this property are
t/T
t/T
x1 (t) = 1 X1 (t),
x2 (t) = 2 X2 (t),
where X1 (t), and X2 (t) are periodic functions of time.

67
68
The numbers 1 and 2 cannot be arbitrary. The functions x1 and x2 satisfy the Wronskian equation
W (t) = x 1 x2 x 2 x1 = const
So on one hand W (t + T ) = 1 2 W (t), on the other hand W (t) must be constant. So
1 2 = 1.
Now, if x1 is a solution so must be x1 . It means that either both 1 and 2 are real, or
1 = 2 . In the later case we have |1 | = |2 | = 1 and no resonance happens. In the former
case we have 2 = 1/1 (either both are positive, or both are negative). Then we have
x1 (t) = t/T X1 (t),
x2 (t) = t/T X2 (t).
We see, that one of the solutions is unstable, it increases exponentially with time. This
means, that a small initial deviation from the equilibrium will exponentially grow with time.
This is the parametric resonance.
20.2. Resonance.
Lets now consider the following dependence of on time
2 = 02 (1 + h cos t)
where h 1.
The most interesting case is when 20 . Explain.
So I will take = 20 + , where 0 . The equation of motion is
x + 02 [1 + h cos(20 + )t] = 0
(Mathieus equation)
We seek the solution in the form
x = a(t) cos(0 + /2)t + b(t) sin(0 + /2)t
and retain only the terms first order in assuming that a a and b b. We then substitute
this solution into the equation use the identity
1
1
cos(0 + /2)t cos(20 + )t = cos 3(0 + /2)t + cos(0 + /2)t
2
2
and neglect the terms with frequency 30 as they are off the resonance. The result is
1
1
0 (2a + b + h0 b) sin( + /2)t + 0 (2b a + h0 a) cos( + /2)t = 0
2
2
So we have a pair of equations
1
2a + b + h0 b = 0
2
1
2b a + h0 a = 0
2
We look for the solution in the form a, b a0 , b0 est , then
1
1
2sa0 + b0 + h0 b = 0,
2sb0 a0 + h0 a0 = 0.
2
2
LECTURE 20. OSCILLATIONS WITH PARAMETERS DEPENDING ON TIME. PARAMETRIC RESONANCE.

69
The compatibility condition gives

i
1h
(h0 /2)2 2 .
4
s
Notice, that e is what we called before. The condition for the resonance is that s is
real. It means that the resonance happens for
1
1
h0 < < h0
2
2
The range of frequencies for the resonance depends on the amplitude h.
The amplification s, also depends on the amplitude h.
In case of dissipation the solution acquires a decaying factor et , so s should be
substituted by s , so the range of instability is given by
s2 =
(h0 /2)2 42 < <
(h0 /2)2 42
At finite dissipation the parametric resonance requires finite amplitude h = 4/0 .
LECTURE 21
Oscillations of an infinite series of springs. Oscillations
of a rope. Phonons.
21.1. Series of springs.

Consider one dimension string of N masses m connected with identical springs of spring
constants k. The first and the last masses are connected by the same springs to a wall. The
question is what are the normal modes of such system?
The difference between the infinite number of masses and finite, but large zero
mode.
This system has N degrees of freedom, so we must find N modes. We call xi the displacement of the ith mass from its equilibrium position. The Lagrangian is:
N
X
+1
mx 2i
k NX
L=
(xi xi+1 )2 ,
2 i=0
i=1 2
x0 = xN +1 = 0.
21.1.1. First solution

The matrix 2 kij + uij is
2 kij + uij =
m 2 + 2k
k
0
...
k
m 2 + 2k
k
0
2
0
k
m + 2k k
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
This is N N matrix. Lets call its determinant DN . We then see

DN = (m 2 + 2k)DN 1 k 2 DN 2 ,
D1 = m 2 + 2k,
D2 = (m 2 + 2k)2 k 2
This is a linear difference equation with constant coefficients. The solution should be of the
form DN = aN . Then we have
q
a2 = (m 2 + 2k)a k 2 ,
a=
m 2 + 2k i m 2 (4k m 2 )
So the general solution and initial conditions are

aN 1 ,
DN = AaN 1 + A
A + A = m 2 + 2k,
71
a = (m 2 + 2k)2 k 2 .
Aa + A
72

2
a
. Now in order to find the normal frequencies we need to solve the
The solution is A = a
a
following equation for .
a2 N 1
a
2 N 1
DN =
a
= 0,
aa
aa
We now say that a = kei , (|a|2 = k 2 ) where cos =

e2i(N +1) = 1,
N +1
a
or
m 2 2k
2k
2(N + 1) = 2n,
= 1.
then
where n = 1 . . . N.
So we have
cos = cos
m 2 2k
n
=
,
N +1
2k
n2 = 4
k
n
sin2
.
m
2(N + 1)
21.1.2. Second solution.

From the Lagrangian we find the equations of motion
k
(2xi xi+1 xi1 ),
m
We look for the solution in the form
xi =
xi = sin(i) sin(t),
x0 = xN +1 = 0.
sin (N + 1) = 0.
Substituting this guess into the equation we get

k
(2 sin(j) sin (j + 1) sin (j 1))
m

2
k
k
k
= = 2eij ei(j+1) ei(j1) = =eij 2 ei ei = =eij ei/2 ei/2
m
m
m
k
k ij 2
= 4 =e sin (/2) = 4 sin(j) sin2 (/2).
m
m
So we have
k
2 = 4 sin2 (/2),
m
but must be such that sin (N + 1) = 0, so = Nn
, and we have
+1
2 sin(j) =
2 = 4
k
n
sin2
,
m
2(N + 1)
n = 1, . . . , N
21.2. A rope.
The potential energy of a (2D) rope of shape y(x) is T
R
kinetic energy is 0L 2 y 2 dx, so the Lagrangian is
Z L
RLq
0
1 + y 0 2 dx
T
2
R L 02
y dx.
0
The
T 02
y dx,
y(0) = y(L) = 0.
2
2
0
In order to find the normal modes we need to decide on the coordinates in our space of
functions y(x, t). We will use a standard Fourier basis sin kx and write any function as
L=
y 2
y(x, t) =
X
k
Ak,t sin kx,
sin kL = 0
LECTURE 21. OSCILLATIONS OF AN INFINITE SERIES OF SPRINGS. OSCILLATIONS OF A ROPE. PHONONS

73
The constants Ak,t are the coordinates in the Fourier basis. We then have

L X 2 T 2 2
L=
Ak k Ak
2 k 2
2
We see, that it is just a set of decoupled harmonic oscillators and k just enumerates them.
The normal frequencies are
s
T 2
T
2
k = k ,
=
k.
LECTURE 22
Motion of a rigid body. Kinematics. Kinetic energy.
Momentum. Tensor of inertia.
22.1. Kinematics.
We will use two different system of coordinates XY Z fixed, or external inertial system of
coordinates, and xyz the moving, or internal system of coordinates which is attached to the
body itself and moves with it.
~ be radius vector of the center of mass O of a body with respect to the external
Lets R
frame of reference, ~r be the radius vector of any point P of the body with respect to the
center of mass O, and ~r the radius vector of the point P with respect to the external frame
~ + ~r. For any infinitesimal displacement d~r of the point P we have
of reference: ~r = R
~ ~r.
~ + d~r = dR
~ + d
d~r = dR
Or dividing by dt we find the velocity of the point P as
~ ~r,
~v = V~ +
~v =
d~r
,
dt
~
dR
V~ =
,
dt
~
~ = d .
dt
~ is.
Notice, that is not a vector, while d
In the previous calculation the fact that O is a center of mass has not been used, so for
~0 = R
~ + ~a we find the radius vector of the point P to be
any point O0 with a radius vector R
0
0
0
~ ~r0 . Now substituting ~r = ~r0 +~a into ~v = V~ +
~ ~r
~r = ~r ~a, and we must have ~v = V~ +
0
~
~
~
we get ~v = V + ~a + ~r . So we conclude that
~ ~a,
V~ 0 = V~ +
~ 0 = .
~
The last equation shows, that the vector of angular velocity is the same and does not depend
~ can be called the angular velocity of
on the particular moving system of coordinates. So
the body.
~ are perpendicular for some choice of O, then they
If at some instant the vectors V~ and
0 ~ ~
~ V~ 0 . Then it is possible to solve the equation
will be perpendicular for any other O : V =
~ ~a = 0. So in this case there exist a point (it may be outside of the body) with respect
V~ +
~ which goes through this
to which the whole motion is just a rotation. The line parallel to
75
76
point is called instantaneous axis of rotation. (In the general case the instantaneous axis
can be made parallel to V~ .)
~ are changing with time, so is
In general both the magnitude and the direction of
the instantaneous axis of rotation.
22.2. Kinetic energy.

The total kinetic energy of a body is the sum of the kinetic energies of its parts. Lets take
the origin of the moving system of coordinates to be in the center of mass. Then

h
i
X
X
X
1X
1X
~ ~r 2 = 1
~ ~r + 1
~ ~r 2
m v2 =
m V~ +
m V~ 2 +
m V~
m
K=
2
2
2
2
h
i2
MV 2 ~ ~ X
1X
~ ~r
=
+V
m~r +
m
2
2
P
For the center of mass m~r = 0 and we have
K=
i j
2

MV 2 1 X
~ 2~r2 (
~ ~r )2 = M V + Iij ,
+
m
2
2
2
2
where
Iij =
m ij ~r2 ri rj .
Iij is the tensor of inertia. This tensor is symmetric and positive definite. The diagonal
components of the tensor are called moments of inertia.
22.3. Angular momentum

The origin is at the center of mass. So we have

X
X
X
~ ~r ) =
~ ~r (~r )
~
~ =
M
m~r ~v =
m~r (
m r 2
Writing this in components we have

Mi = Iij j .
~ and the direction of the angular
In general the direction of angular momentum M
~ do not coincide.
velocity
22.4. Tensor of inertia.

Tensor of inertia is a symmetric tensor of rank two. As any such tensor it can be reduced
to a diagonal form by an appropriate choice of the moving axes. Such axes are called the
principal axes of inertia. The diagonal components I1 , I2 , and I3 are called the principal
moments of inertia. In this axes the kinetic energy is simply
I1 21 I2 22 I3 23
+
+
.
2
2
2
(a) If all three principal moments of inertia are different, then the body is called asymmetrical top.
(b) If two of the moments coincide and the third is different, then it is called symmetrical
top.
(c) If all three coincide, then it is spherical top.
K=
LECTURE 22. MOTION OF A RIGID BODY. KINEMATICS. KINETIC ENERGY. MOMENTUM. TENSOR OF INE
P
P
For anyPplane figure if z is perpendicular to the plane, then I1 = m y2 , I2 = m x2 ,
1
2
2
and I3 = m (x + y ) = I1 + I2 . If symmetry demands that I1 = I2 , then 2 I3 = I1 .

Example: a disk, a square.
If the body is a line, then (if z is along the line) I1 = I2 , and I3 = 0. Such system is
called rotator.
LECTURE 23
Motion of a rigid body. Rotation of a symmetric top.
Euler angles.
Spherical top.
Arbitrary top rotating around one of its principal axes.
Consider a free rotation of a symmetric top Ix = Iy 6= Iz , where x, y, and z are the
principal axes. The direction of the angular momentum does not coincide with the direction
~ and the moving axes z at some
of any principle axes. Lets say, that the angle between M
~ and z.
instant is . We chose as the axis x the one that is in plane with the two vectors M
During the motion the total angular momentum is conserved.
The whole motion can be thought as two rotations one the
rotation of the body around the axes z and the other, called
precession, is the rotation of the axis z around the direction of
~.
the vector M
At the instant the projection of the angular momentum on
the z axis is M cos . This must be equal to Iz z . So we have
M
z =
cos .
Iz
In order to find the angular velocity of precession we write
~
~ = M pr + z z
M
and multiply this equation by x. We find
Figure 1
x = pr sin .
On the other hand
~ = x Ix x + z Iz z,
M
multiplying this again by x we find
M sin = x Ix ,
x =
hence
pr =
79
M
.
Ix
M
sin .
Ix
80
23.1. Eulers angles

The total rotation of a rigid body is described by three angles. There are different ways to
parametrize rotations. Here we consider what is called Eulers angles.
The fixed coordinates are XY Z, the moving coordinates xyz. The plane xy intersects
the plane XY along the line ON called the line of nodes.
The angle is the angle between the Z and z axes.
The angle is the angle between the X axes and the
line of nodes, and the angle is the angle between
the x axes and the line of nodes. The angle is from
0 to , the and angles are from 0 to 2.
I need to find the components of the angular veloc~ of in the moving frame and the time derivative
ity
,
and .
of the angles ,
(a) The vector ~ is along the line of nodes, so its
components along x, y, and z are x = cos ,
y = sin , and z = 0.
~ is along the Z direction, so its
(b) The vector
component along z is z = cos . Its comFigure 2
ponents along x and y are y = sin cos ,
and x = sin sin .
~ is along the z direction, so =
(c) The vector
z
, and x = y = 0.
We now collect all angular velocities along each axis as x = x + x + x etc. and find
x = cos + sin sin
y = sin + sin cos
z = cos +
These equations allow us to first solve problem in the moving system of coordinates, find
,
and .
x , y , and z , and then calculate ,

Consider the symmetric top again Iy = Ix . We take Z to be the direction of the angular
momentum. We can take the axis x coincide with the line of nodes. Then = 0, and we
y = sin , and z = cos + .
have x = ,
My = Iy y = Ix sin ,
The components of the angular momentum are Mx = Ix x = Ix ,
and Mz = Iz z . On the other hand Mz = M cos , Mx = 0, and My = M sin . Comparing
those we find
M
M
,
z =
cos .
= 0,
pr = =
Ix
Iz
LECTURE 24
Symmetric top in gravitational field.
The angles are unconstrained and change 0 < <
, 0 < , < 2.
We want to consider the motion of the symmetric
top (Ix = Iy ) whose lowest point is fixed. We coll this
point O. The line ON is the line of nodes. The Euler
angles , , and fully describe the orientation of the
top.
Instead of defining the tensor of inertia with respect to the center of mass, we will define it with respect to the point O. The principal axes with trough
this point are parallel to the ones through the center
of mass. The principal moment Iz does not change
under such shift, the principal moment with respect
to the axes x and y become by I = Ix + ml2 , where l
is the distance from the point O to the center of mass.
Figure 1
x = cos + sin sin

y = sin + sin cos
z = cos +
The kinetic energy of the symmetric top is

K=

Iz 2 I 2
Iz
I
z +
x + 2y = ( + cos )2 + (2 + 2 sin2 )
2
2
2
2
The potential energy is simply mgl cos , so the Lagrangian is

L=
I
Iz
( + cos )2 + (2 + 2 sin2 ) mgl cos
2
2
We see that the Lagrangian does not depend on and this is only correct for the
symmetric top. The corresponding momenta MZ = L
and M3 = L are conserved.

M3 = Iz ( + cos ),
MZ = (I sin2 + Iz cos2 ) + Iz cos .

81
82
The energy is also conserved

I
Iz
E = ( + cos )2 + (2 + 2 sin2 ) + mgl cos .
2
2
The values of MZ , M3 , and E are given by the initial conditions.
So we have three unknown functions (t), (t), and (t) and three conserved quantities.
The conservation lows then completely determine the whole motion.
From equations for MZ and M3 we have
MZ M3 cos
=
I sin2
M3
MZ M3 cos
=
cos
I3
I sin2
We then substitute the values of the and into the expression for the energy and find
1
E 0 = I 2 + Uef f (),
2
where
M32
(MZ M3 cos )2
E =E
mgl,
Uef f () =
mgl(1 cos ).
2Iz
2I sin2
This is an equation of motion for a 1D motion, so we get
0
t=
d
IZ
q
.
2
E 0 Uef f ()
This is an elliptic integral.

The effective potential energy goes to infinity when 0, . The function oscillates
between min and max which are the solutions of the equation E 0 = Uef f (). These oscilla3 cos
tions are called nutations. As = MZIM
the motion depends on weather MZ M3 cos
sin2
changes sign in between min and max .
We can find a condition for the stable rotation about the Z axes. For such rotation
M3 = MZ , so the effective potential energy is
Uef f
M 2 sin2 (/2)
= 3
2mgl sin2 (/2)
2I cos2 (/2)
M32 1
mgl 2 ,
8I
2
where the last is correct for small . We see, that the rotation is stable if M32 > 4Imgl, or
2z > 4Imgl
.
I2
z
LECTURE 25
Motion of a rigid body. Euler equations. Stability of
asymmetric top.
25.1. Euler equations.

~ in the following form
Lets write the vector M
~ = Ix x x + Iy y y + Iz z z.
M
~ = 0. In order to
I want to use the fact that the angular momentum is conserved M
~ x etc, then
differentiate the above equation I need to use x =
~ x + Iy y
~ y + Iz z
~ z.
~ = Ix x x + Iy y y + Iz z z + Ix x
0=M
Multiplying the above equation by x, will find
~ [
~ [
z x],
y x] + Iz z
0 = Ix x + Iy y
or
Ix x = (Iy Iz )y z .
Analogously for y and z, and we get the Euler equations:
Ix x = (Iy Iz )y z
Iy y = (Iz Ix )z x
Iz z = (Ix Iy )x y
One can immediately see, that the energy is conserved.
x
we get
For a symmetric top Iy = Ix we find that z = const., then denoting = z IzII
x
x = y
y = x
The solution is
x = A cos t,
y = A sin t.
~ rotates around the z axis with the frequency . So does the vector M
~ this
So the vector
is the picture in the moving frame of reference. It is the same as the one before.
83
84
25.2. Stability of the free rotation of a asymmetric top.
Conservation of energy and the magnitude of the total angular momentum read
Ix 2x Iy 2y Iz 2z
+
+
=E
2
2
2
Ix2 2x + Ix2 2x + Ix2 2x = M 2
In terms of the components of the angular momentum these equations read
Mx2 My2 Mz2
+
+
=E
2Ix
2Iy
2Iz
Mx2 + My2 + Mz2 = M 2
q
The first equation describes an ellipsoid with the semiaxes 2Ix E, 2Iy E, and 2Iz E.
The second equation describes a sphere of a radius M . The initial conditions give us E and
~ will lie
M , the true solution must satisfy the conservation lows at all times. So the vector M
on the lines of intersection of the ellipsoid, and sphere. Notice, how different these lines

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Lecture 1. Oscillations. Oscillations with friction.

Lecture 2. Oscillations with external force. Resonance.

Lecture 3. Work energy theorem. Energy conservation. Potential energy.

Lecture 4. Central forces. Effective potential.

Lecture 5. Kepler orbits continued

Lecture 6. Scattering cross-section.

Lecture 7. Rutherfords formula.

Lecture 9. Euler-Lagrange equation continued.

SPRING 2016, ARTEM G. ABANOV, ANALYTICAL MECHANICS. PHYS 601

The Euler-Lagrange equations, for many variables.

10. Lagrangian mechanics.

11. Lagrangian mechanics.

Lecture 12. Lagrangians equations for magnetic forces.

13. Hamiltonian and Hamiltonian equations.

Lecture 14. Liouvilles theorem. Poisson brackets.

15. Hamiltonian equations. Jacobis identity. Integrals of motion.

Lecture 17. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Kapitza pendulum.

Lecture 18. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Kapitza pendulum.

Lecture 19. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Foucault pendulum.

SPRING 2016, ARTEM G. ABANOV, ANALYTICAL MECHANICS. PHYS 601

Lecture 20. Oscillations with parameters depending on time. Parametric resonance.

Lecture 21. Oscillations of an infinite series of springs. Oscillations of a rope. Phonons. 71

22. Motion of a rigid body. Kinematics. Kinetic energy. Momentum. Tensor of

Lecture 24. Symmetric top in gravitational field.

LECTURE 1. OSCILLATIONS. OSCILLATIONS WITH FRICTION.

All of these equation have the same form

Oscillates forever: C = A2 + B 2 amplitude; = tan1 (A/B) phase.

Two solutions, two independent constants.

x = et < C1 eit + C2 eit = Cet sin (t + ) ,

Decaying oscillations. Shifted frequency.

. For t the B term can be dropped as + > , then x(t)

0. The motion is arrested. The example is an oscillator in

x(t) = f =|C|eif t+i = f |C| sin (f t ) ,

SPRING 2016, ARTEM G. ABANOV, ANALYTICAL MECHANICS. PHYS 601

where = 02 2 is the frequency of the damped oscillator.

so that the peak is very symmetric.

f (t0 )eit dt0

The inverse Fourier transform gives

Where the response function is ( < 0 )

LECTURE 2. OSCILLATIONS WITH EXTERNAL FORCE. RESONANCE.

3.3. Change of kinetic energy.

3.4. Conservative forces. Energy conservation.

Fundamental forces. Depend on coordinate, do not depend on time.

W = Fx (x, y)dx + Fy (x + dx, y)dy = Fy (x, y)dy + Fx (x, y + dy)dx,

SPRING 2016, ARTEM G. ABANOV, ANALYTICAL MECHANICS. PHYS 601

So a small work done by a conservative force:

In 1D the force that depends only on the coordinate is always conservative.

Energy E can be calculated from the initial conditions: E = 2 0 + U (x0 )

LECTURE 3. WORK ENERGY THEOREM. ENERGY CONSERVATION. POTENTIAL ENERGY. 9

We then can solve the equation

4.1. Spherical coordinates.

The spherical coordinates are given by

SPRING 2016, ARTEM G. ABANOV, ANALYTICAL MECHANICS. PHYS 601

Comparing the two expressions for dU we find

4.2. Central force

so that potential energy depends only on the distance r, U (r).

LECTURE 4. CENTRAL FORCES. EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL.

The kinetic energy then is

The total energy then is

4.3. Kepler orbits.

Historically, the Kepler problem

simpler than what existed before.

where > 0 is dimentionless number eccentricity of the ellipse, while c has a

If > 1, then the trajectory is unbounded.