3/17/2016

DieCastingProcess,Defects,Design

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DieCasting
Contents
1.Capabilities
2.ProcessCycle
3.Equipment
4.Tooling
5.Materials
6.PossibleDefects
7.DesignRules
8.CostDrivers

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Die casting is a manufacturing process that can

produce geometrically complex metal parts
through the use of reusable molds, called dies.
The die casting process involves the use of a
furnace, metal, die casting machine, and die.
The metal, typically a nonferrous alloy such as
aluminum or zinc, is melted in the furnace and
then injected into the dies in the die casting
machine.Therearetwomaintypesofdiecasting
machines hot chamber machines (used for
alloys with low melting temperatures, such as
zinc) and cold chamber machines (used for
alloys with high melting temperatures, such as
aluminum). The differences between these
machineswillbedetailedinthesectionsonequipmentandtooling.However,inboth
machines, after the molten metal is injected into the dies, it rapidly cools and
solidifies into the final part, called the casting. The steps in this process are
describedingreaterdetailinthenextsection.

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Diecastinghotchambermachineoverview

Materials
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CaseStudies
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Resources
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Glossary

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DieCastingProcess,Defects,Design

Diecastingcoldchambermachineoverview
The castings that are created in this process can vary greatly in size and weight,
ranging from a couple ounces to 100 pounds. One common application of die cast
partsarehousingsthinwalledenclosures, often requiring many ribs and bosses on
the interior. Metal housings for a variety of appliances and equipment are often die
cast. Several automobile components are also manufactured using die casting,
including pistons, cylinder heads, and engine blocks. Other common die cast parts
includepropellers,gears,bushings,pumps,andvalves.
Returntotop
Capabilities
Typical
Shapes: Thinwalled:
Complex
Solid:Cylindrical
Solid:Cubic
Solid:Complex

Feasible
Flat
Thinwalled:
Cylindrical
Thinwalled:Cubic

Partsize: Weight:0.5oz500lb
Materials: Metals
Aluminum
Lead
Magnesium
Tin
Zinc

Copper

SurfacefinishRa: 3263in

16125in

Tolerance: 0.015in.

0.0005in.

Maxwallthickness: 0.050.5in.
Quantity: 100001000000
Leadtime: Months

Aress Forgings
India
Aluminium Forging
Specialist TS 16949 and ISO
9001 Certi ed Co

0.0151.5in.
10001000000
Weeks

Advantages: Canproducelargeparts

Canformcomplexshapes
Highstrengthparts
Verygoodsurfacefinishandaccuracy
Highproductionrate
Lowlaborcost
Scrapcanberecycled
Disadvantages: Trimmingisrequired
Hightoolingandequipmentcost
Limiteddielife
Longleadtime
Applications: Enginecomponents,pump
components,appliancehousing
Comparewith:

Go
Disclaimer:Allprocessspecificationsreflecttheapproximaterangeofa
process'scapabilitiesandshouldbeviewedonlyasaguide.Actual
capabilitiesaredependentuponthemanufacturer,equipment,material,and
partrequirements.

Returntotop
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DieCastingProcess,Defects,Design

ProcessCycle
The process cycle for die casting consists of five main stages, which are explained below. The total cycle
timeisveryshort,typicallybetween2secondsand1minute.
1.ClampingThefirststepisthepreparationandclampingofthetwohalvesofthedie.Eachdiehalfisfirst
cleaned from the previous injection and then lubricated to facilitate the ejection of the next part. The
lubrication time increases with part size, as well as the number of cavities and sidecores. Also,
lubrication may not be required after each cycle, but after 2 or 3 cycles, depending upon the material.
After lubrication, the two die halves, which are attached inside the die casting machine, are closed and
securelyclampedtogether.Sufficientforcemustbeappliedtothedietokeepitsecurelyclosedwhilethe
metal is injected. The time required to close and clamp the die is dependent upon the machine larger
machines(thosewithgreaterclampingforces)willrequiremoretime.Thistimecanbeestimatedfromthe
drycycletimeofthemachine.
2.InjectionThemoltenmetal,whichismaintained atasettemperatureinthefurnace,isnexttransferred
into a chamber where it can be injected into the die. The method of transferring the molten metal is
dependent upon the type of die casting machine, whether a hot chamber or cold chamber machine is
being used. The difference in this equipment will be detailed in the next section. Once transferred, the
molten metal is injected at high pressures into the die. Typical injection pressure ranges from 1,000 to
20,000 psi. This pressure holds the molten metal in the dies during solidification. The amount of metal
thatisinjectedintothedieisreferredtoastheshot.Theinjectiontimeisthetimerequiredforthemolten
metal to fill all of the channels and cavities in the die. This time is very short, typically less than 0.1
seconds,inordertopreventearlysolidificationofanyonepartofthemetal.Theproperinjectiontimecan
be determined by the thermodynamic properties of the material, as well as the wall thickness of the
casting.Agreaterwallthicknesswill requirealongerinjectiontime.Inthecasewhereacoldchamberdie
castingmachineisbeingused,theinjectiontimemustalsoincludethetimetomanuallyladlethemolten
metalintotheshotchamber.
3.CoolingThemoltenmetalthatisinjectedintothediewillbegintocoolandsolidifyonceitentersthedie
cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is
formed.The die can not be opened until the cooling time has elapsed and the casting is solidified. The
cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the metal, the maximum wall
thickness of the casting, and the complexity of the die. A greater wall thickness will require a longer
cooling time. The geometric complexity of the die also requires a longer cooling time because the
additionalresistancetotheflowofheat.
4.EjectionAfterthepredeterminedcoolingtimehaspassed,thediehalvescanbeopenedandanejection
mechanism can push the casting out of the die cavity.The time to open the die can be estimated from
the dry cycle time of the machine and the ejection time is determined by the size of the casting's
envelope and should include time for the casting to fall free of the die. The ejection mechanism must
applysomeforcetoejectthepartbecauseduringcoolingthepartshrinksandadherestothedie.Once
thecastingisejected,thediecanbeclampedshutforthenextinjection.
5.TrimmingDuringcooling,thematerialinthechannelsofthediewillsolidifyattachedtothecasting.This
excess material, along with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed from the casting either
manuallyviacuttingorsawing,orusingatrimmingpress.The time required to trim the excess material
can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. The scrap material that results from this
trimmingiseitherdiscardedorcanbereusedinthediecastingprocess.Recycledmaterialmayneedto
be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with nonrecycled metal
andreusedinthediecastingprocess.

Diecastpart
Returntotop
Equipment
Thetwotypesofdiecastingmachinesareahotchambermachineandcoldchambermachine.
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DieCastingProcess,Defects,Design

Hot chamber die casting machine Hot chamber machines are used for alloys with low melting
temperatures,suchaszinc,tin,andlead.The temperatures required to melt other alloys would damage
thepump,whichisindirectcontactwiththemoltenmetal.Themetaliscontainedinanopenholdingpot
which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature. The molten metal then
flows into a shot chamber through an inlet and a plunger, powered by hydraulic pressure, forces the
moltenmetalthroughagooseneckchannelandintothedie.Typicalinjectionpressuresforahotchamber
diecastingmachinearebetween1000and5000psi.Afterthemoltenmetalhasbeeninjectedintothe die
cavity,theplungerremainsdown,holdingthepressurewhilethecastingsolidifies.Aftersolidification,the
hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit. Prior to the
injection of the molten metal, this unit closes and clamps the two halves of the die. When the die is
attachedtothediecastingmachine,eachhalfisfixedtoalargeplate,calledaplaten.The front half of
the die, called the cover die, is mounted to a stationary platen and aligns with the gooseneck channel.
Therearhalfofthedie,calledtheejectordie,ismountedtoamovableplaten,whichslidesalongthetie
bars.The hydraulically powered clamping unit actuates clamping bars that push this platen towards the
cover die and exert enough pressure to keep it closed while the molten metal is injected. Following the
solidification of the metal inside the die cavity, the clamping unit releases the die halves and
simultaneouslycausestheejectionsystemtopushthecastingoutoftheopencavity.Thediecanthen
beclosedforthenextinjection.

Hotchamberdiecastingmachine
Opened

Hotchamberdiecastingmachine
Closed

Cold chamber die casting machine Cold chamber machines are used for alloys with high melting
temperatures that can not be cast in hot chamber machines because they would damage the pumping
system.Suchalloysincludealuminum,brass,andmagnesium.Themoltenmetalisstillcontainedin an
open holding pot which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature.
However, this holding pot is kept separate from the die casting machine and the molten metal is ladled
fromthepotforeachcasting,ratherthanbeingpumped.Themetalispouredfromtheladleintotheshot
chamber through a pouring hole. The injection system in a cold chamber machine functions similarly to
that of a hot chamber machine, however it is usually oriented horizontally and does not include a
gooseneckchannel.Aplunger, poweredbyhydraulicpressure,forcesthemoltenmetalthroughtheshot
chamber and into the injection sleeve in the die. The typical injection pressures for a cold chamber die
castingmachinearebetween2000and20000psi.After the molten metal has been injected into the die
cavity, the plunger remains forward, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies.After solidification,
thehydraulicsystemretractstheplungerandthepartcanbeejectedbytheclampingunit.Theclamping
unit and mounting of the dies is identical to the hot chamber machine. See the above paragraph for
details.

Coldchamberdiecastingmachine
Opened

Coldchamberdiecastingmachine
Closed

Machinespecifications
Both hot chamber and cold chamber die casting machines are typically characterized by the tonnage of the
clampforcetheyprovide.Therequiredclampforceisdeterminedbytheprojectedareaofthepartsinthedie
andthepressurewithwhichthemoltenmetalisinjected.Therefore,alargerpartwillrequirealargerclamping
force.Also,certainmaterialsthatrequire highinjectionpressuresmayrequirehighertonnagemachines.The
sizeofthepartmustalsocomplywithothermachinespecifications,suchasmaximumshot volume, clamp
stroke,minimummoldthickness,andplatensize.
Diecastpartscanvarygreatlyinsizeandthereforerequirethesemeasurestocoveraverylargerange.Asa
result, die casting machines are designed to each accommodate a small range of this larger spectrum of
values. Sample specifications for several different hot chamber and cold chamber die casting machines are
givenbelow.

Type
Hotchamber
http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/diecasting

Clamp
force(ton)

Max.shot
Min.mold
Clamp
volume
thickness
stroke(in.)
(oz.)
(in.)

100

74

11.8

5.9

Platen
size(in.)
25x24
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DieCastingProcess,Defects,Design

Hotchamber

200

116

15.8

9.8

29x29

Hotchamber

400

254

21.7

11.8

38x38

Coldchamber

100

35

11.8

5.9

23x23

Coldchamber

400

166

21.7

11.8

38x38

Coldchamber

800

395

30.0

15.8

55x55

Coldchamber

1600

1058

39.4

19.7

74x79

Coldchamber

2000

1517

51.2

25.6

83x83

Returntotop
Tooling
The dies into which the molten metal is injected are the custom tooling used in this process. The dies are
typicallycomposedoftwohalvesthecoverdie,whichismountedontoastationaryplaten, and the ejector
die, which is mounted onto a movable platen.This design allows the die to open and close along its parting
line.Onceclosed,thetwodiehalvesformaninternalpartcavitywhichisfilledwiththemoltenmetaltoform
thecasting.Thiscavityisformedbytwoinserts,thecavityinsertandthecoreinsert,whichareinsertedinto
the cover die and ejector die, respectively. The cover die allows the molten metal to flow from the injection
system,throughanopening,andintothepartcavity.Theejectordieincludesasupportplateandtheejector
box, which is mounted onto the platen and inside contains the ejection system. When the clamping unit
separates the die halves, the clamping bar pushes the ejector plate forward inside the ejector box which
pushes the ejector pins into the molded part, ejecting it from the core insert. Multiplecavity dies are
sometimesused,inwhichthetwodiehalvesformseveralidenticalpartcavities.
Diechannels
Theflowofmoltenmetalintothepartcavityrequiresseveralchannelsthatareintegratedintothedieand
differsslightlyforahotchambermachineandacoldchambermachine.Inahotchambermachine,the
moltenmetalentersthediethroughapiececalledaspruebushing(inthecoverdie)andflowsaroundthe
spruespreader(intheejectordie).Thespruereferstothisprimarychannelofmoltenmetalenteringthedie.
Inacoldchambermachine,themoltenmetalentersthroughaninjectionsleeve.Afterenteringthedie,in
eithertypeofmachine,themoltenmetalflowsthroughaseriesofrunnersandentersthepartcavitiesthrough
gates,whichdirecttheflow.Often,thecavitieswillcontainextraspacecalledoverflowwells,whichprovide
anadditionalsourceofmoltenmetalduringsolidification.Whenthecastingcools,themoltenmetalwillshrink
andadditionalmaterialisneeded.Lastly,smallchannelsareincludedthatrunfromthecavitytotheexterior
ofthedie.Thesechannelsactasventingholestoallowairtoescapethediecavity.Themoltenmetalthat
flowsthroughallofthesechannelswillsolidifyattachedtothecastingandmustbeseparatedfromthepart
afteritisejected.Onetypeofchannelthatdoesnotfillwithmaterialisacoolingchannel.Thesechannels
allowwateroroiltoflowthroughthedie,adjacenttothecavity,andremoveheatfromthedie.

DieassemblyOpen
(Hotchamber)

DieassemblyClosed
(Hotchamber)

DieassemblyExplodedview
(Hotchamber)

DieassemblyOpened
(Coldchamber)

DieassemblyClosed
(Coldchamber)

DieassemblyExplodedview
(Coldchamber)

DieDesign
In addition to these many types of channels, there are other design issues that must be considered in the
designofthedies.Firstly,thediemust allow the molten metal to flow easily into all of the cavities. Equally
importantistheremovalofthesolidifiedcastingfromthedie,soadraftanglemustbeappliedtothewallsof
the part cavity. The design of the die must also accommodate any complex features on the part, such as
undercuts,whichwillrequireadditionaldiepieces.Mostofthesedevicesslideintothepartcavitythroughthe
sideofthedie,andarethereforeknownasslides,orsideactions.Themostcommontypeofsideactionis a
sidecorewhichenablesanexternalundercuttobemolded.Anotherimportant aspectofdesigningthediesis
selectingthematerial. Dies can be fabricated out of many different types of metals. High grade tool steel is
themostcommonandistypicallyusedfor100150,000cycles.However,steelswithlowcarboncontent are
more resistant to cracking and can be used for 1,000,000 cycles. Other common materials for dies include
chromium,molybdenum,nickelalloys,tungsten,andvanadium.Anysidecoresthat areusedinthediescan
alsobemadeoutofthesematerials.
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Returntotop
Materials
Die casting typically makes use of nonferrous alloys. The four most common alloys that are die cast are
shownbelow,alongwithbriefdescriptionsoftheirproperties.(Followthelinkstosearchthemateriallibrary).
Materials

Properties

Aluminumalloys

Lowdensity
Goodcorrosionresistance
Highthermalandelectricalconductivity
Highdimensionalstability
Relativelyeasytocast
Requiresuseofacoldchambermachine

Copperalloys

Highstrengthandtoughness
Highcorrosionandwearresistance
Highdimensionalstability
Highestcost
Lowdielifeduetohighmeltingtemperature
Requiresuseofacoldchambermachine

Magnesiumalloys

Verylowdensity
Highstrengthtoweightratio
Excellentmachinabilityaftercasting
Useofbothhotandcoldchambermachines

Zincalloys

Highdensity
Highductility
Goodimpactstrength
Excellentsurfacesmoothnessallowingforpaintingorplating
Requiressuchcoatingduetosusceptibilitytocorrosion
Easiesttocast
Canformverythinwalls
Longdielifeduetolowmeltingpoint
Useofahotchambermachine

Theselectionofamaterialfordiecastingisbaseduponseveralfactorsincludingthedensity,meltingpoint,
strength,corrosionresistance,andcost.Thematerialmayalsoaffectthe part design. For example, the use
ofzinc,whichisahighlyductilemetal,canallowforthinnerwallsandabettersurfacefinishthanmany other
alloys.Thematerialnotonlydeterminesthepropertiesofthefinalcasting,butalsoimpactsthemachineand
tooling. Materials with low melting temperatures, such as zinc alloys, can be die cast in a hot chamber
machine.However,materialswithahighermeltingtemperature,suchasaluminumandcopperalloys,require
theuseofcold chamber machine.The melting temperature also affects the tooling, as a higher temperature
willhaveagreateradverseeffectonthelifeofthedies.
Returntotop
PossibleDefects
Defect

Causes

Flash

Injectionpressuretoohigh
Clampforcetoolow

Unfilledsections

Insufficientshotvolume
Slowinjection
Lowpouringtemperature

Bubbles

Injectiontemperaturetoohigh
Nonuniformcoolingrate

Hottearing

Nonuniformcoolingrate

Ejectormarks

Coolingtimetooshort
Ejectionforcetoohigh

Many of the above defects are caused by a nonuniform cooling rate.A variation in the cooling rate can be
causedbynonuniformwallthicknessornonuniformdietemperature.
Returntotop
DesignRules
Maximumwallthickness
Decreasethemaximumwallthickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (injection time and cooling time
specifically)andreducethepartvolume
INCORRECT
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Partwiththickwalls

Partredesignedwiththinwalls

Uniformwallthicknesswillensureuniformcoolingandreducedefects
INCORRECT

CORRECT

Nonuniformwallthickness(t1t2)

Uniformwallthickness(t1=t2)

Corners
Roundcornerstoreducestressconcentrationsandfracture
Innerradiusshouldbeatleastthethicknessofthewalls
INCORRECT

CORRECT

Sharpcorner

Roundedcorner

Draft
Applyadraftangletoallwallsparalleltothepartingdirectiontofacilitateremovingthepartfromthedie.
Aluminum:1forwalls,2forinsidecores
Magnesium:0.75forwalls,1.5forinsidecores
Zinc:0.5forwalls,1forinsidecores
INCORRECT

CORRECT

Nodraftangle

Draftangle()

Undercuts
Minimizethenumberofexternalundercuts
Externalundercutsrequiresidecoreswhichaddtothetoolingcost
Somesimpleexternalundercutscanbecastbyrelocatingthepartingline

Simpleexternalundercut

Diecannotseparate

Newpartinglineallowsundercut

Redesigningafeaturecanremoveanexternalundercut

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DieCastingProcess,Defects,Design

Partwithhinge

Hingerequiressidecore

Redesignedhinge

Newhingecanbecast

RemoveallinternalundercutsthatrequireliftersJammingofthesedevicesoftenoccursindiecasting
Designinganopeninginthesideofapartcanallowasidecoretoformaninternalundercut

Internalundercutaccessible
fromtheside
Redesigningapartcanremoveaninternalundercut

Partwithinternalundercut

Diecannotseparate

Partredesignedwithslot

Newpartcanbecast

Minimizenumberofsideactiondirections
Additionalsideactiondirectionswilllimitthenumberofpossiblecavitiesinthedie
Returntotop
CostDrivers
Materialcost
The material cost is determined by the weight of material that is required and the unit price of that material.
The weight of material is clearly a result of the part volume and material density however, the part's
maximumwallthicknesscanalsoplayarole.Theweightofmaterialthatisrequiredincludesthematerialthat
fillsthechannelsofthedie.Apartwiththinnerwallswillrequirealargersystemofchannelstoensurethatthe
entirepartfills quickly and evenly, and therefore will increase the amount of required material. However, this
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additional material is typically less than the amount of material saved from the reduction in part volume, a
result of thinner walls. Therefore, despite the larger channels, using thinner walls will typically lower the
materialcost.
Productioncost
The production cost is primarily calculated from the hourly rate and the cycle time. The hourly rate is
proportional to the size of the die casting machine being used, so it is important to understand how the part
design affects machine selection. Die casting machines are typically referred to by the tonnage of the
clampingforcetheyprovide.Therequiredclampingforceisdeterminedby the projected area of the part and
the pressure with which the molten metal is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping
force,andhenceamoreexpensivemachine.Also,certainmaterialsthatrequire highinjectionpressuresmay
require higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine specifications,
such as clamp stroke, platen size, and shot capacity. In addition to the size of the machine, the type of
machine (hot chamber vs. cold chamber) will also affect the cost. The use of materials with high melting
temperatures,suchasaluminum,willrequirecoldchambermachineswhicharetypicallymoreexpensive.
Thecycletimecanbebrokendownintotheinjectiontime,coolingtime,andresettingtime. By reducing any
of these times, the production cost will be lowered. The injection time can be decreased by reducing the
maximum wall thickness of the part. Also, certain materials can be injected faster than others, but the
injectiontimesaresoshortthatthecostsavingarenegligible.Substantialtimecanbesavedbyusingahot
chambermachinebecauseincoldchambermachinesthemoltenmetalmustbeladledintothemachine.This
ladlingtimeisdependentupontheshotweight.Thecoolingtimeisalsodecreasedforlowerwallthicknesses,
as they require less time to cool all the way through. Several thermodynamic properties of the material also
affectthecoolingtime.Lastly,theresettingtimedependsonthemachinesizeandthepartsize.Alargerpart
willrequirelargermotionsfromthemachinetoopen,close,andejectthepart,andalargermachinerequires
moretimetoperformtheseoperations.Also,theuseofanysidecoreswillslowthisprocess.
Toolingcost
Thetoolingcosthastwomaincomponentsthediesetandthemachiningofthecavities.Thecostofthedie
setisprimarilycontrolled by the size of the part's envelope. A larger part requires a larger, more expensive,
die set. The cost of machining the cavities is affected by nearly every aspect of the part's geometry. The
primary cost driver is the size of the cavity that must be machined, measured by the projected area of the
cavity(equaltotheprojectedareaofthepartandprojectedholes)anditsdepth.Anyotherelementsthatwill
requireadditionalmachiningtimewilladdtothecost,includingthefeaturecount, parting surface, sidecores,
tolerance,andsurfaceroughness.
Thequantityofpartsandmaterialusedwillaffectthetoolinglifeandthereforeimpactthecost.Materialswith
high casting temperatures, such as copper, will cause a short tooling life. Zinc, which can be cast at lower
temperatures, allows for a much longer tooling life. This effect becomes more cost prohibitive with higher
productionquantities.
One final consideration is the number of sideaction directions, which can indirectly affect the cost. The
additional cost for sidecores is determined by how many are used. However, the number of directions can
restrictthenumberofcavitiesthatcanbeincludedinthedie.Forexample,thedieforapartwhichrequires3
sidecoredirectionscanonlycontain2cavities.Thereisnodirectcostadded,butitispossiblethattheuse
ofmorecavitiescouldprovidefurthersavings.
Returntotop

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