Continuous Variables

If I select a random person off the street, the probability that her age is
precisely 16 years, 4 hours, 27 minutes, and 3.333 ... seconds is zero.

The only sensible thing to speak about is the probability that her age lies in
some interval-say, between 16 and 17.
If the interval is sufficiently short, this probability is proportional to the
length of the interval.

probability density
The probability that x lies between a and b (a finite interval) is given by
the integral of (x):

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Continuous Variables
Discrete

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Continuous

Problem

Determine A

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

NORMALIZATION
is the probability density for finding the particle at point x, at
time t
Normalizing the
wave function
Is it consistent with Schrdinger equation ?

Schrdinger equation:

(x. t) is a solution A (x. t) is also a solution

You can choose A such that (x. t) satisfy the normalizing condition
PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

NORMALIZATION
is the probability density for finding the particle at point x, at
time t

If the integral goes to Infinity or zero?

Such non-normalizable solutions cannot represent particles, and
must be rejected.
Physically realizable states correspond to the square-integrable
solutions to Schrdinger equation

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

TIME DEPENDENCE OF NORMALIZATION

is the probability density for finding the particle at point x, at
time t

Suppose I have normalized the wave function at time t = 0.

How do I know that it will stay normalized, as time goes on ?

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

TIME DEPENDENCE OF NORMALIZATION

Schrdinger equation

Conjugate

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

TIME DEPENDENCE OF NORMALIZATION

(x . t) must go to zero as x goes to () infinity-otherwise the

wave function would not be normalizable.

(x . t) is normalized at t = 0, it stays normalized for all future

time
Schrdinger equation has the remarkable property that it
automatically preserves the normalization of the wave function.
Without this crucial feature the Schrdinger equation would be
incompatible with the statistical interpretation, and the whole
theory would crumble
PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Probability current
=

(, )

Define probability current

, =
The probability of finding a particle in the range (a < x < b), at time t.

J : the rate at which probability is "flowing" past the point x.

J has the dimensions 1/time, and units seconds1.
PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Continuity Equation in Electrodynamics

Charge density

Current density

Integrating over a small volume we have

This shows that any decrease in the charge, in an infinitesimal

volume, must be accompanied by a flux of electric current out of
the volume.
In other words, charge has to be locally conserved.
The total charge of a system is a constant independent of time

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Continuity Equation
The Schrdinger equation
in three-dimension
and its complex conjugate

Subtracting we get,
Where,

Where,

Can be written as
Continuity equation in
Quantum mechanics

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Position probability density

Probability current density

Example
Find the probability current for the wave function:

Answer:

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Examples
Plane wave function

, = ()

, =

Find probality current J (x, t)

=0

2
Consistent with Electrodynamics

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

=
=

Expectation Value

is the average of measurements performed on particles

all in the state or the average of repeated measurements
on an ensemble of identically prepared (all in state )
systems

It does not mean that if you measure the position of one

particle over and over again and the average is the
expectation value.
It is not the most probable value.
PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Expectation value of the velocity

Velocity" of

Postulate: expectation value of the velocity is equal to the time derivative of the expectation
value of position

PYL100 Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics