Unit 83

FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

CONTENTS:

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 THEORY OF GAS TRUBNINE ENGINE
1.3 THEORY OF JET PROPULSION
1.4 PHYSICS OF FORCE, WORK, POWER, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
1.5 THRUST EQUATION

Outcome 1
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2007
Page 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
An Engine is a thermal device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy is principally derived in the form of torque on the output shaft of
the engine and is utilized for necessary driving works.
Energy input to an engine is heat. Heat so used by the engine is derived from
different sources, such as: (i) Solid fuel, (ii) Liquid fuel, (iii) Gaseous fuel, (iv)
Nuclear fuel. Energy input system of the engine ensures efficient release of heat
from the fuel. For the case a chemical fuel (solid/liquid/gaseous), combustion is
the process that is to be carried out to liberate heat from fuel through an exothermic
reaction. For nuclear fuel, a nuclear reaction is to be carried out in a nuclear reactor
so that energy is liberated from atoms through nuclear chain reaction in which
nuclear binding energy is released as a result of re-arrangement of atomic particles.
Depending upon where the combustion process is carried out, (that is, outside the
engine or inside the engine), the engine is classified as External Combustion
Engine (ECE) and Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). For an ECE, combustion
is carried out externally in a furnace and heat is utilized to produce working fluid,
such as, generation of steam from water in a boiler by heating, heat being produced
by burning coal. Here, steam is the working fluid that is taken to drive a steam
engine. ECEs have applications in the field of industrial electric power generation. In
the ICEs, combustion of fuel is carried out in a space or chamber inside the engine
itself. This space/chamber is called the combustion chamber. Metered and
atomized fuel is burnt in compressed air taken in combustion chamber and the hot
gas so produced, called the flue gas with heat energy is the working fluid that is
directly used to stroke a piston or rotate a turbine wheel. ICEs are compact, all
sections being integrated into single unit and hence, they have got wide-spread
application in industries, locomotives and aircraft. They are in the form of piston
engines and gas turbine engines.
A gas turbine engine is an ICE that uses turbines to convert heat energy of a gas
into torque; the gas is the combustion-product produced by burning fuel in
compressed air in its combustion chamber inside the engine. A turbine is a rotary
device with arrangement of series of blades around the periphery of a wheel
mounted on a shaft so that energy of the working fluid, when impinged over blades,
will rotate the wheel. In short, turbine is an energy transfer mechanism, transferring
energy from working fluid to its shaft in the form of rotation or torque.
In aircraft application, an engine is a propulsive device that provides propulsive force
(thrust) to propel the aircraft forward overcoming atmospheric drag. Thus, as long
as aircraft propulsion is concerned, the objective of the aircraft gas turbine engine is
not directly the work output at its shaft but is the propulsive force. This is
fundamental difference between the primary objective furnished by the gas turbine
Outcome 2
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

GAS TURBINE ENGINES & PROPELLERS

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2006
Page 2

engines in industrial applications and in the aircraft applications. However, the basic
aerodynamic and thermodynamic considerations are almost the same.

1.2 THEORY OF GAS TRUBNINE ENGINE

Gas Turbine Engines used for aircraft propulsion are broadly speaking jet-producing
devices where a working fluid undergoes a series of thermodynamic processes.
These processes are, if it is taken ideally, isentropic compression (in air inlet diffuser
and compressor), heat addition (in combustion chamber), isentropic expansion (in
turbine and propelling nozzle). Thermodynamic cycle for gas turbine engines
comprising these processes is the Joule/Brayton Cycle. Ref: Figure 1.1 (a).
Although the diagram in Figure 1.1 (a) is a closed cycle, aero engines works
actually on open cycle as it is clear in Figure 1.1 (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.1

Outcome 1
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2007
Page 3

Objective of this cyclic performance of the working fluid is to produce a net

propulsive force that is used by the aircraft for its flight through the atmosphere
overcoming the drag force. Different types of engines use this working fluid
differently to have the same end result.
When a propeller turbine is used, the net shaft work (W34 + W12) is simply
supplied to the airscrew (i.e. propeller). If propulsion is by jet, the turbine is
required to supply merely the compressor work and it uses only part of the
expansion to atmospheric pressure, from 3 to 5. The remaining expansion, from 5
to 4, occurs in the propulsion nozzle. Ref. Figure 1.1(b).
Cyclic processes consisting the Brayton cycle are executed in different and separate
working zones or sections as illustrated in Figure 1.2. These sections are the basis
of constructional build up of a turbine engine.

Figure 1.2

The mechanical arrangement of the gas turbine engine is simple, for it consists of only
two main rotating parts, a compressor and a turbine, and one or more combustion
chambers. To these three basic parts are added intake at the front and an exhaust
unit at the rear. See Figure 1.3 illustrating a gas turbine engine (turbojet) for the
aircraft.

Outcome 2
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

GAS TURBINE ENGINES & PROPELLERS

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2006
Page 4

Figure 1.3

How this arrangement of engine sections, producing propulsive force generates

propulsive force is the theory of jet propulsion.

1.3 THEORY OF JET PROPULSION

1.3.1 General: Jet propulsion is the method of producing propulsive force in a
device by the reaction of an accelerating mass of air (or gas) expelled out through a
nozzle in the form of a jet. The generated propulsive force is used to propel the
device (or the aircraft) forward in the air.
1.3.2 Basic Principle: Jet propulsion is a practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's
3RD Law of Motion which states that: "For every action, there is an equal and

opposite reaction."

Outcome 1
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2007
Page 5

For aircraft propulsion, the 'body' is atmospheric air that is accelerated as it passes
through the engine. The force applied to the air giving this acceleration (or changing
momentum) has an equal effect in the opposite direction onto the engine. The effect
by the accelerating air coming out of the engine through its propelling nozzle in the
form of a jet is the jet reaction which is conventionally termed as the thrust.
Jet reaction is an internal phenomenon and does not result from the pressure of the
jet acting on the atmosphere as shown in balloon example, Figure 1.4, depicting a
non-mathematical or mechanical approach of justifying jet-propulsion. A turbo-jet
engine could be considered as such an arrangement as the compressor and
combustion chamber sections having high pressure air acting on all surfaces, this
pressure being dropped through the exhaust pipe, hence, unbalance pressure forcing
the engine forward internally similar to the toy balloon.

1.3.3 Operating Principle: To have jet propulsion based on Newton's Third Law,
jet-engines are designed for producing high-velocity gases at the jet-nozzle. To
achieve this, a jet-engine first compresses air. Heat is then added to the compressed
air in the combustion chamber by burning fuel to produce hot expanding gases that
rush towards the rear of the engine and finally escapes through jet-nozzle in a form
of high-velocity kinetic jet.
All kinds of jet engines, like turbo-jets, ram-jets, pulse-jets etc are designed for the
sole purpose of producing high-velocity gases at the jet-nozzle so that reaction
forces come into play as a result of jet-reaction. But, propulsive force is also possible
by propellers and fans. The basic principle is same, that is, accelerating or changing
momentum of air. So, these are also called prop-jets and fan-jets, similar to the
turbo-jets.

Outcome 2
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

GAS TURBINE ENGINES & PROPELLERS

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2006
Page 6

Figure 1.4: Toy-balloon experiment (explaining jet-propulsion as in

internal phenomena)

1.4 PHYSICS OF FORCE, WORK, POWER, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

1.4.1 General: Physics relating to the force, work, power, velocity and
acceleration defines the quantities and establishes their relationship with
mathematical treatment. This helps us establishing thrust formula, power and
work expression for aircraft gas turbine engines.

Outcome 1
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2007
Page 7

1.4.2 Force: Force is defined as external influence acting on a body to make a

change in the state of rest or state of motion of the body. It is a vector quantity
having a magnitude and direction of action.
1.4.3 Velocity: This is the change in speed of a moving body per unit time in a
specific direction of motion. This is a vector quantity having a magnitude and the
direction.
1.4.4 Acceleration: This is the rate of change of velocity of a moving body.
1.4.5 Relationship of Force, Velocity and Acceleration: The relationship is
established on the basis of Newtons Laws of motion. There are 3 Laws stating the
nature of state of rest and state of motion of a body. These Laws are as follows:
First Law: "A body will continue its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless compelled by some external force to change its state."
This is actually the law of INERTIA. It is due to the inertia that body at rest tends to
remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to continue its motion with the same
velocity (speed and direction), in a straight line. The law expresses the necessity of
an external force to overcome the effect of inertia.
An aircraft in level flight (cruise) is under zero resultant force, but it continues to fly
at constant speed and direction due to inertia. To accelerate (or decelerate) the
aircraft, Pilot must increase throttle to create extra thrust as an unbalanced force.
This law has a close relationship with momentum. Momentum is the product of
mass (m) and velocity (V) and is a vector having magnitude and direction. The
direction of momentum of a body is the same as the direction of related motion.
From Newton's first law, under no external force, momentum of a body is constant
(either ZERO or a non-zero constant quantity). To change the momentum, an
external force must act on to the body.
How much force will be required to make a change in motion or momentum, or,
how much change in momentum will be effected by a force, is expressed in the 2nd
Law.
Second Law: "The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts."
This law states the relationship between the force applied to an object and the
resultant change of momentum in that direction.
Normally, the mass of an object is constant and the relation becomes:
F = (mv-mu)/t = m(v-u)/t =ma

Outcome 2
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

GAS TURBINE ENGINES & PROPELLERS

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2006
Page 8

Where, m is the mass, u is the initial velocity, v is the velocity after t second, F is
the applied force acting in the direction of motion, a is the acceleration, mu is the
initial momentum, mv is the momentum after t seconds.
This formula has direct application in mathematical treatment of jet-propulsion
of an aircraft gas turbine engine.
Third Law: "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."
This law gives the mutual relationship between bodies acting on each other
with or without contact. The action and reaction always exist in a pair.
The condition of a book resting on a table will produce an action and reaction
pair. The weight of the book will exert a force on the top of the table, and the
table will exert a lift on the book to prevent it from falling down under gravity.
In the physics of jet-propulsion, the 2 nd Law is used in mathematical
formulation of the action force applied by the engine on to the working fluid
(air and gas flow) undergoing change in momentum. According to the 3rd law,
there is a reaction pair of this action force applied on to the engine by the
gas. This reaction is the propulsive force or the thrust. Thus, the 2 nd law
action force formula is taken as the reaction force (thrust) formula.
1.4.6 Work: Work is a quantity found by multiplying force acting on a body and
the distance through which the body has displaced in the direction of the force
due to its action. It is a scalar, having only the quantity. If there is no
displacement in the direction of force, it is said that the force has not performed
any work, or the work performed is zero.
1.4.7 Energy: This is the capacity of doing work.
1.4.7 Power: Rate of doing work by applying force is called power.

1.5 THRUST EQUATION

1.5.1 Momentum Thrust: If the condition (area A, pressure P and velocity V) at
the engine intake and exhaust are designated with the subscripts 'a' and 'j'
respectively, then a mass of 'air (m) flowing per unit time through the engine will
experience an:
Increase in velocity = (Vj - Va).
The momentum gain = m (Vj - Va), where m is the mass flow rate of air
through the engine under steady condition.
= rate of change of momentum

Outcome 1
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2007
Page 9

= Applied force to the air mass flow as per Newtons 2nd

Law of motion.
According to Newton's Third Law, for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. Therefore as the air mass is accelerated through the engine, there will be an
equal and opposite reaction (thrust) acting on the engine in the forward direction.
Since the force is obtained due to a change in momentum of the air, this is called the
Momentum Thrust of the engine.
Momentum Thrust

= m (Vj - Va)
= m Vj - m Va

Consideration may be given to the fuel mass flow rate (mf) that is mixing with air at
combustion chamber with initial zero velocity relative to the engine, the thrust
equation may be modified as follows:
Momentum Thrust

= (m + mf )Vj m Va
= m (Vj- Va ) + mf Vj

1.5.2 Pressure Thrust: Considering the engine as a physical body in the air, it will
be subjected to pressures acting at the intake (Pa) and the exhaust (Pj). The
pressures will produce a pressure force of (Pj - Pa)Aj acting on the engine in the
forward direction. This force is the result of an unbalanced pressure and is called the
Pressure Thrust. Hence,
Pressure Thrust

= (Pj - Pa)Aj

In most practical cases, pressure thrust exists because all of the pressure of the
engine cannot be converted into velocity at the exhaust (i.e. gas does not fully
expanded to atmospheric pressure). It becomes more pronounced and significant as
the speed of the aircraft becomes supersonic and the exhaust nozzle becomes choked.
At choked nozzle condition, velocity of exhaust gas cannot exceed M =1, unless it is a
C-D duct and invariably there remains significant amount of unconverted pressure.
1.5.3 Total Thrust: The Total Thrust on a jet engine will be the sum of the
momentum thrust and the pressure thrust.
Total Thrust
Tt

= Momentum Thrust + Pressure Thrust

= m (Vj- Va ) + mf Vj + (Pj Pa) Aj

In actual practice, fuel flow is usually neglected when net thrust is computed, because
the weight of the air that leaks from various section of the engine is assumed to the
approximately equivalent to the weight of the fuel consumed. Therefore, the final
equation for computing the thrust by a turbo-jet engine becomes:

Outcome 2
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

GAS TURBINE ENGINES & PROPELLERS

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2006
Page 10

Tt

= m (Vj- Va ) + (Pj Pa) Aj

This is a general thrust equation and is applicable for all kinds of jet propulsion.
1.5.4 Gross Thrust, Momentum-Drag and Net Thrust: An analysis of the total
thrust of a jet engine will show that it can be grouped into two parts.
Tt

= [m Vj + (Pj - Pa)Aj] [mVa]

The forward part composed of the exhaust jet momentum [mVj] and the pressure
thrust (Pj-Pa)Aj and is called the Gross Thrust of the engine, i.e. thrust developed
by the engine. The rear part is the momentum force of the incoming air impinging
on the engine intake and is called the Momentum Drag. Hence the total thrust is
the difference of the gross thrust and the momentum drag and it is also called the
Net Thrust (actual thrust) of the engine. Hence,
Tgross

= m Vj + (Pj - Pa)Aj

Dmomentum

= mVa

Net Thrust = Gross Thrust - Momentum Drag

Gross thrust is actually the thrust at the static aircraft, with aircraft speed zero.
1.5.5 Power of aircraft gas turbine engines: Turbojet engines are rated on the
basis of takeoff thrust generated at standard atmospheric conditions. This is
conventional, because output of turbojet engines for the aircraft is THRUST (propulsive
force).
Gas turbine engines for turboprop are the torque turbine engines and the output of the
engine is in the form of TORQUE on the shaft. Hence, the rating of the engine is the
Shaft Horse Power expressed in BHP.
For comparison purpose, thrust of the turbojets may be converted into horse power,
called Thrust Horse Power (THP).
THP =

Thrust X Forward velocity of aircraft

550

For turboprop aircraft, total power is the summation of BHP at the engine output shaft
(input to the propeller) and the THP from the exhaust thrust. The summation of these
two is termed as ESHP (equivalent shaft horsepower).

--Outcome 1
Week 1

Unit Name

Unit No

AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

83

Unit value: 1
Unit level: 3
Core code: Group A

Issue Date
31/05/2007
Page 11