Chapter II

Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The present literature review describes the implications of work-life practices in organisations in
order to understand their effects on employee behaviour and organisational performance. These
balance practices employed by many organisations resulted in reducing work-life conflicts and
enhancing employment opportunities. The enhancement of organisational performance is closely
linked with reduction of work-life conflicts and jobs insecurity. This literature review provides
ample evidence for the performance and selection opportunities in developed organisations, to
support the topic that best work-life practices improve firms performance and reduce employee
turnover.

2.2

Background of Work life Balance

The presence of very few case studies related to the family work relationships in diverse cultural
background countries raise the need of comprehensive literature review of Asian practices also
(Sector et al 2007). According to Cook (2005), the human resource management practices are in
the phase of development due to the booming economy, so that the changing nature of society and
its impacts on organisational performance should be discussed in detail. Cook (2005) also
mentioned that the working structures and conflicts are quite similar many developed countries
of Europe and North America.
The balance in work life practices has a considerable impact on the organisational structure. The
leadership commitments and the enforced management policies are required to design in
effective manner to address work life balance issues, as they impact on the performance of the
whole organisation (Kalliath and Brough, 2008). The concept of improved organisational
performance and the diverse perception of employees are closely linked with the work life

balance. Also, high levels of management support played a significant role in enhanced
employees commitment and job satisfaction (Beauregard and Henry, 2009).

2.3 Works-Life Policies Implications

The issues of family engagements and employment responsibilities have been discussed by
several researchers (Glass and Riley et al 1998). They have strived to find link between work life
policies and workplace performance. According to Pleck, Staines & Lang (1980), family job
conflict arises due to the issues like long work hours, in flexible schedules, stringent leave
policies, and extra demanding work target. Maxwell et al (2005) revealed that work support, paid
off time, flexible work schedules, and on job trainings contributed towards a better work life
balance in organisations. Work life policies and their implications has gained vital importance in
human resource researches in present decade due to the trends of globalisation, business process
out sourcing, and due to the rapid growth of virtual organisations (Schwartz 1996).
In recent decade, employers are more concerned about the workers well being in organisations to
achieve maximum human resources efficiency. Also, the retention of skilled workers in the
company also greatly depends on balance in work life and job satisfaction linked with
performance appraisal. Large number of companies adopts useful measures to satisfy employee
work life concerns and to achieve high levels of productivity, but still there is a room for more
efforts and extensive research in this area (Deery, 2008). The major areas for present researches
are concentrated on flexible work schedules, family oriented job structures, and social aspects of
working (Hall, 2001).
Work life policies in an organisation address the issues like turn over intentions, health and
medical care, flexible work structures, leave policies, workers union, family insurance, and child
development plans and many more. Grover and Crooker et al (1995) discovered that workers
who can access the favourable work life policies easily show more commitment towards
safeguarding organisational benefits. Further, Organisational commitment is in direct relationship
with favourable work-life policies (Dockel et al., 2006).

2.4

Work- Life Policies and Employee Turnover

According to Thompson, Andreassi & Prottas, (2003), work-life policies in organisation act like
performance indicators of an organisation which determine the priorities of work and family to
the management and individuals. Valcour & Batt (2003) determined that those employers, who
give work-life life issues prime importance, can raise an organisational culture of promoting
family values. On the contrary, work-life conflict arise in those companies where work and
family demands cannot met simultaneously, as a result, they became mutually incompatible
(Higgins, Duxbury & Lyons, 2007). The presence of this work-life conflict generates
psychological barriers to performance (Schieman, McBrier & Gundy, 2003).
Yu (2008) suggested that favourable work life policies reduce employee turnover in
organisations. Glass & Riley (1998) also supported the finding by considering turnover as one
of the vital issues in organisations performance, but Riley (2003) was not able to present any
considerable relation of factors affecting turnover and prevailing work-life policies. Some
researches in Asia, like of Bashir & Ramay (2008) from Pakistan supported the importance of
work-life policies in organisational structure. According to Hom & Kinicki (2001),
organisations are searching for policies which can be adopted to reduce turnover. In words of
Konrad & Mangel, (2000: 23), Work-life programs are effective in reducing work-family
conflict, and efficient in improving attitudes.
Nowadays, with the advancement of human resource practices, firms are more aware of the
significance of balance in work life, and adopt favourable policies to support this balance
(Yasbek 2004). The response to the conflicts arise due to mismanagement of work life issues
could affect the organisations performance (Thaden 2007). Batt & Valcour (2003) had already
proposed that the effective response of companies to work-life conflicts involves the blending of
policies related to work family issues with the jobs redesign, flexible schedules, and incentives to
increase commitments.

2.5

Work life policies and Flexible work structures

One measure which plays a vital role in work life policies is flexible work schedules. Marks &
Scholarios (2001) suggested that flexibility in work hours can create the balance in work-life
issues. As Rau & Hyland (2002: 124) proposed that flexible work schedules can resolve interrole conflict, as it seems attractive to family enticed workers who are facing upward demands of
work life balance. This approach has been adopted in western countries to achieve a better
understanding between workers and management, also prove to be useful in gaining higher levels
of working efficiencies (Soon et al 2005).
The positive changes and more flexible structures in organisational policies help in reducing
stress among employees and become an important factor in achieving organisational
commitments (Yasbek 2004). Hudson (2005) suggested that the balance in policies can be
achieved redesigning job descriptions and work schedules so that employees can balance their
family and work. As the components discovered by Thompson, Andreassi, & Prottas (2003)
were-support for dependent care, flexible work hours, and less stress of targets. Ling & Phillips
(2006) the work family conflicts create more physical or psychological abnormalities and work
inefficiencies.

2.6 Flexible Schedules and Job Satisfaction

The flexibility in work schedules has been observed to have a positive impact on job attitudes and
satisfaction. The increase in organisational commitment and decrease in employee turnover can be
achieved through providing relaxation in work hours (Aryee, Luk, & Stone, 1998). Williams &
Ford et al (2000) have connected the reduced working hours with greater job loyalty,
commitment, and satisfaction.
Job satisfaction and commitment has been studied by many researchers (See Gold berg, Hamill,
& ONeil 1989; Crooker and Groover 1995; Youngblood 1984), and discovered that facilities
like day care centres for children, referral services, and flexible work schedules contributed to a
greater extent to job satisfaction and remarkable achievements. Baltes & Newman et al (1999)
proved by their Meta analysis that flexible working hours have satisfied workers with their jobs

and their working criteria.

Also, the concept of flexibility in location, time, and selection of jobs gas created virtual
offices, a very common phenomenon in business process outsourcing now (Callemntines 1995).
These virtual offices have facilities the workers to work from home or any place of their choice.
They can plan work quantity and delivery time according to their family constraints (Daniels &
Lamond, 1999). Teleworkers have enjoyed this freedom due to this policy (See Quaid and
Lagerbergs 1992). Also Harrison and Gajendra (1997) also confirmed this relationship of virtual
offices with work performance in their Meta analysis that these workers possess high levels of
job satisfaction with flexible schedules and less work place conflicts.
2.7 Stress and Work life policies
The policies related to work family relationships have found to have a significant impact of
physical and mental health of workers. The study conducted by Leontaridi & Ward et al (2002)
proved stress and anxiety as critical elements in organisational performance. The rigid work
policies, tough deadlines, work pressures, and complicated systems and procedures made it
difficult for a common worker to establish health in good condition.

Thompson, Andreassi, &

Prottas (2003) also suggested that organisations have to revise their strict policies and complex
structures in order to minimize workers inefficiencies and poor health and state of mind. Rigid
schedules created extra stress and longer work hours for employees.
Thaden (2007) stated that employees became under stressed because of work load, heavy duties,
lack of staff, and new job targets. As a result, organisations face high turnover and critical
incidents during work timings. Kemery et al (1987) proposed that job satisfaction has inverse
relationships with on-job stress. Otis & Pelletier (2005) found that this job exhaustion increases
the chances of turnover intentions and less productivity. Leontaridi & Ward (2002) studied
important relation the intentions to quit and levels of stress. Braaten (2000) has related work
related stress to the psychological imbalance and intentions to quit the job. More stress is an
indirect cause of work inefficiency and less productivity (Kavanagh, 2005).

2.8 Work practices and Organisational Success

The effectiveness of the organisations procedures has a direct relationship with work life
practices. The work policies made to achieve desired goals but when they fail to reach targets
then organisation faces great long term losses. Many studies in this area found that lack of proper
implementation is the reason of work policies failure in many cases (Harper and Dench 2002).
Research in western countries like UK and USA suggested that most of the time employees are
not aware of their rights and work life practices in a particular organisation (Kagan & Heaton
2000).
On the contrary, even if employees are aware of the work family supportive policies in their
organisations they sometimes are hesitant of using these policies (Berry & Rao 1997). Many
studies showed that very few male workers avail their family leaves on the occasion of child
birth or any other family engagement (Pleck 1993). The competitive edge and, male egoism
restrict these males to show their counterparts the true reasons of their leaves also. As family
leaves are supposed to be restricted to only females in many eastern traditions, so the male
workers show even more declining trend in Asian countries (Hall 1990).
Research studies have brought forward the variation in males and females roles in availing these
family leaves. Wayne and Cordeiro (2003) proposed that use of family leaves by females have
not changed in their office roles, but males who have observed to avail these leaves have not
rated the same as their co-workers who did not avail these leaves. The punctuality, overtime
work, and additional responsibilities are some important criteria for measuring organisational
effectiveness. The failure of showing performance by these males has turned them less
competitive as compared to their counterparts. Gender role theory can explain this behaviour as
male workers normally put their work before family responsibilities, and avoid taking family
leaves to act like competitive organisational citizens (Hall 1999).
Eaton (2003) discovered that even though these work-life practices are meant to increase the
efficiency of workers, but their use should be on the discretion of employees. Workers can avail
these relaxations up to a limit where they dont disturb the professional responsibilities.
According to Cunningham (2001), in professional organisations, extremely less percentage of
employees opt for part time job opportunities. Eaton et al (2003) stated that the negative effects

of availing these work life policies on future career prospects acted like demotivation for
workers.

This perception of organisational ineffectiveness due to work life balance is a

hindrance in proper implementation of these policies.

2.9

Unsupportive Organisational Culture

The dilemma of negative impacts of work life policies and organisational effectiveness described
above, also enhanced by non-supportive organisational cultures in many countries. Ryan &
Kossek (2008) reported that the proper implantation of these policies require top management
support especially from line managers and/or supervisors. Also, the universal appeal and
homogeneity of these practices throughout the organisation can fulfil the needs of employees to a
greater extent.
The work-life requirements and treatment of organisations create actual picture of organisational
culture. The unaccommodating and unsupportive attributes of management and colleagues make
these work-life policies inaccessible to majority of workers. Bailyn (1997) described the trade off
of the organisational commitment standards and work life balance. Working long hours, extra
pile of assignments and visibility at work sites are the measures normally used by management
to evaluate the commitment and loyalty of workers? In some examples, these are the measures of
productivity also. Lewis (1997) supported this argument that those employees are taken as
incompetent who does not give long hours, and often treated as undervalued assets for the
organisation.
The concern of employees mainly related to the prospects of their career growth, and they
perceive that if they use flexible working hours or parental leaves, it will affect their promotion
chances and peer relationships as compared to other employees (Houston & Waumsley, 2003).
The other concerns include personal isolation, less interpersonal networks, less learning
opportunities, and lack of active participation when employees are availing work life balance
and allocating more time to family issues (Cooper & Kurland 2002).

Also some work-life privileges like flexible hours, family leaves, overtime perks etc. are not
available at managerial posts. Even if they are provided by the organisation, managers and upper
management normally avoids reducing the chances of career derailment (Raabe, 1996).
Organisational commitment and work effectiveness is normally measured in terms of the time
spent in the organisation, managers participation in work life practices appears less in order to
keep the career growth upward (Bailyn, 1997; Perlow, 1995).

2.10 Quality work Life & Organisational Effectiveness

Behavioural scientist David (1972) has introduced the concept of Quality Work Life (QWL),
which deals the proactive response of any organisation to the true needs of employees and the
decision making in designing the QWL policies. Robbins (1990) has defined that QWL practices
design the lives of employees at work place. The scholarly literature illustrates the key elements
of QWL as security of job, reward system, bonuses, salary benefits, employee commitment, and
organisational effectiveness (Havlovic, 1991; Scobel, 1975).
Though quality of life in literary sense, elaborates life quality as a social phenomenon, but in
business sector, workers are the capital resource of industry, therefore, the term QWL refers to
the available working environment, and working performance. The standard of workers living
and their facilities defines the quality of their life. The social compliance (SC) also added in the
work place to connect the workers policies to the society structure. The service and
manufacturing quality standards in the industry like ISO 9001, and ISO 14000, also target the
betterment of workers life (Blishe & Atkinson 1978). Stone (1978) stated that quality work life
policies satisfy the workers on individual basis. Mishra (1985) proposed that QWL policies are
related to the financial rewards and job stability ultimately resulted in high levels of work life.

2.11 Work life organisational factors

The core practices of QWL are proposed to be provided the feasible work environment, job
satisfaction and retention, training and development, and monetary betterment of the employees

in an organisation (Lau & May 1998). The human resources department should acquire, train,
motivate, and apprise the respective worker so that the firm achieve its targets through effective
workforce. Job satisfaction is considered to be an important factor of organisational
performance. Locke (1976) discovered in his study that that motivation and performance
appraisal generates job satisfaction, and it more towards emotional side of the employee
behaviour. Job satisfaction includes all physical and psychological areas where employee gets
motivated from the environment. A better work life policy structure is based on job satisfaction.
The other elements of quality of work life associated with pay structure, peer relationships, top
management behaviour, promotion rules, job descriptions, and financial perks involved in the job
design (Nash 1985). The motivation theories form Herzberg et al (1959) suggested that internal
motivation of employees towards work is on o the key factor in job satisfaction. Satisfied and
motivated employees perform better at their jobs, and achieve a better work life balance
(Gilgeous, 1998).

2.11.1

Role of Labour Union

The organisation can support QWL practices by providing competitive wages, hygienic work
conditions, social connectivity, and better leave structures (Zohir 2007). Realisation of
importance of workers relations and their implications in regular working structure enable
companies to allow the formation of workers union. Gilgeous (1998) emphasised the role of
active workers union in organisations performance.
On the contrary, Eaton (1990) supported the negative relationship of workers union and the
standard QWL practices. In the broader context with field surveys, many studies support the
perception of an effective labour union in the company. The working of union is also closely
related with the employee perception and prior experiences with the union (Eaton et al., 1992).
The supportive union can enhance the organisational performance in an organised manner
by providing a disciplined and target oriented work force. The perception of organisations
towards the negative aspects of labour union can be changed by a more participative union
culture to empower workers in decision making; they can also promote socialization, training &
development, and facilitate negotiation on workers issues Zohir (2007). The absence of labour

union in organisations generates an unstructured management for workers; they cannot raise
collective voices on common complaints. The top-down communication reduces the chances of
consultation, negotiation, and increases worker management conflicts. Mustafa et al (2007)
describe that the complaints related to the problems of absences, working hours, health and
medical facilities can be solved easily in the presence of a representative workers union.
2.11.2 Health Care Facilities
Health care facilities at work place and medical insurance played a vital role in employee
retention. As the expenses in health care keep on rising in personal treatments, child care, old age
ailments, and family medical allowances (Nielsen &Welling, 1994). The health plans for
workers in organisations need participation from workers representatives in order to check their
validity (Guy, 2003).
In general, employers concern for employee health is underestimated as they consider this area to
be taken care of the employee. On the other hand, healthy work force not only available for tight
schedules, long working hours, and for under stressed projects, but also contribute significantly
in organisational success. Work life policies required the employers attention to the family
health care for employees, as the dependent family health problems also affect workers
efficiency. Health and hygiene is one of the basic physical need of humans (Maslow 1970),
healthy life style contribute to the workers job satisfaction and organisational commitment.
Sports facilities, gymnasium, gaming zones, and other physical and mental activities help in
decline the stress levels, and increase healthy practices among workers (Tulloch

1993).

Organisations offer club memberships, arrange employee tournaments, and establish health
zones to keep their workers extremely fit and to perform better (Pastor, 1996).
After human resources development, social scientists have paid emphasis to the mutual influence
and interdependence of life and work (Casper and Harris, 2008). This issue has gotten more
importance in this business perspective since with the 1980s

with the development of

organisations human resource divisions, and its inclusion in companies human resource policies.
These relatively new terms of Quality Work Life (QWL) and Work Life Balance (WLB) have
become a part of business literature since the 1990s. According to Lewis (2003), the issue of WLB

is currently considered for both females and males at all employment levels irrespective of their
family arrangements. It has been observed that work schedules flexibility allows a positive impact
on job satisfaction and attitudes. It has been asserted by Aryee, Luk and Stone (1998), that through
provision of relaxed work hours, employee turnover can be decreased and organisational
commitment increased. The reduced working hours have been connected with enhanced job
loyalty, satisfaction and commitment (Casper and Harris, 2008).
According to Yasbek (2004), the more flexible structures and positively changed organisational
policies are of help in stress reduction in employees and becomes a vital factor for achievement
of organisational commitments. Achievement of balance in policies can be obtained by
redesigning work schedules and job descriptions so that family and work can be balanced by
employees (Secret, 2006). According to a research, the components discovered were flexible
work hours, less stress of targets, and dependent care (Thompson et al, 1999). More work
inefficiencies and psychological or physical abnormalities are created by work family conflicts
( Wood & de Menezes, 2008).