Introduction to

Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures

Introduction to Structural Geology - for

ES109 Week 3

Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults

Dr. Christie Rowe

12-16 April 2010

General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
200 g

Dr. Christie Rowe

Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

10 cm

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults

Mass = 0.2 kg
Area = 10cm * 10 cm = .1 *.1 m = 0.01m2
Stress exerted by apple sitting on table =
mass * gravitation / area
= (0.2 kg * 9.8m/s2) / 0.01m) = 196 Pa

General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Stress and Pressure mean the same thing

196 Pa = ~ 0.3 psi

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe

200 g

Stress and strain

2 km rock
@ 3000kg/m3

Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
10 cm

Faults

Calculate stress on 1 m2 of the roof of a mine tunnel in

the Witwatersrand gold fields
Mass = 0.2 kg
Area = 10cm * 10 cm = .1 *.1 m = 0.01m2
Stress exerted by apple sitting on table =

mass = 2000m * 3000 kg/m3 = 6 x 106 kg per m2

mass * gravitation / area

= (0.2 kg * 9.8m/s2) / 0.01m) = 196 Pa

Stress = mass * area * gravity =

6x106 kg/m2 * 1 m2 * 9.8 m/s2 = 58,800,000 kgm/s2

Stress and Pressure mean the same thing

Thats a lot of zeros, lets simplify

196 Pa = ~ 0.3 psi

58,800,000 Pa = 58,800 kPa = 58.8 MPa

MPa usually used for crustal stresses
In the mantle, stresses on order GPa
Can use simplification that pressure increases ~ 30MPa per km depth

General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Rock Deformation

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain

Rocks experience STRESS (Pascals (Pa) = kgm1 s2 )

Fractures

Deformation in response to this stress is called STRAIN

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints

STRAIN is defined as change in size, position or shape

Faults

STRAIN manifests on lots of scales - large and small

Strain is accomplished on large scale by the formation

of STRUCTURES such as faults, joints, and folds

Strain is accomplished on the small scale by the

formation of FABRICS by aligning minerals

Joints

General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Fractures

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures

Planar or Curviplanar discontinuities cutting through

material volume

Once formed, can be closed or open depending on local

stress conditions

Create fluid pathways - affect permeability

OPENING MODE: JOINTS

SLIDING MODE: FAULTS

Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Joints = Tensile Fractures

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain

Planar or curvi-planar fracture surfaces

Fractures

Offset during fracturing is perpendicular to fracture

surface - Opening Mode

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints

Creates new permeability pathways through rock

Offset distance is very small - sometimes difficult to

detect

Common in nearly every rock outcrop - therefore, you

must be able to differentiate Joints from other planes
(e.g. Bedding or Faults)

Joints

Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Causes of Joints

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe

Expansion
I Can be caused by general constriction or shrinkage form radially symmetric or polygonal sets
I
I

Flattening
I

Burial of sediments causes lateral increase of pore

pressure

Unloading I
I

Cooling cracks (in lava for example)

Drying (in mud for example)

Erosional removal of overlying rock

excavation or mine shaft where void is created

Have characteristic surface marks in isotropic materials

(Plumose Structure) to distinguish them from other
fractures

Stress and strain

Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults

Figure: Cooling joints can be concentric (parallel to isotherms) in

a spherical magma body

General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Figure: Half Dome is an example of granite exfoliation creating a

rounded shape

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Veins = minerals growing in joints

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Figure: Minerals such as quartz and calcite are common

precipitates into joints

Faults = Sliding Fractures

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Planar or curvi-planar fracture surfaces

Offset during fracturing is parallel to fracture surface Sliding Mode

Fracture propagates parallel to sliding direction

Creates or destroys permeability pathways through rock

Offset can be microns to 100s kilometers

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Take an inclined fault surface

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

The rock UNDER a dipping fault is the

Footwall, ABOVE is the Hanging Wall

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

If the Hanging wall moves down-dip relative to

the footwall, its a Normal fault

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

If the Hanging wall moves up-dip relative to the

footwall, its a Reverse or Thrust fault

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

If the fault motion is parallel to the strike of the

fault plane, its a Strike-slip fault

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

If the motion is not parallel to strike or dip, its

an Oblique fault

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Block Models for Fault Types

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Faults

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Faults form Horsts and Grabens

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Faults form Horsts and Grabens

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Faults form Horsts and Grabens

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Faults form Horsts and Grabens

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Fault Scarp

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Fault Scarp

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Fault Scarp

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Normal Fault Scarp

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

If the Hanging wall moves up-dip relative to the

footwall, its a Reverse or Thrust fault

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Thrust or Reverse faults cause effective

shortening

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Small Thrust Faults

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Drag folds can show the direction of slip

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Reverse Fault Scarp formed in earthquake

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Fault Scarp formed by Lone Pine Earthquake 3m slip on Normal Fault in 4,5 seconds

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Chi Chi Earthquake Taiwan 1999

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Ramp-Flat geometry: slip along weak bedding

planes dominates

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Imbricated faults can result in A LOT OF

SHORTENING

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Outcrop-scale duplex

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Experiment with layers of dark and light coloured

sand

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Blind Thrust is one that has not yet broken the

surface - can be identified by the folds above it

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Figure: Loma Prieta Earthquake (Oct. 17 1989) was on a blind

thrust

Strike slip faults - bends can be restraining or

releasing

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Bends create flower structures

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Restraining Bend experiment - looking down on

box of blue sand

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Strike-slip fault seen from the air

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

San Andreas Fault in central California

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Slow Creep on strike-slip San Andreas Fault

shears across a tar road

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Locating faults while mapping the geology

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Missing or Extra sections?

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Fault rocks at different depths in the crust

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Slickenlines on Fault Surface

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Slickenlines on Fault Surface

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Large grooves on Fault Surface - Salton Normal

Fault, SE California

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Fault Gouge and Breccia

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Cataclasite texture

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Cataclasite texture

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Breccia

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Mylonite from Monapo, Mozambique

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Mylonite from Monapo, Mozambique

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Brittle cracking at shallow depth, ductile flow at

deeper levels

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Criteria for describing folds

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

1. Tightness (angle between the two limbs)

2. Symmetry (or asymmetry)
3. Orientation (strike/dip of axial plane and trend/plunge
of fold axis)
4. Size (wavelength/amplitude)
5. Special types

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Two key structures to define the orientation of

a fold:

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

TREND and PLUNGE of HINGE LINE

STRIKE and DIP of AXIAL PLANE

Concentric: layer thickness stays constant.

Similar: layers nest like pint glasses (hinges are
thicker than limbs)

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

HINGE LINE is the line of greatest curvature on

a folded layer
AXIAL PLANE contains the hinge lines

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

As Axial Plane dip changes, describe the

orientation:

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Fold Orientation is related to the dip of the axial

plane and the lower limb

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Upright Folds have vertical axial planes

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Fold is OVERTURNED when younger beds are

below older beds on at least one limb

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Interlimb Angle describes the Tightness of the

folds

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Plunging folds form Fold Noses on the map

view

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Folds and Faults can be related - Thrust-bend

fold

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Cape Fold Belt - upright, gently plunging folds

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Appalachians in western Pennsylvania

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

Fold is KINK FOLD if the limbs are straight and

hinge is pointy. These also happen to be
UPRIGHT KINK FOLDS

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

PTYGMATIC FOLDS are irregular in wavelength

and amplitude

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types

PTYGMATIC FOLDS are irregular in wavelength

and amplitude

Introduction to
Structural Geology
- for ES109 Week
3
Dr. Christie Rowe
Stress and strain
Fractures
Joints

Opening-mode
fractures: Joints
Faults
General Theories of
Faulting
Normal faults
Reverse and Thrust
Faults
Strike-slip faults
Identifying faults on
maps and in the field
Fault Rocks

Folds
Special types