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OF ROCK
THROUGH
BLASTING
AND
SHOCK
WAVE
THEORY
BY KeMao
OF BLASTING
HNo
CONTENTS
page
Abstract
....................................................
Introduction
.................................................
Fragmentation
of RockThroughBlasting.........................
Introduction
.............................................
191
191
191
191
192
192
192
193
194
Discussions
(Mechanismof Milli-SecondDelayBlasting) .......
Theory of Blastingwith Concentrated
Charge .....................
Outlineof the Theory .....................................
194
195
195
196
PressureDecayDue to Distance............................
Breakingby ReflectedTensionWave ........................
Work Doneby Expansionof Gases..........................
196
197
200
200
201
201
208
209
TABLES
table
I.
II.
III.
IV.
page
figure
page
202
203
204
205
206
207
ROCK FRAgMETATION
191
ABSTRACT
The shock-wave
theory of rock failure in blastinghas been earlier
proposedand is now usedto furtherdefinethe geometryof craterformation. The fundamentalprincipleof the theory holdsthat major rock
failure is causedby reflection in tensionof the primary shock wave.
Mathematicalexpressions
for the intensityof the shockwave at any
distancefrom a charge, the relation of rock strengthto the pressure
intensityof the shockwave,and the relationbetweenweightof chargeto
depth of overburdenhave beenderivedpreviously.Experimentalwork
described
hasnow permittedthe extension
of the theoryto describemore
fully the shapesand intensitiesof the shockwavein differentrocksusing
differentexplosives.Blastabilitycoefficient,the ratio of the compresslye
and tensile strengthsof rock, is proposedas controllingthe maximum
number of slabsformed in a blast. The distanceof throw of fragments
in blastingis shownto be a functionof the shapeof the shockwave.
INTRODUCTION
Mathematics
has beenavoidedto makeprintingeasierand for further
mathematicalaspectsof the theory the interestedreader is referred to a
seriesof original paperson the subject. (Hino, 1954, 1955, 1956, and in
preparation,as listedin the Bibliographyat the end of this paper.)
FRAGMENTATION
OF ROCK
THROUGH
BLASTING
INTRODUCTION
The fundamental
idea of the shock-wave
theoryof blastingis this: The
detonationof an explosivechargeproducesa crushedzoneof rock near
the charge. As the compresslye
strengthof rock is ratherhigh this range
of crushedzoneis limitedto the vicinityof a charge,whilea shockwave
with high peak pressurebut of shortdurationpropagatesoutwardsas a
compressive
wave without producingany breakageof rock. At a free
facethis compressive
wavereflectsas a tensionwavebecause
at a free face
there shouldbe no force. As the tensilestrengthof rock is muchsmaller
than the compressive
strengthof rock a fractureoccursat a point where
the effectivetension,that is, the differencebetweenthe intensityof tension
wave and remaining compression,exceedsthe tensile strengthof rock.
The distancebetweenthis point of the first mainfractureandthe first free
face is defined as "thickness of the first slab." This dimension determines
*Hio,1956.
192
QUARTEgLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOL
OFMINES
thensimilarprocesses
are repeated
at thenewlyproduced
freefacesuntil
the intensityof the remainingcompressive
waveis reducedto belowthe
tensilestrengthof rock.
In this section,the behavior of the shock wave has been describedon
If we assume
that a shockwavehasits peakpressure
pa andlengthL
whenit arrivesat a freefacethenthethickness
of a slab1is represented
by thefollowing
equation(Hino,1954,pp 243-244):
l____LSt
2 Pa .................................................
(14)
P,a
St ......
......................................
(1-2)
EXPERIMENT
Fromthe thickness
of eachslabproduced
by detonation
the shapeof
the shockwavemaybe easilyconstructed
by useof theprincipledescribed
in the Introduction.The peakpressureandlengthof shockwaveare summarized in Table II.
TABLE I
MECHANICALSTRENGTHSOF ROCK SPECIMENS
Blastability
Rock
Marble
Coefficient
Density
B -- So/St
2.6 g/crn
14.8
Granite
1000
75
2.5
13.3
Sandstone
1700
110
2.3
15.5
ROCK FRAGMEN?ATION
193
TABLE II
SHAPE OF SHOCK WAVE FOR 'VARIOUSRocKs AN;) EXPLOStVES
Shock Wave
Rock
(1) Marble
(2)
Marble
Explosives
Weight
Peak
of charge Pressure
(g)
Kg/crn
Ammon gelatin
Permitted
Number
of
Length
cm
slabs
3 44
275
29
10
275
27
5-5
20
275(330)
28
4-5-(6)
30
275
31
3-4-5
10
275
29
4-5
10
220
26
3-4
Ammon gelatin
Permitted
(3) Granite
Ammon dynamite
Ammon gelatin
10
375
29
4-5
Permitted
10
375
28
3-4-5
10
300
32
3-4
10
550
28
4-5
10
550
29
4-5
10
550
28
3--4-5
Ammon dynamite
Permitted
Ammon dynamite
(4) Sandstone Ammon gelatin
Permitted
Ammon gelatin
Permitted
Ammon dynamite
DISCUSSION
(ONE DIMENSION)
In the caseof the one dimensionalexperimentsit seemsthat the calculateddetonationpressureand weightof chargesinfluencelittle the shapeof
the shockwave. The peak pressureof shockwaveis foundto be proportionalto the compressive
strengthof rock. Aroundthe chargethereexistsa
crushedzone and at the peripheryof the crushedzonethe pressureof
shockwaveis reducedjust to the compressive
strengthof rockin question.
The shockwavewithin intactrock originatesat this end with initial pressureequalto the compressive
strengthof the rock. Thereforethe valueof
pa in equations(1-1) and (1-2) cannot exceedthe compressive
strengthof
rock So, thus, the extent of the main fracture of rok due to tension,that is,
B-- Sc
St ...................................................
(1-3)
p --/k
where:U ----velocityof shockwave
/k -- specificgravityof rock
Therefore,p cX.
VU ......................
(1-4)
194
QUART.RLY
OF THF.COLORADO
SCHOOLOF MINES
By combining
equations(1-3) and (1-5) wehave:
B= aq-bp
St
..............................................
(1-6)
U ..................................................
(1-7)
The secondstageis the work doneby expansion(Hino, 1954, pp 245246; 1953a,pp 147-150)of gases.Thisprocess
maytaketimeof theorder
of: te
10
100 ms.
ROCK FRAGMENTATION
195
shot. Because
of thispressure
p, the fragmentation
is improvedaccording
to the equation(1-6) which showsthat numberof slabsis increased
linearlyasthepressure
of confinement
increases.
For this reasonin proper milliseconddelay blastingnot only the
fragmentation
is improvedbut alsothe rangeof main fracturedueto the
tensionwaveis deepened,
bringingaboutsharperbreakagenearthecharge.
Rockarounda succeeding
shotbecomes
temporarilymorebrittle,fromthe
standpointof blasting,by expansionpressureof the precedingshot.
In general,the detonation
pressure
of an explosive
chargeexceeds
the
compressive
strengthof rock, and in this casethe higherthe compressive
strengththe higherbecomes
the intensityof compression
wavewhichcan
be converted into effective tension wave which in turn can cause main
withincrushedzone. Peakpressure
decaysrapidlyandthis shockwave
worksonly as crushingforcewhichactsonlyovera shortrangebecause,
in general,solidspresentstrongest
resistance
againstcompression.
This
shockwavecannotbe convertedinto tensionwave. (2) Convertible
shock
wave. This shockwaveoriginates
at the peripheryof a crushed
zoneand
propagatesoutwardswith the initial intensityequalto the compressive
strengthof rock. Decayof peakpressureis not so drasticas in (1). It
canbe converted
intotensionwaveat a freefaceandcanproducebreakage
dueto tensionovera widerrangeso far as the intensityof shockwave
exceeds
tensilestrengthof rock.
If we can increasethe compressive
strengthof rockwe can makethe
part playedby (1) narrowerand that by (2) widerthusbringingabout
betterefficiencyof blasting.
THEORY
OF BLASTING
WITH
CONCENTRATED
CHARGE
Theblasting
of solidmaterials
by explosives
mayoccurin thefollowing
sequence:
a freeface. As thetensilestrength
of rockis muchsmallerthancompresslyeone,rockcanbe brokenby thistensionwave,the rangeof breaking
extending
froma freefaceinwards
to thecenterofthecharge.
(3) Onlya partof thetotalenergyof anexplosive
charge
goesintoshock
196
QUARTERLY
Or THE COLORADO
SCHOOL
Detonation
pressure
po of an explosive
canbe calculated
by thehydrodynamical-thermodynamical
theory of detonation.Propertiesof shock
waveswithin rock may be calculated
on the basisof Riemannequations
(law of conservation
of massandmomentum),
theRankine-Hugoniot
equation (law of conservation
of energy)andan equationof stateof solid.For
a detonation
pressure
of 590,000psi or 41,500Kg/cm (40% Gelexdynamite) wefindthecompression
percentage:
100(1-- v
) __100(1
Vo
0.364)
= 2.9%
0.375
According
to thetheoryof elastic
waves
produced
byexplosion
thepeak
pressure
p at distance
r fromthecenterof explosion
maybeassumed
to be:
pr---Po(-}
or
pr: p(--)'
.........................
(2-1)
distanceexponent
D --- /:
reduced distance
2.2 --
2.0
ROCK FRAGMENTATION
197
C. W. Livingston
(1951) hasdescribed
theshapes
of cratersby three
variables,that is, depthor burdenof charged (verticaldistance
between
a :freefaceand a centerof a sphericalcharge),radiusof craterR, and
distance
h between
an apexof a crateranda centerof a charge.He has
defined
"radiusdepthratio"byR/d andsimilitude
ratioS,byh/d. When
d increases
for a sameweightof charge,
R approaches
zeroandh tod. This
limit is definedas"criticaldepth."
The experimental
relations
amongweightof chargeW (or radiusof a
spherical
chargea), d, R andh (or similitude
ratioS,) maybeexplained
fromthestandpoint
of theshock-wave
theoryof blasting.
Sofar asthepeakpressure
of a shock
waveat a freefaceexceeds
the
tensilestrength
of rockthisshockwavecanbreakrockafterreflecting
asa
tension
wave.If wedefinetheeffective
shockasthepartof theshockwave
whoseintensity
at its endis justSt----tensile
strength
of rock,thenthe
depthof a craterdr shouldbe:
df-- L
2 ....................................................
(2.2)
spherical
charge)akhough
thepeakpressure
maydecayasa shockwave
advances,
that is, the shapeof a shockwavebecomes
flattenedas it advances.Thendf is the depthof a full craterfor this givenweightof a
chargeor a radiusof a charge.
dr -- const.(irrespective
of depth)............
(2-3)
Then we have:
whered:
h -- d -- df......................
depthof a charge.
(2-4)
S,-- h
-- d- df _
-- 1--- df...............................
or S,- 1
const.
d
.......................................
--
(2-5)
(2.5)'
As reduceddepthor reducedburdenis:
d
D-- --
(2-6)
then we have
S,,-1-- D- ..........................................
(2-5)"
198
QUARTERLY
OF THE COLORADO
SCHOOLOF MINES
St--po VR
2q-d: or St--po R2q-d2 V,
RO
q-d2
2
2n
or q-1--,Stl -
............................
(2-7)
TABLE III
DEPTHOFCRATER
df ANDDEPTHOFCHARGE
d.
(C. W. LIVINGSTON
40% GELEXWITH GRANITE:)
weight
radiusof
depth distance
between
apex depth
reduced
of
charge
spherical
charge
of
of craterandcenter
of
charge
of charge
crater
depthor
burden
hcm
d/cm D/--
500
4.4
25
25
5.68
500
4.4
34
85
25.5
5.80
500
4.4
50
25
25
5.68
500
4.4
72
54
18
4.09
1000
5.5
35
35
6.36
1000
5.5
46.8
11.7
35.1
6.38
1000
5.5
67.9
33.9
34.0
6.18
1000
5.5
94
70.5
23.5
4.27
2000
7.1
48.2
48.2
6.79
2000
7.1
62.6
15.6
47.0
6.62
2000
7.1
88
44
44
6.20
2000
7.1
125
93.8
31.2
4.40
3000
8.0
58.5
58.5
7.31
3000
8.0
71
17.75
53.25
6.69
3000
8.0
98.8
49.4
49.4
6.18
3000
8.0
103.5
34.5
4.31
138
ROCK FRAgMElTATION
199
a craterthefollowing
approximation
formulagivesestimation.
If a shockwavehasitspeakpressure
(a)'.............................................
pd-- po
(2-8)
l____
L St
2
Pd ................................................
(2-9)
N--
L __ P
21
St ........................................
(2-10)
DEPTHOFCRATER
dt ANDDEPTHOFCHARGE
d (BLASTINGGELATINWITH SANDSTONE
)
dt '-- d-h
it'
100
26
15
11
100
41
31
10
100
49
36
13
100
69
56.5
12.5
200
QUARTERLY
OF THE COLORADO
SCHOOLOF MINES
detonated
simultaneously
twoseparate
craterswill be produced
in general.
If we reducethe distance(or spacing)Sc betweentwo charges,then the
shockwavesfromeachchargemayco-operate
between
thetwocharges
and
thusmakingperfectsynchronization
of two shockwavesfrom two separate
chargesquiteimpossible.This is alsothe casein the so-called
millisecond
delaydetonators.
Thissituation
is important
in connection
withthetheory
of millisecond
delayblasting.The simpleinterference
theoriessofar proposedto explainthemechanism
of blastsby millisecond
delayfail in that
there can be no chanceof meetingof the shockwavesfrom consecutive
shotsbecause
the velocityof shockwavesis very high and they do not
interfere with each other at suchintervalsof millisecondsas are usually
utilizedin practice.
From the standpointof the co-operation
of two shockwavesthe proper
spacing
Scmaybedetermined
for simultaneous
blasting
by detonating
fuses
as follows:
S..'----1.5,t-................................................
-.
(2-11)
Rock
FRAGMENTATION
201
TYPE
OF NO-CUT
ROUND
OF BLASTING *
ktt
! [.]q- 1 .................................
(3-1)
.":..;-.,;i
''" i,?' ','..
'"" '"".'5"
..:.
'.......;,...,;...,
'
*,,*: ':
....
. ......]:....':....:.::,.,:
-.-:.
.,.i:
:? -;;'
'--.::.
: ; '. ..7-"
'
.., ...,...
:,..
:
{-...:.,
...
..--..-
..
....
;. ;- ;.
"..t-
' *....
.:.."'
':' */:'i"'"
, * -, {-,.:,';,
,.....
: .'}-,'..
;:'-:S
.-...
.?"'."
.. ..;-
..,
., ...:. ..
:-:.:.-...:..
-.&: ::,;,;..;
.a
..'..
-...:,
FIGURE
.. .....
.,..
..,....::,
,
Roc FRAGMENTATION
203
detonator
explosiv
THE
EXPERIMENTAL
ocrylateplate
ARRANGEMENT
PLATE
CHARGE
AmmanGelatin (Shin-Kiri)
FIRING
weight
5 g
diameter
15 mm
height
19.5 mm
detonator.
FIGURE
1. Effectof singleshots
onacrylate
plate(opposite).
Experimental
arrangement (above).
204
QUARTERLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOLOF iIE$
FCURE 2
ROCK FRAGMENTATION
205
detonator
explosive
'/acylate
plate
THE EXPERIMENTAL
ARRANGEMENT
PLATE
CHARGE
densit7 1.45g/cm
3
FIRING
Weight
5 g
diameter
15 mm
height
19.5 mm
electric
detonators.
IGURE
2. Effect of simultaneous
shotswith electricdetonators
on acrylateplate (opposite). Experimental arrangement (above).
206
QUARTERLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOL
OF MINES
.f
FIGURE
HOCK FRAGMENTATION
207
detonator
primacord
x,oiw
j..,
THE
EXPERIMENTAL
ARRANGEMENT
PLATE
Acrylate Resin
CHARGE
AmmonGelatin(Shin- Kiri)
density
weight
FIRING
acrylat
plate
50 cmx 50 cmx 3 cm
1.45 g/cm
3
5
diameter
15 mm
height
19.5 mm
Simultaneousshotswith
detonatingfuse.
208
QUARTERLY
OFTHECOLORADO
SCHOOL
OF MINTS
AND
PRACTICE
OF COYOTE
BLASTING
As coyoteblastingis of the biggestscalewe musttake into consideration size or scaleeffectsof blasting, that is, the tensilestrengthof rock
St in fundamentalequationsof the shock-wave
theory of blastingis no
more a constantbut becomesa sensiblefunctionof size of specimen.The
relationmayberepresented
by Davidenkov-Fisher
relation:
St -- Stodr -3/m . ..................
(3-2)
As weightof chargeW is:
W=-4 :a3A
3
.............................................
(3-3)
-a/- Rf.a
q-1
W--- Adf
3('Stodf
1+
..................
orW= const.
d?-"-)
(3-4)
(3-4)'
Experiments
on cratersshow:
W -- const.dr 2. ...................
(3-5)
W:
const.drs ...................
(3-6)
Hino, Kumao, 1953, Theory of blasting, part 1, outline of recent advancesin U.S.:
Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 102-108. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953a, Theory of blasting, part 2, outline of the principles: Jour. of
Min. Inst. of Kyushu,Japan, vol. 21, no. 4, p. 135-150. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953b, Theory of blasting, part 3, applicationsof the principlesof
"shock wave": Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 5, p. 166-171.
(In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953c,Theory of blasting,part 4, mechanismof crater formationby
slabs: Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 6, p. 195-201. (In
Japanese).
*Hino.
in preparation.
Rock
FRAGMENTATION
209
Hino, Kumao, 1953d, Theory of blasting, part 5, miscellaneousproblemsand discussions: Jour. of Min. Inst. of Kyushu, Japan, vol. 21, no. 9, p. 294-304. (In
Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953e, Elementary solution of blasting problems: Tanko-Gijitsu (Coal
Mine Engineering), vol. 8, no. 3, p. 2-4. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1953f, Method of designof blastinground: Tobu-Tanko-Gijitsu (Eastern
Coal Mine Engineering),no. 14, p. 18-21. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1954, Theory of blasting with concentratedcharge: Jour. of Ind. ExplosivesSoc.,Japan,vol. 15, no. 4, p. 233-249. (In English).
Hino Kumao, 1954a, Theory and practice of no-cut blasting: Jour. of Min. Inst. of
Kyushu,Japan,vol. 22, nol 11, p. 350-360. (In Japanese).
Hino, Kumao, 1955, Concentrated type of no-cut round of blasting: Jour. of Ind.
ExplosivesSoc.,Japan, vol. 16, no. 3, p. 166-179. (In English).
Hino, Kumao, 1955a, Theory and practice of coyoteblasting: Jottr. of Min. Inst. of
Kyushu, Japan, vol. 23, no. 10, p. 469-476. (In Japanese).
Hino. Kumao, 1956, Fragmentation of rock through blasting: Jour. of Ind. Explosives
Soc.,Japan,vol. 17, no. 1, p. 2-11. (In English).
Hino, Kumao, in preparation,Theory and practice of coyoteblasting: Jour. of Ind.
ExplosivesSoc.,Japan. (In English).