THE ROLE OF DECORATIVE FEATURES IN THE

ENDURANCE OF VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN

KINNAUR, HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA*
MELISSA MALOUF BELZ
ABSTRACT .

The remote Himalayan region of Kinnaur in northwestern India is known

for its carved wooden homes with decorative features. Relatively recent environmental
policies have prompted limitations on wood collection. This, coupled with an increase
in access to modern building materials, has resulted in dramatic changes in vernacular
housing styles. Landscape analysis and interviews reveal that house form, building methods, and construction materials are all changing. However, decorative features are
among the last remaining characteristics of the traditional house. This paper argues that
small-scale architectural features are a significant part of an enduring vernacular landscape and allow a region to preserve traditional styles and identity, while also moving
forward as a modernizing society. Keywords: cultural landscape, Himalaya, India, place,
vernacular house.

To call a house vernacular means that its style relates to, or is specific to the

region or surrounding culture (Oliver 2003). In the high mountain villages of

Himachal Pradesh, India, the vernacular house reflects the artistic talents of its
inhabitants, their agricultural lifestyle, spiritual beliefs, and the resources provided by the surrounding forests. The house has evolved slowly over the years
to reflect the availability of new materials such as glass windowpanes and metal
roofs. Many houses still hold to the traditional vernacular style, but others have
transitioned into an international style, with ubiquitous concrete stucco and
flat roofs, partly because it is easier to build that way. The loss of such vernacular houses and the increase of nondescript concrete styles can transition a distinctive cultural landscape into one that is more mundane, or placeless.
Although homogenization of landscapes is evident across the globe, many
places still exhibit individualized characteristics and a visible cultural identity
(Riley 1980; Vale and Vale 1983; Blake and Arreola 1996; Zelinsky 2011). This is
often achieved through the use of small-scale and decorative features used on
the house or in the landscape. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the
potential of decorative features as significant components of an enduring vernacular landscapethe regionally specific everyday landscape. Focused on Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh in the Indian Himalaya, distinguishing
features of the vernacular house were examined to identify whether they can be
used as markers in changing cultural landscapes. The evolution of the vernacular house of Kinnaur is explained, as well as the strength of design ensembles

*The author wishes to thank the Society of Women Geographers for the Pruitt National Fellowship, Kansas
State University, Department of Geography for their generosity in research funding, and the anonymous
reviewers of this article for their valuable suggestions.

k DR. BELZ is an assistant teaching professor in Interdisciplinary and Global Studies at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, 01609; [mbelz@wpi.edu].
Geographical Review 105 (3): 304324, July 2015
Copyright 2015 by the American Geographical Society of New York

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

305

and how decorative elements play a role in the endurance of vernacular landscapes today, even amidst modernization. Due to the increased ability of smallscale features to adapt to new settings, they allow a modernizing landscape to
preserve aspects of the vernacular style.
A N E NSEMBLE

OF

F EATURES

John B. Jackson considered the dwelling to be by far the most significant

manmade feature on the landscape (Jackson 1952; see also Jackson 1959). He
said the house is the key to understanding all other elements in the landscape, including culture and social order (Jackson 1980, 117; see also Solomon
1966). The house has been called the central reference point of human existence (Relph 1976, 20).
Daniel Arreola (1988) argued that the occurrence of an ensemble, or repeating group of features in a housescape, makes cultural significance more likely.
Landscape features, when understood as individual traits, can be seen across a
wide spectrum, but when seen as an ensemble, are much more likely to be specific to a group (Arreola 1988).
Singular landscape features are commonly overlooked (Arreola 1988). However, ensembles are significant because their distinct elements are recognizable
as a whole and form part of a larger landscape (Francaviglia 1978; Antrop 1997).
The power lies in the high representation and combination of the select traits
that give the landscape a cultural congruency (Rapoport 1981, 1982; Arreola
1988).
R ESEARCH M ETHODS
The goal of this research was to examine the changing vernacular landscape
and investigate the role of small-scale architectural features in place-making.
India was selected because it is a country rich in traditional heritage, but one
that is also currently experiencing the effects of increased globalization and
development. This is particularly the case in the district of Kinnaur in the
northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh which is known for its long-established heritage of architectural woodcarving (Handa 2006) (Figure 1).
Using the town of Kalpa as a base, fieldwork was conducted in seventeen
villages of Kinnaur district and twenty specifically selected periphery villages in
the districts of Mandi, Kullu, Shimla, and the northwestern districts of the state
of Uttarakhand (previously Uttaranchal). Measured drawings were created of
several homes, and the landscape was documented photographically to assist in
the creation of building typologies. Landscape analysis and interviews combined
both emic and etic data, or insider and outsider perspectives. The etic perspective was invaluable in gathering a preliminary understanding of vernacular
architecture (Pavlides and Hesser 1989), while the emic data, gained through
interviewing, validated the information and gave a voice to the meaning and
interpretation from the locals perspective. I conducted interviews in the town

306

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

FIG. 1The northern state of Himachal Pradesh and its twelve districts, showing the surrounding states and international border with China. (Cartography by Melissa Belz).

of Kalpa and its five proximate villages. A wide variety of local residents,
including homeowners (both male and female), master carvers, farmers, businessmen, and officials within the fields of agriculture and forestry were asked
to participate in semistructured interviews. With the help of translators, over

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

307

forty-five total interviews were conducted, many with multiple family members
present.
A mixed-interview approach was used to solicit information in an open
answer format and then through directed questioning on specific components.
Direct questioning allowed me to measure against patterns that became evident
in landscape analysis and to get opinions on a select list of landscape signatures.
Through interviews and landscape interpretation, several characteristic features were identified as representative of the Kinnauri vernacular house. I refer
to these elements as small-scale or decorative features because they are ancillary
to major components of the building such as form (the design or mass),
construction method, or materials. The vernacular house in Kinnaur, with its
layered-log construction, is similar in many ways to that found throughout the
western Himalaya. It is not entirely unique to the district of Kinnaur or to the
state of Himachal Pradesh. Simplified versions are found in parts of Uttarakhand, as well as scattered in parts of Jammu and Kashmir. It is argued here
that in Kinnaur district, it is found with increased carving, in greater
concentration, and with a higher occurrence of a select ensemble. The common
pattern of significant features, used in specific and meaningful combinations,
creates an ensemble distinct to the region. Furthermore, and central to this
discussion, most Kinnauras interviewed in the Kalpa region believe that this
style is unique to their immediate district and peripheral regions. Therefore,
the idea of the Kinnauri house is used as a case study in determining the
essential qualities that allow a vernacular style to represent a cultural group,
play a role in place-making, and accept change in a meaningful way.
E VOLUTION

OF

A N E NDURING S TYLE

Himachal Pradesh is a sparsely populated and remotely situated state. Kinnaur

district is one of its more isolated districts, tucked up against the Tibetan border. Scholars agree that mountain passes, distance from roads, and extreme climates greatly contribute to the longevity of vernacular landscapes, often
fostering a respect for tradition and a strong sense of group identity (Hostetler
1964; Berreman 1970; Meyrowitz 1985; Bourdier and AlSayyad 1989; Oliver 1989;
Norberg-Hodge 1991; Abel 1997; Kleinert 1998; Singh 1998; Smith 1999, 2002;
Shankar 2005; Edwards 2008). Geographic isolation insulates residents and
reinforces their dependence on what they know and have inherited, sustaining
truly indigenous examples and unbroken traditions of architecture (Oliver
1989, 56; Abel 1997, 163). This is partly because a narrow range of material
choices determine[s] the architectural language (Dasgupta 2008, 327), meaning
that fewer options for building materials and limited exposure to alternate
designs encourage repetition of traditional ways. When new influences eventually emerge and options are available in the market, traditions will oftentimes
be reconsidered. Therefore, limited exposure to modernized or outside

308

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

influences fosters a continuation of the known ways. However, very few places
are without outside influence today.
Traditional housing practices are vulnerable to increased access to manufactured building materials that often comes with road construction (Rawat and
Sharma 1997; Harrison 1998; Kleinert 1998; Dasgupta 2008). Additionally,
migration, both in and out, often brings with it increased exposure to new
influences and global trends. Both processesincreased road networks and
migrationcan prompt the adoption of new styles, building methods, and
modification of architectural traditions. Migration and situational change, such
as population growth or resource limitations, bring on certain stresses to a
community (Jordan and Kaups 1987). A common response is the simplification
of cultural traits and landscape ensembles as they are modified in order to cope
with stress (Jordan and Kaups 1987). This means select features will be simplified and that others will fall from use. The architectural traits and practices
most likely to be retained will serve a purpose in the modernized setting, adapt
easily, or be acceptable to both the traditional belief systems and the contemporary counterparts (Prussin 1973, 1986; Arreola 1988; Edwards 2008). It is
important to remember that cultural or architectural change, when conscious
or deliberate, can produce cultural fabric that continues to represent the local
goals and the vernacular system (Edwards 2008). Adaptation of architectural
features makes resettlement or changes within a culture visible as features are
modified to represent the backgrounds of the people, illustrating exactly how
interwoven the house is with the contexts of its inhabitants (Heath 2001). Many
scholars argue that vernacular traditions have always adapted and are renegotiated by every subsequent generation (Jackson 1976; Jordan and Kaups 1987;
Blake and Smith 2000; Heath 2001, 2009; Bronner 2006) and, therefore, some
support a more conscious inclusion of modernized buildings in the study of
vernacular landscapes (Jackson 1976; Vellinga 2004, 2006; Shankar 2005; Heath
2009). This article opens the conversation for interpreting meaningful adaptations to modernizing vernacular houses.
Although the iconic Kinnauri vernacular house has undergone changes over
the last generation, its new design continues to reflect the region. To better
understand the character of the Kinnauri vernacular house, the central qualities
have been distill here to eight essential features. This list allowed for analysis of
traits as markers that illustrate how the house is experiencing change. The characteristics include: 1) layered ground-floor wall construction known locally as
kath kuni, 2) small ground-floor windows and doors, 3) verandah overhang, 4)
pitched slate roof, 5) ridgeline adornments, 6) verandah window bank, 7)
carved upper-story wall panel, and 8) carved fascia trim. Figure 2 shows several
of these characteristics.
The essential features are woven together into the fabric of the vernacular
house and are a mixture of building material, house form, and ornamentation.
Of the eight Kinnauri vernacular features, several have fallen from use in new

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

309

FIG. 2This image shows an example of the carved upper-story wall panel with carved fascia trim and window bank. (Photograph by Melissa Belz, August 2011).

construction, while others have more recently gained popularity as the house
evolves. For example, ground-floor and upper-story verandah windows
increased in size after the 1950s and incorporated glass. The verandah overhang
deepened and on occasion is enclosed with brick. Carvings are becoming more
simplified and less common along the wall panel, but use of carved fascia trim,
locally called jallar, has flourished over the last fifty years. Once only commonplace on temples, it has spread to houses with increasing regularity (Belz 2013).
The vernacular house of Kinnaur is a functional work of art. Its characteristic carvings, layered construction method, and often imposing scale create a
presence on the landscape that immediately transports the viewer to earlier
days when the house played a major role as status symbol. Today, increasing
opportunities exist for the display of status, including Western clothing, fancy
cell phones, and private vehicles; therefore, less importance is put into the
wood house with carving. Additionally, restrictions are now in place for harvesting the once abundant timber needed for construction. These are among
the reasons that the Kinnauri vernacular house has undergone several changes
over the last fifty years.
It is important to introduce some of the changes in house form that are
playing out in Kinnaur. House form is never the result of any single physical
force, but is the consequence of a whole range of socio cultural factors
(Rapoport 1969, 47). Therefore, without attributing Kinnauri vernacular landscape change to any one factor, certain processes are highlighted as having had
the greatest influence on particular changes in the Kinnauri vernacular house.
They include road improvements, a changing market economy, and restrictive
forest-management policies.

310

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

I MPROVED

ROAD NETWORKS AND THE ACCESSIBILITY OF BUILDING MATERIALS

Jackson called the road the most powerful force for the destruction or creation of landscapes (1980, 122). The arrival of new roads makes people less
bound to place and exposures them to different technologies and images. Prior
to 1960, Kinnaur had been a prized buffer region, not easily penetrated from
Tibet and China, and basically of little interest to Indian officials. The age-old
isolation of Kinnaur district started coming to an end when relations between
India and China became strained in 1959, during the Tibetan uprising against
the Chinese, after which Himachal Pradesh sheltered the Dalai Lama in exile.
At that point, it became a strategic hotspot and a new road was constructed to
increase military presence (Chib 1984).
The people, with improved road networks and no longer so isolated, gradually found more products in the markets that had been brought up from the
core of India. Access to new products continues to expand. Based on interviews, new types of construction materials were first available in tandem with
road construction. However, the new materials were primarily destined for government procurement. Prices remained high until the middle to late 1980s,
deterring most locals from incorporating concrete or metal into their houses.
At that time however, an improved standard of living brought about by government jobs and an expanding cash-crop market, again made possible through
improved road networks, began to influence changes in the style of the vernacular landscape
Kinnaurs ancient flat-roofing system gave way over the years to a more climatically efficient, pitched wooden-plank roof. The early roof, constructed
from layers of timber covered in clay, was a simple structure to build and provided workspace on the upper levels, but was prone to leaking and eventual
collapse from heavy snow loads. The pitched wooden-plank roof helped shed
the heavy snow and occasional rain. As the local economy improved in the
1930s through an emergent informal market for wild-harvested pine nuts,
homeowners used their increasing financial stability to invest in their homes
and improved the pitched roofs with schist slabs, referred to here generally as
slate. Because they last longer and function better than wood, slate roofs are
still visible throughout the landscape today. However, slate roofing tiles have
their own associated disadvantages. They are difficult to procure from their
remote location, expensive if purchased, and need robust wooden framework
to support the weight. Therefore, new options could be seen as advantageous.
Improved road access facilitated an increase in the availability of concrete
for building components and iron sheet for roofing, and had a dramatic effect
on the vernacular house. New construction generally opts for iron sheeting in
place of harvesting traditional slates. Lightweight metal roofing sheets are easy
to acquire, require less wooden framework than heavy slates, and are perceived
to last longer. However, the incorporation of metal roofing into the vernacular
house form changes the style of the house and affects the cultural landscape.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

311

FIG. 3New materials in roofing do not have to create drastic changes to roof form. Here
the metal roof clearly echoes the traditional form made from slate. (Photograph by Melissa Belz,
October 2011).

The incorporation of metal roofing into the vernacular house does not have
to entirely change the roof form and style. Many homes incorporate metal
roofing while keeping the same traditional hipped form with peaks and valleys
(Figure 3). However, changes to the form of the roof often accompany new
materials because previous massing (building scale) was somewhat dictated by
the limitations of accessible material sizes, such as available timber (Dasgupta
2008). Large, lightweight metal roofing sheets can span greater distances on the
roof structure. Since any deviation from a straight line adds construction time
and cost, simplified forms have become more common. Often with the incorporation of metal, the jointed-roof form common to the region is eventually
foregone for a more simplified gable-roof structure. Along with the loss of slate
roofing goes the tradition of carving decorative forms onto the ridgeline. Furthermore, many houses are returning to the construction of a flat roof, but
now with concrete. Modern materials are better able to cope with rain and
snow, and the space a flat roof provides for household work and food processing is a great benefit in mountainous climates and places where livestock roam
freely.
T HE

VERANDAH AND THE GROWTH OF HORTICULTURE

Indian livelihoods are traditionally dependent on agriculture in the form of

livestock herding and subsistence farming, with significant aspects of the work
carried out on the home property. The typical small-scale nature of traditional
agriculture in the Himalaya allows it to fit seamlessly into the domestic housescape.
The animal husbandry tradition of Himachal Pradesh has declined over the
years as land privatization has made herding and feeding animals more diffi-

312

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

FIG. 4The historic vernacular house of Kinnaur district, with its shallow verandah and
abundant use of wood. The verandah window openings were very small on the upper levels of
the home as a response to the cold climate and abundance of wood. Now glass is used and
openings are larger. (Photograph by Melissa Belz, August 2011).

cult. Herding was further complicated by the strained relationship with China,
which previously provided additional pasture and markets for the livestock.
Cash-crop farming along with growth in government-sector jobs has offered
new opportunities for employment since the 1960s.
Kinnaur districts unique combination of climate, topography, and water
resources made it particularly suitable to take advantage of Indias growing
demand for orchard crops, such as apples, apricots, and almonds. The growth
of cash-crop farming in Himachal has transitioned the Kinnauri people away
from a dependence on multicrop subsistence farming, and therefore, cattle.
Livestock are needed less than before because orchard horticulture is less reliant
on plowing and soil fertilizer, both of which are provided by cattle. Likewise,
fewer goats and sheep are herded as a means of income as milk and wool have
become abundant in the market, further decreasing the number of livestock
owned. The house reflects this change in economy and lifestyle. Eventually, the
abandonment of livestock-focused livelihoods resulted in changes in house
form and space use that historically reflected these needs.
The verandah is the dominant characteristic of the Kinnauri house and
reflects the agricultural needs of the people. Historically, the verandah window
openings were very small on the upper levels of the home, as a response to the
cold climate and abundance of wood (Figure 4). The interior verandah space
has been an essential feature of the mountain home, facilitating several tasks of
daily life and playing a critical climatic role for the interior of the house. The
exterior barrier wall of the verandah provides protection for interior rooms
from cold, wind, and snow. Larger window openings appeared with more regularity as glass became more easily available in the 1950s. Large, windowed

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

313

FIG. 5The house transitioned away from the shallow verandah overhang. The verandah
has been deepened and posts were added. (Photography by Melissa Belz, July 2011).

verandahs are now widespread throughout the western Himalaya and particularly
in Kinnaur district. For subsistence farmers and horticulturalists alike, the interior hallway-like sun space is important for processing and drying crops indoors
when outdoor temperatures are too cool. The exterior covered space created at
ground level from the verandah overhang functions as a semiprotected workspace
partially sheltered from rain and snow, providing a crucial area for wood storage,
food storage, animal penning, and domestic work.
One of the first transitions of the house was the incorporation of a larger
verandah overhang supported by posts (Figure 5). It is unclear when this subtle
change began to take place. However, it may reflect the increased need for protected storage of export apples and the increased importance of the interior
verandah space for dry-fruit processing, correlating to the 1960s when apples
emerged as an expanding economy. As apple production grew, the verandah
became a more dominant part of the house in distinction to the shallow overhang of the ancient vernacular house.
Even with the increased depth of the verandah, the large stock of boxed
fruit, ready for collection by fruit-export companies, often waits relatively
exposed under the verandah overhang. Increasingly common today, the exterior
overhang area is enclosed to allow for increased interior fruit storage and finished living space. This modification complements the trend away from multicrop subsistence farming and the dependency on livestock. The modification
reflects changes in livelihoods, but also an increase in the standard of living.
People can now afford brick walls to secure their products and expand their
living quarters.
A NCIENT

WALL CONSTRUCTION AND FOREST MANAGEMENT

The ancient housing system of the western Himalaya was made exclusively of
wood (Handa 2006). The sacred deodar tree, or god tree, has been the primary
timber chosen for both temples and homes. Subsequent designs of the eleventh

314

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

century continued to use solid wood on upper levels and feature log and stone
layered on the bottom level in the seismically resistant construction method
locally known as kath kuni (Figure 4). The layered-log technique of kath kuni
is seen throughout the western Himalaya; however, the practice has now been
discarded due to its heavy dependence on wood.
In mountainous Himachal Pradesh, timber harvesting has been considered
throughout history as a tribal right for all landowners. However, the Forestry
Act of 1878 enacted prohibitions on local use of forests, restricting historic tribal rights to the forest (Cranney 2001; Oosthoek 2007; Sharma 2011). Beginning
in 1980, the Forest Conservation Act heightened government restrictions placed
on tribal forest rights, limiting access to timber for fuel and construction. Families had to apply for a permit to harvest a limited number of trees for construction. Sometimes, timber was sold on the black market while other families
applied for permits and saved the wood for consecutive years to collect enough
timber to build a house. The restrictions increased throughout the years, leading to illegal cutting or taking more than permitted as families argued that the
allotment was not enough to build a house. Furthermore, land put aside for
conservation and commercial government plantations put additional forest land
out of reach.
As wood became increasingly unavailable for construction and forest land
generally unavailable for daily needs of fodder and food products, tensions
grew and protests began, but to little avail (Cranney 2001). Concerned about
forest health, in 2006 the Department of Forestry imposed a full ban on all
wood collection from forests throughout India (Sharma 2011; Singh 2011). The
rationale was that illegal wood cutting would be more easily controlled if only
the government had authority to fell trees. Timber would subsequently be sold
to the public at discounted, sliding-scale prices; however, lengthy start-up
delays hindered access to timber for several years in many districts. The government policies slowly but directly affected the ability of residents to continue
their wood-dominant construction. New building materials such as concrete
and fired brick, more expensive but much easier to acquire, had to be incorporated into house construction.
The prior abundance of inexpensive wood for construction of houses and
temples1 allowed the people of Kinnaur to excel in the art of wood carving,
and the admiration of this art form encouraged them to devote their wealth,
time, and energy to it (Tobdan 2008). In a region known for its woodcarving
heritage, restrictions on timber access have had major impacts on vernacular
building systems and the cultural landscape. Increased challenges to building
with traditional local materials make the temptation of building with marketready, manufactured materials even greater. The increasing restrictions to tribal
forest rights imposed by the Indian government, coupled with increased access
to modern construction alternatives, created the tipping point for change in
the Kinnauri vernacular house.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

315

S MALL -S CALE D ECORATIVE F EATURES

The changes that have taken place in the vernacular house are reflections of
social and environmental changes that have taken place in the Kinnauri society.
The previous examples of modification illustrate that it is difficult for the Kinnauras to preserve the construction techniques and form of the historic vernacular house. The large-scale componentsbuilding materials, construction
methods, and house formare particularly vulnerable to environmental and
socioeconomic changes. They are heavily influenced by availability of resources
and market trends, aspects that are somewhat out of the control of local residents. A change to the house at the large-scale level brings the most transformative changes and can have detrimental effects on the continuity of
vernacular traditions if major components, such as building form and traditional materials, are altered. Changes at this level of the house have large-scale
impacts on its appearance (for example, verandah enclosure), and when occuring in high numbers, they affect the overall character of the cultural landscape.
However, while concrete has made great inroads in construction, and social
change has prompted a shift in house form, there is still a presence of the
Kinnauri style. It is clear that the vernacular house of Kinnaur has not been
abandoned, but that select aspects have been modified to address changes in
availability of materialboth increased and decreasedand to reflect changes
in lifestyle. Residents are holding on to the essence of the Kinnauri house not
through building form or material choice, but through the continued incorporation of smaller-scale decorative features, which includes decoration or any
feature that can be regarded as secondary to major components such as form
and construction method.
My interviews suggest that homeowners originally began to emulate temple
ornamentation generations ago, as a growing economy allowed for hiring of
specialty craftsmen and the differentiation of status through ornamentation.
One example is the carved wooden wall panels on the second story of the
Kinnauri vernacular home (Figures 2 and 5). These panels are found only occasionally outside the periphery of Kinnaur. Many of the carving motifs found in
Kinnaur, such as the flower, vine, sun, peacock, and geometric weaving reminiscent of local shawl designs, are typical Indian themes that are found in surrounding as well as distant regions, where the motifs are often painted rather
than carved. Today the Kinnauri designs are simplified into geometric patterns
or freestanding floral motifs rather than the elaborate floral labyrinths of the
past, but the trait continues for those who have timber stored and the
resources to hire a craftsman.
In addition to carved wall panels, oversized ornately carved window and
door trim is the hallmark of ancient vernacular styles in the Himalayan region.
Because doors and windows were often very small and required substantial
framing in the stone walls, the trim work became the focal point. However,
over the last generation, small window openings on the lower floor are no

316

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

longer a limitation of construction methoddry-stacked stoneor a reflection

of animal-focused space use. Doors gained height and windows expanded in
size and incorporated glass to reflect new interior space uses. With the incorporation (and expense) of large-scale doors and glass panes, less focus went into
carved trim. Today, residents commonly craft simplified edgework along the
window sashes as an easy detail that echoes its predecessor.
The final carving detail common to the Kinnauri house is the carved fascia
or eaves trim, informally called jallar, which wraps the house with an interlocking floral design (Figures 2 and 5). The carved trim work is the most commonly seen central quality of the Kinnauri house. Like the glass-window bank,
it is a later interpretation but also a clear link between temple design and
domestic architecture. The trim was historically found only on temples and
then the houses of the rich, but has grown in popularity over the last several
decades. Domestic use of jallar began approximately sixty years ago. Today, a
commonplace element on both the house and the temple, the design is
reflected almost identically between the two, although common opinion insists
that the carvings are distinct from one another and copying the temple would
be inauspicious.
Some people whom I interviewed felt that jallar originated in Kinnaur and
is only found in Kinnaur. Others disagreed, arguing that although it is seen less
frequently, it is still found in neighboring districts, such as Kullu and Shimla,
which is in fact the case. However, most felt that the Kinnauri design was
slightly different from other places, making it distinct. The consensus is that
jallar adds beauty, it is the finishing touch to a house, and it makes it more
Kinnauri. People are quick to say that jallar represents the culture, and they are
trying to keep the house Kinnauri, so they use it. Many people have applied
jallar well after the completion of the house, believing that no house is complete or good looking without it. One man called it the hat to the house,
without which it is not finished or beautiful. Several people offered the word
compulsory. If you want a beautiful house you must have jallar, just like a
beautiful temple.
The characteristic carvings reflect the heritage of the Kinnaur people and
the central traits of the vernacular house. They are also details of the house,
rather than the form, construction method, or materials, and show that the
details can be a very important part of the vernacular house as a whole, particularly if used in a repeated ensemble.
S ELECT E SSENTIAL Q UALITIES
Even with a change in building method (kath kuni), roofing material, and
occasionally building form (infill of verandah overhang and roofline alteration),
the Kinnauri-style house maintains something close to its iconic image (Figure 6). This is done through the continued use of small-scale features or select
essential qualities (Walkey 1993). Interviews revealed that ancient systems of

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

317

FIG. 6The modern version of the Kinnauri vernacular house succeeds in relating to the
iconic vernacular through the use of the carved panel and window orientation. (Photography by
Melissa Belz, July 2011).

kath kuni wall construction, and small windows and small doorsoften produced with ornately carved trimwere recognized most often as the typical
vernacular traits of the Kinnauri house. However, due to lack of access to timber and changing space use, these aspects of the ancient vernacular house are
no longer incorporated. Furthermore, these featureskath kuni and small windows and doorsare seen over a wide swath of the western Himalaya from
Afghanistan to Nepal, they are not particular to Kinnaur or Himachal Pradesh
(Rautela and others 2008).
My landscape analysis determined a separate set of architectural features,
part of the eight iconic features, that make the Kinnauri vernacular landscape
distinct from other regions today. The window bankwith and without decorative sash, the wall panelespecially when carved, and the jallar are the most
common and distinctive Kinnauri vernacular traits today. These are the select
essential qualities that make the house distinct from neighboring regions and
show the most resilience. Interestingly, none of the people interviewed listed
these traits instinctively in open-ended questions. However, in direct questioning, most people agreed that these specific traits were important parts of the
Kinnauri house.
This ensemble of features was chosen because it is found in high concentration and repetition in Kinnaur compared to other regions. Additionally, in
Kinnaur, decorative aspects of the ensemble are presented in a more refined
manner, keeping with the carving heritage for which the Kinnauras are known.
These features seem to be a taken for granted part of the contemporary vernacular landscape, so common that they are overlooked (Arreola 1981). However,
the repeated pattern of their use, within defined parameters, speaks to their
value.

318

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

Select features have the power to come together into an image of the iconic
house. It is the combination and frequency of these essential qualities that gives
cultural congruency to regional architecture and allows the rest of the house to
modernize without sacrificing that image. Several of these features can undergo
adaptation and reinterpretation without losing the essential connection to the
iconic vernacular style. Keeping the connection to the iconic vernacular image
is much more difficult to achieve with larger-scale components alone, such as
building form and materials. Resilient small-scale features provide a greater
range of acceptable modifications for the vernacular house. It is not necessary
that a house has each of the characteristic traits to convey an image of the iconic house (Rapoport 1989). A Kinnauri home can display a decorative window
bank and carved lower panel, while forgoing the carved fasciathe most common central quality. It is the frequency and interplay of essential qualities that
encourages the cultural congruency of the Kinnauri vernacular landscape, and I
reason that this can be achieved with few and small-scale features alone.
A modern concrete home in Kinnaur can echo the spirit of the vernacular
by adding fascia trim and nothing more. That small-scale decorative feature
single-handedly recalls the vernacular tradition and helps a modern house fit
into its surroundings, helping hold the essential qualities of an iconic house.
This is achieved through its high degree of repetition in the region (Rapoport
1981). This example may not be considered a truly vernacular building; however, the key to exploring the idea of contemporary vernacular landscapes
implores us to ask: does a connection exist, is there an essential quality, and
how has this been achieved?
The argument I make here, that small-scale features have the ability to convey the spirit of the vernacular, is supported beyond Himachal Pradesh. In the
desert of Gujarat, India, the traditional vernacular house is a round hut with
pigmented exterior designs. The contemporary version is a rectangular house
form that has lost all reference to the vernacular house form (Figure 7). The
house changed for similar reasons as revealed in Himachal Pradesh, including
increased road access and new materials. However, government housing programs also greatly influenced the application of manufactured materials during
rapid construction for environmentally displaced peoples. The use of typical
decoration, however, reproduced on the new dwellings, allows residents to
retain the spirit of their vernacular traditions in a new context, providing a
means of cultural congruity and marking cultural identity. The nondescript
form comes alive as Gujarati solely with the addition of traditional painting.
Furthermore, the painting is easily replicated on the new house form, making
it more likely to be retained (Prussin 1986; Edwards 2008).
Without decoration, the distinctiveness of some buildings actually disappears. In Russia, carved decorative trim is the central distinguishing feature that
defines the traditional cottage, or dacha. The cottage has a very common form:
it is wooden, tends to be small in size, and has a steeply pitched gable roof

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

319

FIG. 7In Gujarat, the vernacular house is a decorated round hut. The modern rectangular
home seen here references the vernacular and allows for cultural identity by the use of adaptable
decoration. (Photography by Melissa Belz, November 2011).

(Figure 8). As socioeconomic changes prompt a modification in construction

materials, building size, and roof form, the essential quality of the vernacular
tradition can remain intact if the decorative features remain. However, if decoration is removed from this structure, it loses distinctiveness and, therefore,
loses a great deal of connection to the culture.
The Dominican Republic provides another example of small-scale features
used as a means of connecting to an architectural tradition. Like many Caribbean islands, the Dominican Republic is a colonial settlement. Brightly colored
buildings with tile roofs and carved wooden transoms are the historic norm of
colonial vernacular architecture, if not indigenous vernacular architecture. Now

FIG. 8This image of a Russian cottage, or dacha, shows that the common gable form is
made distinctive through decorative features, such as the window and door trim and use of
color. (Photograph by Steve Belz, September 2002).

320

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

a tourist destination, designers often seek to tie new construction into the history of the island. One example at a new condominium complex incorporated
window details of the colonial vernacular transoms, suggesting that this contemporary interpretation of a decorative detail is enough to create a link to the
colonial vernacular architecture. Although historically of wood, the new adaptation uses etched glass. In spite of the extreme difference in building scale, form,
and material, this small feature is able to help the structure relate to its history
and setting.
For a final example, Kingston Heath details the historic industrial towns of
southern Massachusetts, where new immigrants adapted the ubiquitous, company-built, three-decker house to resemble the houses they left in the Portuguese islands. They did this in several ways, including the simple incorporation
of wrought-iron railings in place of straight wooden banisters (Heath 2001).
This unassuming detail helped reflect the essential quality of their former vernacular landscape and was small enough and easily transferable enough to be
transplanted into a new context.
A DAPTABILITY

AND

T HE K EY

TO

E NDURANCE

These examples illustrate the significance of small-scale decorative features as

central qualities of vernacular architecture. Not only do small-scale features
contribute to the vernacular landscape, they also stand a better chance of
enduring than do building form and materials. This is because they have one
critical advantage in endurance: adaptability.
A crucial part to the endurance of certain architectural features lies in their
capacity to fit into new forms and priorities. Traditions that are most adaptable
are more likely to endure. Amos Rapoport noted that in developing countries
certain essential elements of tradition will endure, while other features change
more quickly (1989). The enduring traditions will be combined with new
trends. Additionally, Labelle Prussin explained that traits have to lend themselves well, and adapt to a new culture to endure (1973). Sufficient flexibility
that allows changes and adaptions and doesnt demand that everything continue to be done in the same way is a key to congruity and distinctiveness (Relph 1981). Flexibility allows a characteristic to suit local customs but remain
fluid enough to accept foreign influences without losing the essential connection to the iconic vernacular style.
Kinnaurs select features have shown promise in their ability to adapt and
to retain social value, improving their chances of endurance. The essential qualities of the Kinnauri houses are adaptable to new scales, building materials, and
applications. The decorative nature of the features works in contemporary
Indian narratives and preferences for ornamentation (in jewelry, clothing, and
in architecture) and they continue to show an amount of status through decoration. Even during times of limited timber, the upper-story wall panel of the
Kinnauri houses has persisted. It adapts to less expensive manufactured

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

321

FIG. 9Fascia trim, traditionally made from carved wood, is now produced in metal, both
prefabricated and handmade. This allows continuation of the trait when timber is scarce.
Although different, it still reflects the vernacular house clearly and is the most popular vernacular
trait today. (Photograph by Melissa Belz, August 2011).

plywood as an alternative building material. Although, it does not accept carving as well as cedar, simplified designswhich seem to be the natural progressioncan still be achieved. Furthermore, the construction system allows for
the use of available and less-expensive small-sized wood. Finally, reinterpretation represents the original vernacular trait almost seamlessly.
Jallarthe carved fascia trim of Kinnauris the most commonly seen vernacular feature today. Its small-scale adaptability played a major role in the
process. It is easily accessible to the average person since it is more affordable
than a personalized panel carving. It is easily adaptable to new house forms
and can be incorporated onto a variety of structures and materials. Furthermore, fascia trim is now fabricated in metal, an available material during these
times of timber conservation (Figure 9). Many people cut the designs on their
own, but others outside of Kalpa explained that the trim can be purchased prefabricated. The metal fascia has undergone reinterpretation and change without
losing the essential connection to the iconic vernacular. Because the trim piece
is easily transferable to metal and compatible with old and new building methods, it becomes the dominant holdover. The drastic change in the material
alongside its growth in popularity exemplifies the importance of adaptability as
a guiding principle in enduring styles.
C ONCLUSION
Due to changing livelihoods, allowing less time for owner-builder construction,
and limitations on access to materials such as stone, timber, and earth, manufactured materials are becoming ever-present in traditional environments.
Selection of essential features and their ability to adapt to a new context is crucial for any modernizing vernacular landscape if it is to keep its distinctiveness.
My initial visits to Kinnaur district in 2006 led me to presume that smallscale decorative features would be the first thing to disappear in a changing
landscape due to their apparent expendability and need for maintenance. The

322

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

opposite scenario emerged through research in 2011. Small-scale and decorative

features are in many cases the final distinguishing features remaining on the
house and showing cultural significance. This is evidenced in the apparent cultural value of jallar trim work, which transformed from wood to manufactured
metal in a gesture to continue the trait.
In the end, I argue that cultures rich in decorative features may be more
likely to have enduring vernacular landscapes. They have a greater number of
adaptable features, therefore, an increased opportunity for preserving the central qualities of an iconic house. I have shown here that the large-scale features
of the house are more difficult to preserve. After the building form and materials change, the endurance of a vernacular style depends on the small-scale features that give it distinctiveness and whether or not a group continues to hold
value in the iconic image. The profusion of details in the Kinnauri house gives
the society a collection from within which to choose select parts that are most
adaptable and enduring.
The Kinnauri house of today continues to represent the culture because of
the slow modifications applied to the house that work with, rather than overwhelm, its iconic image. A balance in modern adaptations and traditional practices allows people to create a landscape that continues to reflect the identity of
the community, respects the cultural heritage, and encourages the vernacular
landscape to have a sense of permanenceremaining vital for a changing society.
N OTE
1 Most villages have forest sections allocated by the government that allow for temple construction. For this reason, the heritage of carved temples is not as much a concern as that of the
vernacular house.

R EFERENCES
Abel, C. 1997. Architecture and Identity, 2nd edn. Oxford, U.K.: Architectural Press.
Antrop, M. 1997. The Concept of Traditional Landscapes as a Base for Landscape Evaluation and
Planning: The Example of Flanders Region. Landscape and Urban Planning 38 (12): 105117.
Arreola, D. D. 1981. Fences as Landscape Taste: Tucsons Barrios. Journal of Cultural Geography 2
(1): 96105.
. 1988. Mexican American Housescapes. Geographical Review 78 (3): 299315.
Berreman, G. D. 1970. Pahari Culture: Diversity and Change in the Lower Himalayas. In Change
and Continuity in Indias Villages, edited by K. Ishwaran, 73103. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Belz, M. 2013. Unconscious Landscapes: Identifying with a Changing Vernacular in Kinnaur,
Himachal Pradesh, India. Material Culture 45 (2): 127.
Blake, K., and D. D. Arreola. 1996. Residential Subdivision Identity in Metropolitan Phoenix.
Landscape Journal Spring 15 (1): 2335.
., and J. Smith. 2000. Pueblo Mission Churches as Symbols of Permanence and Identity.
Geographical Review 90 (3): 359380.
Bourdier, Jean-Paul, and N. AlSayyad, eds. 1989. Dwellings, Settlements and Tradition. Berkeley,
Calif.: University Press of America.
Bronner, S. J. 2006. Building Tradition: Control and Authority in Vernacular Architecture. In
Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-first Century: Theory, Education and Practice, edited by
A. Lindsay and M. Vellinga, 2345. London: Taylor & Francis.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN KINNAUR , HIMACHAL PRADESH , INDIA

323

Chib, S. S. 1984. Kanauras of the Trans Himalaya. New Delhi, India: Ess Ess Publications.
Cranney, B. 2001. Local Environment and Lived Experience: The Mountain Women of Himachal
Pradesh. New Delhi, India: Sage Publishing.
Dasgupta, A. 2008. The Himalayan Vernacular, an Architectural Journey Towards its Future. ISVS
4 Proceedings, Ahmedabad, India. [http://203.77.194.71:83/isvs-4-1/paper-dump/full-papers/].
Edwards, J. D. 2008. Unheralded Contributions Across the Atlantic World. Atlantic Studies l5
(2): 161201.
Francaviglia, R. 1978. The Mormon Landscape: Existence, Creation, and Perception of a Unique
Image in the American West. New York: AMS Press.
Handa, O. C. 2006. Woodcarving in the Himalayan Region. New Delhi, India: Indus Publishing
Company.
Harrison, J. 1998. A Brief Introduction to the Architecture of the Kalasha, Chitral. In
Karakorum-Hindukush-Himalaya: Dynamics of Change Part 1, edited by Irmtraub Stellrecht,
595602. Tubingen, Germany: Rudiger Koppe Verlag Koln.
Heath, K. W. 2001. The Patina of Place: The Cultural Weathering of a New England Industrial
Landscape. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
. 2009. Vernacular Architecture and Regional Design: Cultural Process and Environmental
Response. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Architectural Press.
Hostetler, J. A. 1964. The Amish Use of Symbols and Their Function in Bounding the
Community. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 94
(1): 1122.
Jackson, J. B. 1952. Many Mansions: Introducing Three Essays on Architecture. Landscape 1 (3):
1031.
. 1959. First Comes the House. Landscape 9 (2): 2632.
. 1976. Domestication of the Garage. Landscape 20 (2): 1019.
. 1980. By Way of Conclusion: How to Study the Landscape. In The Necessity for Ruins
and Other Topics, edited by J.B. Jackson. 113126. Amherst: University of Massachusetts
Press.
Jordan, T., and M. Kaups. 1987. Folk Architecture in Cultural and Ecological Context.
Geographical Review 77 (1): 5275.
Kleinert, C. 1998. The Impact of Tourism and Development of the Houses and Settlements in
the Kali Gandaki Valley (Central Nepal). In Karakorum-Hindukush-Himalaya: Dynamics of
Change Part 1, edited by Irmtraub Stellrecht, 527544. Tubingen, Germany: Rudiger Koppe
Verlag Koln.
Meyrowitz, J. 1985. No Sense of Place. New York: Oxford University Press.
Norberg-Hodge, H. 1991. Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. New York: Sierra Club Books.
Oliver, P. 1989. Handed Down Architecture: Tradition and Transmission. In Dwellings, Settlements
and Tradition, edited by Jean-Paul B. and N. AlSayyad, 5375. Berkeley, Calif.: University Press
of America.
. 2003. Dwellings: The Vernacular House World Wide. London: U.K. Phaidon Press.
Oosthoek, J. 2007. The Colonial Origins of Scientific Forestry in Britain. Environmental History
Resources. [http://www.eh-resources.org/colonial_forestry.html#_edn22].
Pavlides, E., and H. Jana. 1989. Vernacular Architecture in its Social Context. In Housing Culture
and Design: A Comparative Perspective, edited by Setha Lowe and Eric Chambers, 357374.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Prussin, L. 1973. The Architecture of Djenne African Synthesis and Transformation. Ph.D.
dissertation, Yale University.
. 1986. Hatumere, Islamic Design in West Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Rapoport, A. 1969. House Form and Culture. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
. 1981. Identity and Environment: A Cross-cultural Perspective. In Housing and Identity:
Cross-cultural Perspectives, edited by James Duncan, 635. London: Croom Helm.
. 1982. The Meaning of the Built Environment, a Non-verbal Communications Approach,
2nd edn. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
. 1989. Attributes of Tradition. In Dwellings, Settlements and Tradition, edited by JeanPaul Bourdier and Nezar AlSayyad, 77105. Berkeley, Calif.: University Press of America.
Rautela, P., G.C. Joshi, Y. Singh, and D. Lang. 2008. Timber-reinforced Stone Masonry (Kothi
Banal Architecture) of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, Northern India. World Housing

324

GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

Encyclopedia, Report #150. India. [ http://www.world-housing.net/whereport1view.php?

ID=100168].
Rawat, D. S., and S. Sharma. 1997. The Development of a Road Network and its Impact on the
Growth of Infrastructure: A Study of Almora District in the Central Himalaya. Mountain
Research and Development 17 (2): 11726.
Relph, E. 1976. Place and Placelessness. London: Pion.
. 1981. Rational Landscapes and Humanistic Geography. London: Croon Helm Ltd.
Riley, R. 1980. Speculation on the New American Landscape. Landscape 24 (3): 19.
Shankar, P. 2005. Framework for Understanding Change in Himalayan Vernacular Houses. ISVS 4
Proceedings, Ahmedabad, India. [http://203.77.194.71:83/ isvs-4-1/paper-dump/full-papers/].
Sharma, A. 2011. Assistant of Conservation, Department of Forestry. Interview with the author.
Kalpa, India. July 27, 2011.
Singh, Hardeep 2011. District Range Officer, Department of Forestry. Interview with the author.
Kalpa, India. Aug 3, 2011.
Singh, Harjit. 1998. Economy, Society and CultureDynamics of Change in Ladakh. In
Karakorum-Hindukush-Himalaya: Dynamics of Change Part 2, edited by I. Stellrecht, 351366.
Tubingen, Germany: Rudiger Koppe Verlag Koln.
Smith, J. S. 1999. Anglo Intrusion on the Old Sangre de Cristo Land Grant. The Professional
Geographer 51 (2): 17083.
. 2002. Cultural Landscape Change in a Hispanic Region. In Geographical Identities of
Ethnic America: Race, Space and Place, edited by Kate A. Berry and Martha L. Henderson,
174200. Reno: University of Nevada Press.
Solomon, R. J. 1966. Procedures in Townscape Analysis. Annals of the Association of American
Geographers 56 (2): 254268.
Tobdan. 2008. Cultural History of Western Trans-Himalayas Bashahar Kinnaur (From Earliest
Times to AD 1948). New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
Vale, T. R., and R. V. Geraldine. 1983. US 40 Today: Thirty Years of Landscape Change in
America. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Vellinga, M. 2004. Constituting Unity and Difference: Vernacular Architecture in a Minangkabau
Village. Leiden, Netherlands: KITLV.
. 2006. Engaging the Future: Vernacular Architecture Studies in the Twenty-first Century.
In Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-first Century: Theory, Education and Practice, edited
by A. Lindsay and M. Vellinga, 8194. London: Taylor & Francis.
Walkey, R. 1993. A Lesson in Continuity: The Legacy of the Builders Guild in Northern Greece.
In Dwelling Seeing and Designing: Toward a Phenomenological Ecology, edited by David
Seamon, 129157. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Zelinsky, Wilbur. 2011. Not Yet a Placeless Land: Tracking an Evolving American Geography.
Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

Copyright of Geographical Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may
not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's
express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.