Sewer Installation by Pipejacking in the

Urban Areas of Hong Kong

Part II Performance of Works, Lessons Learned
and Improvements Proposed
This paper discusses the performance of pipejacking works carried out under DSD Contract No
DC/2000/11, including TBM utilisation, jacking force, rate of penetration and friction resistance,
tolerance in alignment, TBM daily production rate, disc cutter replacement pattern and ground
settlement. As-built records for three pipejacking drives under soft, hard and mixed ground
conditions respectively were highlighted. Lessons learned and improvements proposed are also
given. The paper should be read in conjunction with Part I: Planning Design, Construction and
Challenges.

Wilson W S MOK
Black & Veatch Hong Kong Limited

Maxwell K W MAK
Drainage Services Department

Felix H T POON
Black & Veatch Hong Kong Limited

Keywords: TBM Utilisation, Rate of Penetration, Tolerance in Alignment, Disc Replacement,

Daily Production Rate, Ground Settlement, Sonic Soft-ground Probing, Options of
TBM Driving

Introduction
Pipejacking techniques have been commonly adopted in the urban areas
of Hong Kong for the installation of pipelines, such as sewers, drains
and watermains, in recent years. Problems such as excessive ground
settlements, out-of tolerance in line and level, frequent change of disc
cutters, and malfunction of the TBM are often encountered during the
course of works, affecting the adjacent utilities, services, structures, roads
and footways, and more importantly, the daily production.
In the past, many observations on the pipejacking techniques were
based on overseas projects, with little discussions on the local practices.
It is hoped that, through the successful completion of DSD Contract No
DC/2000/11 Wan Chai East and North Point Sewerage Trunk Sewers,
practitioners can gain better understanding of such techniques on the
ground conditions in Hong Kong.
This paper discusses the performance of the pipejacking works observed
for the 4 km long trunk sewers, completed in 21 shallow and deep
drives, under different depths and ground conditions, by the 4 nos slurry
operated TBMs, in two of the most busiest urban areas in the Hong
Kong Island. Analyses of the measured data and comparisons with the
predicted values, with regard to ground behaviours and responses, are
given. Improvements proposed, and different options of TBM driving
to suit different site constraints, and the need in programming, are
highlighted. Recommendations, based on the lessons learned and
experiences gained, are also made.

Performance of Pipejacking Works

TBM Utilisation
Apart from the capacity to control the line and level and limit the ground
settlement, the performance of a TBM in a drive is also reected by the
excavation (working) time and advancement. For the 4 nos TBMs adopted,
the Herrenknecht AVN 600 TBM had the highest average excavation
time, which was followed by the Herrenknecht AVN 1800T TBM, the
Herrenknecht 1200TC TBM and the Lovat mts 2000 TBM.
A breakdown of the total time period for each TBM is shown in the
four pie charts in Fig 1, and the average contract excavation time/the
excavation time of each drive versus the drive length is shown in Fig 2.
The TBM utilisation for each drive is summarised in Table 1.
The signicant difference in excavation time could be due to the different
conguration in each TBM and different ground conditions encountered.
It is noted that the low excavation time for one of the TBMs had been
greatly affected by the slow progress in the rst drive due to the learning
stage, the long time replacement of disc cutters in a number of drives,

and the stalled TBM due to obstruction in a drive which resulted in the
requirement of a rescue shaft for changing the cutting wheel before the
resumption of the works.
TBMs also performed signicantly different in excavation time even in
similar ground conditions and curvature. The drives in soft ground usually
had better excavation time than those in mixed or hard ground, with
the highest 77% and the lowest 21%. The presence of a high content
of hard materials sometimes caused damage to the TBM. Frequent
repair and maintenance was often required, signicantly affecting the
TBM performance. However, there was no indication that the straight
alignment had better excavation time and less downtime than the
curved alignment.
For classication purposes, the soft ground is dened as a ground made
of clayey, silty and/or sandy materials such as marine deposits and
alluvium; the mixed ground generally consists of soft materials with rock
in part of the excavation face; the hard ground is a ground consisting
of rock in the full excavation face. Such classications were based on
visual inspection of the materials collected in the muck tank after the
completion of jacking each pipe.
Jacking Force, Rate of Penetration and Friction Force
The average jacking force required to tunnel through lled ground
for shallow drives ranged from 70 to 220 T, with an average rate of
penetration of 110 to 175 mm/min. This rate was reduced to 70 to
90 mm/min when hard materials were encountered.
For deep drives in mixed to hard ground, the average jacking force
was generally in the range of 290 to 480 T, giving an average rate
of penetration of 30 to 90 mm/min. In soft ground such as marine
clay or alluvial deposits, the rate of penetration could be as high as
350 mm/min under a jacking force of 300 T. A tunnel through a full
face of moderately to slightly decomposed granitic (M/SDG) bedrock had
recorded a penetration of 18 mm/min under a consistent jacking force
of 300 to 330 T. The average rate of penetration versus the average
jacking force for different drives is shown in Fig 3.
There was no indication that a higher average jacking force had been
required for curved drives in soft ground, although a jacking force of more
than 750 T had been used at certain locations of the 404 m S-curve
alignment and some of the curved alignments. A higher jacking force
was usually required to push the pipeline after the TBM had stopped in
ground for some time for repair or changing of disc cutters.
The average friction resistance derived from the jacking force on the
drives ranged from 1.2 to 4.8 kN/m2 for clayey materials such as marine
deposits, from 1.9 to 2.8 kN/m2 for sandy materials such as alluvium and

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

31

TRANSACTIONS PAPER

The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers Transactions, Vol 14, No 1, pp31-43

Figure 1 TBM Time Allocation Charts

Figure 2 Average Contract Excavation Time/Excavation Time of a Drive

versus Drive Length
32

Figure 3 Average Rate of Penetration versus Average Jacking Force for

Different Pipejacking Drives

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

% of Time Available for Different Activities

Drive

Radius (m)

Length (m)

Ground
Conditions

Excavation

Pipe
Positioning

TBM
Downtime

Survey
Check

Slurry
Mixing

Change of
Cutters

Others

Herrenknecht AVN 1800T TBM

WC2-WC1
1500
WC2-WC4
400 & Straight
NP5-NP3
500 & Straight
NP5-NP7
500 & Straight
NP8-NP7
Straight
NP8-NP9
Straight
NP15-NP16
Straight

245
145
404
370
220
170
58

Soft
Soft
Soft, mixed & hard
Mixed to hard
Soft, mixed & hard
Hard
Soft
Average

62
61
21
45
60
44
39
42

14
24
7
9
9
8
33
11

12
0
52
31
5
28
22
30

7
9
5
4
18
5
6
6

5
6
4
0
0
0
0
2

0
0
11
11
8
15
0
9

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Herrenknecht AVN 1200TC TBM

WC5-WC4
750
WC5-WC5A
Straight
WC5-WC7
340
WC8-WC7
405
NP2-NP1
365
NP2-NP3
Straight

160
40
165
185
150
60

Soft with little mixed

Soft with little hard
Soft
Soft
Soft
Soft, mixed & hard
Average

37
17
30
72
21
32
39

20
14
20
9
17
21
17

29
60
14
0
58
47
27

6
9
31
10
4
0
12

8
0
5
9
0
0
5

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Soft

77

14

Soft
Soft, mixed and hard
Soft, mixed and hard
Soft with little mixed
Soft, mixed and hard
Soft
Soft, mixed and hard
Average

14
27
11
26
19
28
35
18

36
19
5
41
9
45
12
12

39
4
4
13
10
7
3
7

6
3
1
18
7
18
3
4

5
13
6
2
2
2
9
6

0
34
8
0
53
0
38
20

0
0
65
0
0
0
0
33

Herrenknecht AVN 600 Microtunneller

WC8-WC9
Straight
53
Lovat mts 2000 TBM
NP12-PS1
Straight
NP12-NP13
Straight
NP12-NP11
1750
NP10-NP11
Straight
NP10-NP9
800
NP14-NP15
1965
NP14-NP13
1185

107
148
268
307
168
225
210

Table 1 Summary of TBM Time Allocation for Each Drive

completely weathered granite, and from 0.3 to 1 kN/m2 for moderately

to slightly weathered granitic bedrock. These resistances were much less
than the predicted 8 kN/m2 for wet sand and 12 kN/m2 for rm clay
(based on recommendations given in [1]). This could be due to the full
effect of the bentonite and polymer lubrication applied to the pipeline
during the course of driving. It is noted that the resistance built up
signicantly when obstructions were encountered and when the TBM
had stopped in ground for a long time due to malfunction or repair,
resulting in the surrounding ground moved / collapsed to the pipeline.
For the 2 nos longest curved deep drives where irregular, alternating
soil and rock composition was encountered, the friction on the pipeline
did not increase signicantly and a resistance in the range of 3.4 kN/m2
and 4 to 7 kN/m2 respectively had been recorded.
Tolerance in Alignment
The contract requirement for tolerance in alignment, based on the
Tunnelling Specication [2], is 50 mm for line and 35 mm for level.
Of the 4 km long pipejacking drives (which consisted of 66% of soft,
14% of mixed and 20% hard materials), 21.3% for line (44% in soft;
17% in mixed; 39% in hard) and 19.4% for level (55% in soft; 12% in
mixed; 33% in hard) exceeded the tolerance, generally by 2 - 50 mm.
However, more than 100 mm was recorded at some locations in a few
drives where the ground conditions were alternating.
For the straight sections (1.1 km long), both the line and level exceeded the
tolerance by 16% whereas for the curved sections (2.8 km long), the line
and level showed an out-of-tolerance by 24% and 20% respectively.
Despite the above, only 1.7% of the pipelines exceeded the tolerated
0.5 angular deection at pipe joint, with 1.9% for curved drives and 1%
for straight drives. On completion of the pipejacking works, the respective
pipe joints were inspected visually and no damage in the pipes was found.
Inltration tests were also carried out in all pipe joints and the results

were within the limit as specied in the General Specication [3].

For TBM performance, the Herrenknecht AVN 600 TBM generally had
good control in both line and level in soft materials. As only one drive
was completed by this TBM, its capacity in controlling the line and
level in mixed to hard ground conditions had not been tested. The
Herrenknecht AVN 1200TC TBM also showed good control in curved
sections in soft ground. However, the presence of mixed ground caused
out-of-tolerance in another drive. Difcult control in line and level was
observed in the two straight sections where soft marine clay and mixed
and hard materials were present respectively.
For the 1.6 km long drives completed by the Herrenknecht AVN 1800T
TBM, their out-of-tolerance generally ranged from 20 to 42% for line
and from 14 to 37% for level for curved sections (with an average of
28% and 24% respectively), and ranged from 0 to 47% for line and
from 9 to 27% for level for straight sections (with an average of 26%
and 24% respectively).
For the Lovat mts 2000 TBM, it showed better control in the 562 m
long straight sections with an average out-of-tolerance of 11% for both
line and level. However, the out-of-tolerance increased to 32% for line
and 28% for level for curved sections.
It is noted that a TBM with 3 nos steering jacks always required a longer
length to correct the line and level in order to avoid causing damage
to the jacking pipes.
The summary of the as-built alignment of all pipejacking drives is given
in Table 2.
For shallow drives with a depth up to 8 m, the line and level of the
pipelines are well within the tolerance as the ground contained no or
very few hard materials. However, in very loose ground, the control of
such was always a problem.

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

33

Drive

Diameter
(mm)

Curvature (m)

Total
Length
(m)

Ground Condition Encountered

5.9 - 5.4

365

150

All soft

Depth to
Invert (m)

% Out of Tolerance
(Contract)
Line
(50 mm)

Level
(35 mm)

Herrenknecht AVN 1200TC TBM

NP2 - NP1

1200

NP2 - NP3

1200

5.9 - 6.6

Straight

60

30 m soft, 10 m mixed and 20 m hard

24

WC5 - WC4

1200

5.6 - 6.6

750

160

135 m soft and 25 m mixed

21

14

WC5 - WC5A

1200

5.6 - 4.7

Straight

40

30 m soft, 10 m mixed

11

22

WC5 - WC7

1200

5.6 - 5.0

340

165

All soft

WC8 - WC7

1200

4.8 - 5.0

405

185

All soft

4
Average Value:

6.5

0
6.3

Herrenknecht AVN 1800T TBM

NP15 - NP16

1800

15.0 - 15.8

Straight

58

All soft

NP5 - NP3

1800

14.2 - 13.7

Straight - 500 - Straight 500 - Straight

404

190 m soft, 130 m mixed and

84 m hard

35

19

NP5 - NP7

1800

14.2 - 15.1

Straight-500-Straight

370

195 m mixed and 175 m hard

17

37

NP8 - NP7

1800

15.4 - 15.1

Straight

220

85 m soft, 70 m mixed and 65 m hard

47

26

NP8 - NP9

1800

15.4 - 15.6

Straight

170

All hard

27

WC2 - WC1

1800

14.0 - 16.5

1500

245

All soft

20

14

WC2 - WC4

1800

7.6 - 6.6

Straight - 400 - Straight

145

All soft
Average Value:

42

21

26.7

24.0

5.0

0.0

Herrenknecht AVN 600 TBM

WC8 - WC9

600

4.8 - 3.9

Straight

53

All soft
Average Value:

Lovat mts 2000 TBM

NP10 - NP11

1800

15.8 - 16.2

Straight

307

297 m soft and 10 m mixed

NP10 - NP9

1800

15.8 - 15.6

800

168

78 m soft, 37 m mixed and 53 m hard

22

41

NP12 - NP11

1800

16.5 - 16.2

1750

268

218 m soft, 30 m mixed and 20 m hard

21

43

NP12 - NP13

1800

16.5 - 16.4

Straight

148

108 m soft, 20 m mixed and 20 m hard

NP12 - PS1

1800

16.5 - 17.0

Straight

107

All soft

57

43

NP14 - NP13

1800

16.0 - 16.4

1185

210

38 m soft, 53 m mixed and 119 m hard

73

29

NP14 - NP15

1800

16.0 - 16.8

1965

225

All soft
Average Value:
Average Value of All Drives:

13

23.5
21.3

21.2
19.2

Table 2 Summary of As-built Alignment of Pipejacking Drives

For deep drives, with a straight section, tunnelling through soft ground or
a ground with few hard materials, the line and level could be generally
controlled within the tolerance, except in marine clay and alluvial deposits
where signicant deviations always occurred.
Depending on the locations, sizes and hardness of materials encountered
in the excavation face, the line and level of a pipeline could also uctuate
signicantly along its length, as the TBM always tended to move faster
towards soft materials. The decision making of the TBM operator as
to how and when the jacking force and the steering jacks should be
adjusted also affected the control of the pipeline alignment.
The driving in hard ground or a ground with alternating soil and
rock composition would easily cause the TBM to tilt up as a result of
the likely escape of rock debris or our below its invert during the
excavation process. The presence of rockhead in the invert of the TBM
would also cause the pipeline to slant upward as the disc cutters were
unable to cut rock effectively in such a small contact area, causing the
TBM to tilt up as a result. This situation appears to be unavoidable but
a suitable combination of extension and retraction of the steering jacks
in the TBM and slow advancement of the pipeline could minimise the
excessive deviation.
34

It is also essential that, under hard ground conditions, the annulus of

the pipeline is fully lled with lubricant at all times to prevent settling
of small rock fragments, which could form a wedging action inducing
high frictional force during the jacking operation and causing damage
to the pipes.
The out-of-tolerance in alignment in a pipeline required the checking of
the hydraulic performance and luckily they were still acceptable.
As a comparison, if the tolerance is changed to 75 mm for line and
50 mm for level, then the out-of-tolerance for the completed pipelines
would be reduced to about 10% for both line and level. This value
generally matches with those obtained from DSD Contract No DC/95/05
[4] and DSD Contract No DC/98/06 [5].
TBM Daily Production Rate
The average TBM production (progress) rate for all the drives was
4.2 m/day. This rate was dictated by the time required for repair and
maintenance during the course of work such as the extension of ventilation
duct, disconnection and connection of power cables, extension of
compressed air pipe, installation of jacking pipes, application of lubricant,

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

change of disc cutters, survey check, and downtime such as mechanical

fault, electrical fault, unblocking of slurry charge and discharge pipes,
breakdown of the hydraulic system, malfunctioning of the computer
system, and the worst, the stoppage of the TBM in ground for more
than 8 months, as highlighted under the Section TBM Utilisation. The
daily production for a pipejacking drive (NP5-NP3) under mixed ground
conditions is shown in Fig 4.

The average daily production rate for each pipejacking drive versus the
drive length, the maximum daily production rate versus the drive length
and the average contract production rate/the average production rate of
each drive versus the drive length are shown in Figs 5 to 7. The overall
production for each pipejacking drive, completed by the four TBMs, and
for each TBM, is shown in Figs 8 to 10 and 11 respectively.
Replacement of Disc Cutters
A total of 254 nos steel alloy disc cutters were used for the 21 drives,
averaging about 0.5 set of cutters for each shallow drive and 1.5 sets for
each deep drive. A disc cutter had to be replaced when it was damaged
or had a wear of about 12 - 15 mm. Based on the records, the damage
of some of the disc cutters was caused by the dynamic impact of the
TBM, as a result of the sudden change in ground conditions from soft
to hard. The damage also occurred in hard driving under high jacking
forces. It was observed that the damaged disc cutters generally appeared
in the form of breakage of part of the disc, fractured rings and distortion
in the bearing system.
No discs had to be replaced for the Herrenknecht AVN 1200TC TBM
during the course of each drive, but a number of drives required the
replacement of some disc cutters before commencement.
For the Lovat mts 2000 TBM, no replacement of disc cutters was required
for the drives in soft ground. However, the average replacement frequency
for each disc cutter, in the range of 0.4 - 3.3 times, was recorded in

Figure 4 Daily Production for Drive NP5 - NP3

For the Herrenknecht AVN 600 TBM, the average daily production
rate was 2.5 m/day. It is considered that, due to the limited size of the
TBM, in particular the conguration in the cutting wheel, its capacity in
tunnelling through full face rock could be a problem.
For the Herrenknecht AVN 1200TC TBM, the average production rate
for the drives was generally in the range of 6 - 9 m/day (except 3.3
m/day for the drive which had to slow down in order to pass through
the narrow gap between the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC)
pedestrian tunnel and the existing trunk utilities accurately), with a
maximum length of 22 m recorded in a single day (12 hour shift)
when tunnelling through alluvial deposits. For comparison purposes,
this average rate is much better than the 3 - 5 m/day recorded by DSD
Contract No DC/95/05, using the same model of TBM and under similar
ground conditions [6].
The Herrenknecht AVN 1800T TBM had an average production rate of
5 m/day, ranging from 3.8 m/day for a curved drive tunnelling through
a ground with high rock content, to 9.7 m/day for a drive in soft ground.
A number of drives advanced more than 10 m/day in soft ground, with a
maximum length of 18 m. This rate is slightly higher than the 8.5 m/day
recorded in DSD Contract No DC/95/05. It is also 66% higher than the
6 m/day recorded in DSD Contract No DC/98/06 [6] that a smaller TBM
(1500 mm in diameter) in the same series was used. A tunnel through
M/SDG bedrock, with strengths of 320 - 350 MPa, achieved 4 m/day
on average, which generally matches with the production rate achieved
in both DSD Contract Nos DC/95/05 and DC/98/06. This suggests its
capacity in tunnelling through rock may have been optimised.
The drives completed by the Lovat mts 2000 TBM showed the average
daily production rate with signicant uctuations, from 1.2 m for a
curved drive tunnelling through a ground comprising soft, mixed and
hard materials, to 17 m for also a curved drive in soft ground, with an
average of 3.2 m/day. The best recorded length in a single day was
36 m (15 hour shift) in this drive. In a number of drives, the centre disc
cutters were found to be damaged but could not be replaced from the
rear of the cutting wheel, affecting the excavation capability. Based on
the above, it would appear that this TBM is good in soft ground but
could have difculty in effectively tunnelling through a high content of
hard materials.

Figure 5 Average Daily Production Rate for Each Pipejacking Drive

versus Drive Length

Figure 6 Maximum Daily Production Rate for Each Pipejacking Drive

versus Drive Length

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

35

Figure 7 Average Contract Production Rate/Average Production Rate of

a Drive versus Drive Length

Figure 10 Overall Production of Each Drive Using Lavat mts 2000 TBM

Figure 8 Overall Production of Each Drive Using Herrenknecht AVN

1200TC TBM

Figure 11 Overall Production of Each TBM

highly variable ground made up of soft, mixed and hard materials, for
each drive.
The Herrenknecht AVN 1800T TBM also did not require any replacement
of disc cutters for the drives in soft ground. However, it showed an
average frequency of 1 - 3 times for each disc cutter in highly variable
ground, and 1.9 times in hard ground.
Gauge disc cutters usually required more frequent replacement than centre
disc cutters. This is because, during each rotation of the cutting wheel,
the gauge disc cutters have to travel a longer path for excavation, thus
causing higher consumption. For the Herrenknecht AVN 1800T TBM, the
cutters were replaced in a ratio of 1 (for centre discs) to 2.5 (for gauge
discs), while a 1 to 4 ratio was recorded for the Lovat mts 2000 TBM.
Depending on the ground conditions encountered, particularly the location,
thickness and hardness of materials, some of the disc cutters had to be
replaced again after driving for a short length. This situation occurred in
some long curved drives with highly variable ground conditions and the
replacement of disc cutters in a 4m drive length had been experienced
in the worst case. The replacement of more than 30 nos disc cutters
during the course of works in three drives had been recorded.
Figure 9 Overall Production of Each Drive Using Herrenknecht AVN
1800T TBM
36

For effective monitoring, a numbering system was adopted for the disc
cutters in the cutting wheel, with a number assigned to each disc cutter

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

and depths below the settlement monitoring markers, impeding the

measurement of the actual magnitude.

Figure 12 Disc Cutter Replacement Pattern for a Pipejacking Drive

Total No
of Disc
Used

Average
Service
Distance

Hard

Mixed

Soft

Herrenknecht
AVN 600 TBM

53 m

19%

38%

43%

Herrenknecht
AVN 1200TC TBM

27

254 m

6%

11%

83%

Herrenknecht
AVN 1800T TBM

153

115 m

30%

19%

51%

Lovat mts 2000 TBM

69

238 m

15%

10%

75%

TBM

Ground Composition

Table 3 Service Life of Disc Cutters

location, and their replacement records were properly maintained. The
TBM disc cutter replacement pattern for a pipejacking drive under typical
mixed ground conditions is shown in Fig 12. This gure shows that 31
nos disc cutters had been replaced to complete the drive, corresponding
to 2.82 sets. Including the original set of disc cutters, each set of disc
cutters had an average service life of 400 m3 (equivalent to 36 m3 per
disc cutter). The average service life of each set of disc cutters for each
TBM, in terms of driving distance, is also given in Table 3.
It is noted that the disc cutters in the Herrenknecht AVN 600 TBM still
remained in a satisfactory condition after completing the 53 m long
drive.
Ground Settlement
The average measured surface ground settlement, induced by the
pipejacking works, above the centre line of the pipeline for most of the
drives, is generally less than that predicted.
The summary of settlement caused by the pipejacking works is given
in Table 4.
Settlements induced by the pipejacking works were predicted based
on the invert normal probability distribution curve recommended by
OReilly and New (1982) [7]. This method generally predicts a narrow
but relatively large settlement trough for shallow tunnels, and a wider
settlement trough with small settlement for deep tunnels. It was assumed
that adequate face pressure would be provided and thus the tunnel face
loss should be negligible. The overcuts by TBMs were thus adopted as
the predicted volume loss.

The transverse settlement trough width for each drive was back calculated
from the measured data. It was found that the trough widths ranged
from 18 to 30 m for the shallow drives, with an average of 19 m, and
from 30 to 60 m for the deep drives, with an average of 35 m. Except
for one drive, these troughs were all atter than those predicted, with
an average of 8 m and 24 m for shallow and deep drives respectively.
This was because although the settlement above the centre line of the
pipeline was less than the predicted value, the settlements at the left
and right hand sides were greater than the predicted value. The average
volume loss for the deep drives, 3.97%, was less than the predicted
4.46%, while for the shallow drives, the average volume loss, 4.86%,
was greater than the predicted 3.15%. However, it is interesting to note
that although the average volume loss was greater than that predicted
for shallow drives, the measured settlements above the centre line of the
pipeline were generally less than the predicted values as the widths of
settlement troughs were underestimated. Besides the overcut of the TBM
assumed in the calculation, other ground losses such as those discussed
in the following paragraphs may also have certain contributions to such
phenomenon.
A number of drives for which the measured ground settlement exceeded
the predicted value can be attributed to no slurry having been injected
to balance the water pressure in the excavated face as a result of
sudden change in ground conditions not immediately noticeable to the
TBM operator. In some cases, the presence of hard materials in part of
the excavation face caused face loss due to the adjacent soft materials
moving faster into the excavation chamber of the TBM, resulting in
more settlement.
It was observed that large settlements usually occurred during hard and
prolonged driving as a result of obstruction, the presence of existing
underground voids, and the migration of the surrounding soil into the
receiving shaft due to the failure of the treated soil block outside the
receiving eye, when the TBM was approaching. Large settlement was
also found at the location beyond the treated soil block outside the
jacking shaft when the complete TBM had not been pushed into the
ground and started to inject slurry to balance the total horizontal soil
and water pressure in the excavation face.
There were some occasions that voids were found at locations of signicant
settlement detected by the monitoring markers. A review on the records
however did not indicate any abnormality in the pipejacking works, such
as over-excavation or excessive loss of slurry. It was suspected that such
voids existed in the ground for some time and the pipejacking works
just triggered the incidents. The voids were then backlled with sandy
materials or grout before the resumption of works.
The results of ground settlement monitoring for a pipejacking drive, that
illustrated the presence of voids below the concrete carriageway, are
shown in Fig 13, and the condition of a void is shown in Fig 14.
For almost all the drives, ground settlement was negligible at a distance
beyond half of the depth of the jacked pipeline ahead of the TBM. The

The measured settlement on the monitoring markers varied and this

could be due to different ground conditions above the jacked pipeline
throughout its length, different speed of TBM advancement and the
presence of existing utilities and services at the respective locations.
As the settlements varied along the jacked pipeline, average values of
the recorded settlements at monitoring locations along the centre line
and left and right hand sides of the pipeline (at 5 m offset) were adopted
in establishing the settlement trough. For two drives, the settlements at
the left and right hand sides were greater than that in the centre line,
causing the trough width undened. Such phenomenon could be due
to the presence of existing utilities/services at the respective locations

Figure 13 Results of Surface Ground Settlement Monitoring for a

Pipejacking Drive Beneath Voided Ground

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

37

Drive

Diameter
(mm)

Depth to
Invert (m)

Total
Length
(m)

Average
Overburden
SPTN Value
at Shaft
Location

Ground Condition Encountered

53

11

All soft

Measured Surface
Settlement (mm)
Min

Max

Average

Predicted
Surface
Settlement
(mm)

12

11.0

Herrenknecht AVN 600 TBM

WC8 - WC9

600

4.8 - 3.9

5
Herrenknecht AVN 1200TC TBM
NP2 - NP1

1200

5.9 - 5.4

150

16

All soft

61

21

14.7

NP2 - NP3

1200

5.9 - 6.6

60

30 m soft, 10 m mixed
and 20 m hard

26

13.7

WC5 - WC4

1200

5.6 - 6.6

160

12

135 m soft and 25 m mixed

13.2

WC5 - WC7

1200

5.6 - 5.0

165

11

All soft

35

15

16.2

WC5 - WC5A

1200

5.6 - 4.7

40

17

30 m soft and 10 m mixed

16.0

WC8 - WC7

1200

4.8 - 5.0

185

10

All soft

24

13

16.2

12.2
Herrenknecht AVN 1800T TBM
WC2 - WC1

1800

14.0 - 16.5

245

All soft

21

18.6

WC2 - WC4

1800

7.6 - 6.6

145

All soft

31

11

40.0

NP5 - NP3

1800

14.2 - 13.7

404

32

190 m soft, 130 m mixed

and 84 m hard

42

18.1

NP5 - NP7

1800

14.2 - 15.1

370

26

195 m mixed and 175 m hard

10

18.1

NP8 - NP7

1800

15.4 - 15.1

220

39

85 m soft and 70 m mixed

and 65 m hard

17.0

NP8 - NP9

1800

15.4 - 15.6

170

39

All hard

26

16.9

NP15 - NP16

1800

15.0 - 15.8

58

18

All soft

10

71

33

16.7

6.2
Lovat mts 2000 TBM
NP10 - NP9

1800

15.8 - 15.6

168

11

78 m soft and 37 m mixed

and 53 m hard

63

25

16.9

NP10 - NP11

1800

15.8 - 16.2

307

10

297 m soft and 10 m mixed

28

13

16.5

NP12 - NP11

1800

16.5 - 16.2

268

12

218 m soft, 30 m mixed

and 20 m hard

54

23

16.0

NP12 - PS1

1800

16.5 - 17.0

107

10

All soft

52

26

15.6

NP12 - NP13

1800

16.5 - 16.4

148

12

108 m soft, 20 m mixed

and 20 m hard

24

13

15.9

NP14 - NP13

1800

16.0 - 16.4

210

11

38 m soft, 53 m mixed
and 119 m hard

16.2

NP14 - NP15

1800

16.0 - 15.8

225

14

All soft

18

11

16.5

Average Value of All Drives

15.5
11.0

Table 4 Summary of Settlement Caused by Pipejacking Works

settlement, however, developed rapidly after the TBM had passed through.
An average of 74% and 77% of the settlement occurred during and
immediately after the completion of pipejacking works for the shallow
and deep drives respectively. However, due to the time required for
dismantling the xtures inside the completed pipeline, such as slurry
charge and discharge pipes, electricity cables, water hose, ventilation
hose, and the automatic lubrication system, further settlement developed
as a result of the tendency of the ground to close in the annulus of
the pipeline before the grouting material could be applied. It is noted
that the settlement for shallow drives (which were mainly carried out in
sandy ground) usually stopped within 3 - 4 weeks after the completion of
pipejacking works. For deep drives in highly variable ground, particularly
with clayey materials, the settlement would continue slowly over a much
38

longer time. In some cases, more than 8 - 10 months would be required

before the ground became stabilised.
There is no direct relationship between jacking force and surface
ground settlement as such depends very much on the material
encountered in the excavation face, the type and density of material in
the overburden, the surcharge load, and the TBM capacity. However, the
presence of underground utilities and services above the jacked pipeline
would lead to under-measure of the surface ground settlement. This
could be because if settlement occurs, such utilities and services, due
to their rigidity, may not settle in the same magnitude as the underlying
ground. It is noted that the settlement increased slowly under a high
jacking speed.

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

locations of desilting, access and ventilation openings, can be tailor

made to suit site constraints.
If precast rings are used to construct the shaft wall, the construction time
could be reduced signicantly. However, watertightness at the successive
construction joints under a high water head should be looked at, as the
water stop that can be installed in-situ is usually small and does not
have an embeddment in concrete. This may require a mass concrete
wall outside as a compensation measure.
The access, ventilation and desilting openings of permanent shafts
should be located in one trafc lane as much as possible to minimise
the disturbance to trafc during maintenance.
TBM Design

Figure 14 Condition of a Void below Concrete Carriageway

Suggested Areas for Improvement

Alignment Design
Notwithstanding maintenance issues for the permanent works, the
minimum radius of a curved section is governed by the allowable angular
deection at the pipe joint for the respective pipe size. Therefore, the
larger the pipe size is, the smaller would be the allowable curvature of
the pipeline in order that its structural integrity and watertightness can
be maintained.

The performance of disc cutters affects the TBMs capacity of excavation

and rate of advancement. The cutter change in the excavation chamber
is labour-intensive, costly and, particularly in soft ground, a risk for
the maintenance team. It is important that rock cores are obtained for
determination of their strength before nalisation of the design of the
disc cutters. It is also important that all the disc cutters, particularly
those in the centre, can be replaced at the rear of the cutting wheel, in
the middle of the drive, at the right time. Recycled discs made by local
shops should be used with care due to quality control.
It is understood that TBM manufacturers have developed a fully automatic
hardware and software system for detecting hard material in front of
TBMs by means of sonic soft-ground probing. This system probes ahead
for density contrasts in the soil and visualises the results (Fig 15). With
these results, the TBM operator can plan the works in advance and
adopt corresponding measures when the TBM is moving close to the
obstruction.

Sufficient straight section, say 15 m, should be allowed between

any two curves for proper transfer of load. A straight section is also
required outside the jacking shaft to enable the launching of the TBM
to be completed in ground before the steering jacks can be operated
to change alignment.
Hydraulic Design
A marked difference in invert levels for incoming and outgoing pipes
in permanent shafts, of say 200 mm, should be allowed to avoid the
possible backow situation due to the out-of-tolerance problem, if any,
in the downstream pipeline.
Smaller sewers with steeper gradient should be used instead of large
sewers with atter slope to ensure ow capacity and self-cleansing
velocity, due to the likely irregular prole after the completion of
pipejacking works.
Pipejacking Design
The main characteristic of the Hong Kong soils is their high variability
over a short length. Appropriate type and mix of bentonite or polymer
should be used as lubricant and adjustment made immediately, for
the ground encountered in order to reduce the frictional force along
the jacked pipeline and to stabilise the overcut formed by the TBM,
minimising the ground settlement.
For long drives, the main jacking station always experiences high jacking
force to push the pipeline forward, particularly when excavating in hard
rock. The installation of an intermediate jacking station near or at the
rear of a TBM (if no telescopic section is equipped), in addition to others
provided in the pipeline, would ensure sufcient capacity for excavation.
This would also help to minimise shock loading in the cutting wheel
during operation, which is liable to create excessive wear and/or damage
to the disc cutters.
Permanent Shaft Design
Rectangular shafts are easier to construct than circular shafts, at locations
where existing utilities and services are congested. Their size and shape,
in particular the intermediate landing platforms, benching details and

Figure 15 Detection of Hard Material in front of TBM by Means of Sonic

Soft Ground Probing (Courtesy of Herrenknecht AG)
It is also understood that an electronic tool monitoring system, by
means of a sender electrically connected with a power supply, can be
installed in the disc cutters for detecting the wear limit. This could warn
the TBM operator in time, such that the maintenance intervals can be
controlled economically, cutter life used optimally and labour cost for
time-consuming interventions reduced.

As-built Records for Pipejacking Drives

The as-built records showing the jacking force, torque pressure, speed,
level, line and ground composition, for three pipejacking drives under
soft, mixed and hard ground conditions respectively, are shown in
Figs 16 to 18.

Options of TBM Driving

The following options of TBM driving (for both straight and curved
pipelines) have been successfully completed in the contract.

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

39

Figure 16 As-built Records for Pipeline Driving through Soft Ground

Conditions

Figure 17 As-built Records for Pipeline Driving through Mixed Ground

Conditions

With Completion of Jacking and Receiving Shafts in Advance (For

Normal Driving between 2 Shafts) (Fig 19)

be encountered. In addition, there will be a cost saving in not moving and

setting-up the TBM plant at the intermediate temporary shaft location.

This is the traditional method, in that the pipeline will only be jacked
after the completion of the two temporary shafts at each end. This
would ensure the watertightness between the permanent shaft and the
completed pipeline.
With Completion of Intermediate Temporary Shaft in Advance (With
3 or More Shafts in a Line) (Fig 20)
This would require the construction of the receiving and launching eyes
at the piles of the temporary shaft before the jacked pipeline passes
through. The condition of the TBM can be inspected in the shaft and the
damaged disc cutters changed before the pipeline is pushed forward.
The shaft is then ooded with water to balance the groundwater pressure
inside and outside, and a double layer rubber seal is installed at both
eyes to minimise the loss of lubricant and migration of the nes in the
surrounding soil when the jacking continues. A wooden planking system
is provided on top of the pipeline to prevent oatation. It is, however,
noted that in so doing, the friction resistance on the pipes would be
increased. Alternatively, the temporary shaft could be temporarily
backlled for such purposes.
The benet of using this option is the exibility of programming which
could make the re-sequencing of works easier should any site problems
40

Without Completion of Intermediate Temporary Shaft in Advance

(With 3 or More Shafts in a Line) (Fig 21)
When timing is a key factor for completing the works, the jacked
pipeline could pass through an intermediate shaft, without completing
its construction in advance, ie excavation. In order to achieve this, the
piling works for the shaft are completed rst, leaving a window at the
incoming and outgoing sides of the pipeline where the ground outside
is fully stabilised by grout (from about 1 m above the crown level
of the pipeline to the same toe level as the piles), so as to achieve
watertightness.
Immediately after the completion of the jacking operation, the cavities
between the jacked pipeline and the grout zones (due to overcut of TBM)
are to be lled up by bentonite cement grout from the jacking pipes, so
as to close them up and prevent ingress of water.
The shaft excavation can start at any time, after the jacking operation
has been completed. Steel lagging plates are provided at the window
locations while excavation proceeds. The pipeline inside the shaft is
then cut for the construction of the permanent shaft.
In the worst scenario, the jacked pipeline can also be completed before
the pile installation, particularly when waiting for the timely diversion of

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

existing utilities/services to give room. This would also give the option to
move the shaft location along the completed pipeline if any unexpected
situations arise; however, there may be difculty to effectively treat the
ground at the window locations.
With Completion of Permanent Shaft(s) in Intermediate Temporary
Shafts and Receiving Shaft in Advance (With 3 or More Shafts in a
Line) (Fig 22)
The reinforced concrete structure for the permanent shaft is completed
rst, with the receiving and launching openings prexed and formed.
A mass concrete lling is then provided across the shaft to conne the
alignment of the jacked pipeline and prevent the escape of lubricant when
the pipeline is passing through. This could also enable the inspection of
the condition of the disc cutters and the necessary replacement.
The gap between the temporary and permanent shafts at the opening
locations also needs to be sealed up by concrete to prevent ingress of
water causing drawdown outside the temporary shaft and then attracting
unnecessary ground settlement.
The speed of the TBM, when close to the temporary shaft, is to be
reduced and the position of the TBM is double checked and adjusted,
as necessary, before the TBM is pushed in. The jacking force and the
speed of driving is controlled in such a manner that the vibration induced
(generally less than 25 mm/sec based on the measured data on three
drives) will not damage the permanent shaft.

Figure 22 Pipejacking through an Intermediate Shaft with Completion

of Permanent Shaft

Figure 18 As-built Records for Pipeline Driving through Hard Ground

Conditions

Figure 19 Pipejacking Carried out between the Completed Jacking and

Receiving Shafts

Figure 20 Pipejacking through an Intermediate Shaft with Completion

of Temporary Works in Advance

Upon the completion of the pipejacking works, the gap between the
permanent shaft and the pipeline (with Hi-rib, which is a special type
of construction joint material, provided to increase bonding) is properly
sealed up by non-shrinkage epoxy grout.
For the case in the receiving shaft, the internal size of the permanent
shaft must be large enough to allow the removal of the longest section
of the TBM, and the internal xtures and top slab of the shaft are to be
completed later on.
This option can be adopted effectively at shaft locations where public
complaints in respect of lengthy occupation of works area causing loss
of business and affecting environments are a major problem. Such would
allow the construction of the permanent shaft immediately after the
completion of the intermediate shaft, the reinstatement of the occupied
area (except for the receiving shaft location where the top slab of the
permanent shaft is to be placed after the retrieval of the TBM) and the
release of the site to the public, at a much earlier stage. There is no
restriction on the number of intermediate shafts that the TBM and pipeline
can pass through. However, typical TBMs could generally operate 4 nos
intermediate jacking stations. Therefore, the TBM should be specially
designed for long drives such that sufcient nos of intermediate jacking
stations can be installed and operated, to account for the anticipated
ground conditions and the length of driving.

Conclusions
Certain observations and conclusions may be drawn from the experiences
gained on this contract.
1)
Figure 21 Pipejacking through an Intermediate Shaft without
Completion of Temporary Works in Advance

The average production rate for the drives completed by the 4 nos
TBMs ranged from 2.5 to 14.7 m/day. For planning purposes, a
production rate of 4 m/day is considered to be a reasonable lower

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

41

bound gure for the commonly encountered ground conditions in

Hong Kong.
2)

More than 20% of the deep sewers exceeded the contract tolerance
for line and level, despite the fact that the excavation face had been
conditioned by slurry and sometimes by the addition of polymer,
as necessary. In consideration of the steering capacity of the TBMs
available in the market, the allowable angular deection of the
jacking pipes, and the procedure of correcting the out-of-tolerance,
a tolerance of 50 mm for line and 35 mm for level may not be
applicable to all Hong Kong soils for pipejacking works. Therefore,
the respective tolerance should only be used with extreme care,
with adjustment as necessary.
75 mm for line and 50 mm for level could be a more realistic
tolerance that the TBM deployed can practically control the alignment
of pipeline in the ground likely to be encountered.

3)

Empirical values for estimation of the friction on pipeline are

conservative. The jacking resistance could be signicantly reduced by
application of suitable bentonite and polymer lubricants. However,
tunnelling through a highly variable ground, particularly with irregular,
alternating soil and rock composition, increases the excavation
resistance signicantly. For design purposes, a recommended value
of 6 kN/m2 should be sufcient for the highly variable ground
conditions in Hong Kong.

4)

With the proper application of slurry to balance the excavation face,

ground settlements associated with the pipejacking works can be
generally controlled within 20 mm for typical ground conditions
in Hong Kong. However, settlements could increase signicantly
when obstructions are encountered. Large settlements could also
occur when the TBM stops in ground for a long time for repair or
replacing disc cutters.

5)

6)

In this contract, settlement values predicted by the invert normal

probability distribution curve, with the TBM overcut as the assumed
volume loss, were generally higher than the average measured
settlement at the centre line of the pipeline for most of the drives.
The widths of the settlement troughs for both deep and shallow
drives were however underestimated. For shallow tunnelling through
sandy ground, the settlements developed rapidly and should be
completed within a month while in deep tunnels or clayey ground,
the settlements could take a much longer time for completion.
The chemical composition of the disc cutters was not made available
due to commercial reasons. Given the different degree of wear and
damage in the disc cutters, including fractured rings, the difference
in rock penetration over the length of driving, and the frequency
of replacement, with respect to the ground conditions encountered,
it appears that the cutters may be too brittle for the nature of the
rock. This situation could be improved by coring rock samples at
different locations of the site for laboratory analysis of their strength
before nalising the disc cutter design.

7)

For large contracts involving long drives in highly variable ground,

it is preferable to install a fully automatic sonic soft ground probing
system for detecting hard material in front of TBMs and an electric
tool monitoring system for detecting the wear limit of disc cutters,
such that the risk associated with TBM stoppage, as a result of
obstruction, could be minimised, and the replacement of disc
cutters could be made at the right time.

8)

All 4 nos TBMs had a different degree of deviation in line and

level in the pipelines completed. By virtue of the ground conditions
encountered, a TBM with 4 nos steering jacks appears to have better
control in the curved alignment in most cases, particularly under
mixed to hard ground conditions.

9)

There is no indication that the performance of straight drives is

superior to curved drives. The only noticeable exception is that
straight sections have better control in line and level than curved
sections.

42

10) Four options of TBM driving had been successfully adopted for
different pipejacking drives (with both straight and curved sections),
under different ground conditions. This gives clients and contractors
exibility in designing and programming the works, particularly
when site constraints are encountered.
11) Based on the problems encountered and the lessons learned, certain
areas for improvements are suggested. It is believed that, through
the proper implementation of such improvements, the performance
of pipejacking works could be greatly enhanced.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Drainage Services
Department of the Government of Hong Kong SAR, for permission to
extract the materials from the respective Project, to publish this paper.
The assistance provided by Mr Derek Arnold, Director of Black & Veatch
Hong Kong Limited, and Mr K C Leung and Mr Ivan S W Wong of the
Resident Site Staff in analysing the eld data, are also appreciated. Special
acknowledgement is given to Herrenknecht AG for his permission to
extract the photographs from technical brochures in making Fig 15.

References
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

Thomson, J., Pipejacking and Microtunnelling, pp. 182, Black A&P., U.K.,
(1993).
The British Tunnelling Society and The Institution of Civil Engineers, Specication
for Tunnelling, pp. 36, 86 - 88 & 106, Thomas Telford, U.K., (2000).
General Specication for Civil Engineering Works, Volume 1, pp. 139 -140,
Civil Engineering Department, Government of the Hong Kong SAR, Hong Kong
(1992).
Field data of DSD Contract No. DC/95/05 Central, Western and Wan Chai
West Sewerage Trunk Sewers.
Field data of DSD Contract No. DC/98/06 Aberdeen and Ap Lei Chau Trunk
Sewers.
Mok, W. W.S., Performance of Trenchless Techniques for Sewer Construction
in Hong Kong, HKIE Transactions, Volume 9, No. 1, pp. 51 - 56, The Hong
Kong Institution of Engineers, Hong Kong (2002).
OReilly, M.P. and New, B.M., Settlement above Tunnels in the United Kingdom,
Their Magnitude and Prediction, pp.173-181, Proceedings Tunnelling 82
Symposium, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, U.K. (1982).

About the Authors

Wilson W S MOK BASc BA CEng RPE(Civil &
Geotechnical) CPEng CSci MICE MIMMM MIEAust
MHKIE
Email: wilsonwsmok@netvigator.com
Ir Wilson Mok graduated from the University of Windsor
in Canada and has over 28 years practical working
experience in a wide variety of geotechnical and civil
engineering projects in both design ofce and site. He
is particularly experienced in dealing with design and
construction associated with geotechnical investigations
and instrumentation, deep excavations, tunnels, ground
improvements, settlement analysis, reclamation, site formation, slope preventive
measures, foundations and sewerage works. He has been involved in the design,
supervision and administration of more than 16 km of trunk sewers construction
in the urban areas of Hong Kong, using different types of trenchless techniques
from relining, TBMs to hand tunnelling, and has carried out extensive research on
such. He is currently employed by Black & Veatch Hong Kong Limited as Senior
Resident Engineer on a DSD contract.

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

Maxwell K W MAK BSc Dip HE Delft PCLL MA

Arb CEng MIEAust MICE MHKIE MIHT
Email: kwmak@dsd.gov.hk
Ir K W Mak is currently Chief Engineer in Drainage
Services Department. In the past few years, he has
participated in numerous large-scale and prestigious
drainage and sewerage projects, including the Wan
Chai East and North Point sewerage project, the rst
tertiary sewage treatment plant at Ngong Ping, Lantau
Island, as well as the 6 km long rainwater-intercepting
tunnel in Tsuen Wan. Previously, he spent six years in
the then Works Bureau dealing with slope and water
policies. During his earlier years with the Drainage Services Department, Ir Mak
received post-graduate training in river engineering in the Netherlands, and had
then worked in the Shenzhen River Regulation Project. He obtained a Master of
Arts in the area of dispute resolution and arbitration. On top of his engineering
engagements, Ir Mak acquires legal qualication and is a non-practising Barristerat-law of the High Court of the HKSAR.

Felix H T POON BEng MSc CEng MICE MHKIE

Email: poonfelix@gmail.com
Ir Felix Poon graduated from the University of Hong
Kong with First Class Honours and joined Black &
Veatch Hong Kong Limited in 2000. Since then, he
has participated in various projects including design
and construction of pipe-jacked sewage tunnels, deep
shafts, water transfer tunnel, box and large diameter
pipe culverts, river channels and other drainage and
sewerage features. He had been actively involved in
DSD Contract No DC/2000/11: Wan Chai East and North
Point Sewerage Trunk Sewers, during the stages from
design, tendering to construction, in that he was posted as an assistant resident
engineer responsible for supervision of the respective construction by trenchless
technique, and the analysis of the eld data obtained from the works. He is currently
an engineer in the design ofce working on a drainage improvement project in
Northern New Territories and a water transfer tunnel project on Lantau Island.

HKIE TRANSACTIONS Volume 14 Number 1

43