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The Li
enard-Wiechert potential describes the electromagnetic
effect of a moving charge.
(1)
where ~v (t 0 ) =
d~x0
dt 0
(2)
~ x , t) = 1
A(~
c
Z ~ 0
J(~x , t |~x ~x 0 |/c) 3 0
d x
|~x ~x 0 |
(4)
It is not difficult to see that these retarded potentials take into account
the finite propagation speed of the EM disturbances since an effect
measured at ~x and t was produced at the position of the source at time
t = t
|~x ~x0 (t )|
c
Thus, using our expressions for and ~J from eqns (1) and (2) and
putting ~ ~v /c,
Z
(~x 0 ~x0 [t |~x ~x 0 |/c]) 3 0
(~x , t) = q
d x
|~x ~x 0 |
~ x , t) = q
A(~
Z ~
(t |~x ~x 0 |/c)(~x 0 ~x0 [t |~x ~x 0 |/c]) 3 0
d x
|~x ~x 0 |
(5)
(6)
(7)
Note that for a given space-time point (~x , t), there exists only one point
on the whole trajectory, the retarded coordinate ~x coresponding to the
retarded time t defined in (5) which produces a contribution
~x = ~x0 (t ) = ~x0 (t |~x ~x0 |/c) (8)
Let us also define the vector
~ 0 ) = ~x ~x0 (t 0 )
R(t
(9)
~
in the direction ~n R/R.
Then
(~x 0 ~x0 [t R(t 0 )/c]) 3 0
d x
R(t 0 )
Z ~
(t R(t 0 )/c)(~x 0 ~x0 [t R(t 0 )/c])
Z
(~x , t)
~ x , t)
A(~
R(t 0 )
(10)
d 3 x 0 (11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
~ t ) (~x ) d 3 x
(
(15)
~
|~x ~x ~x0 (t )|(1 ~n )
which can be evaluated trivially, since the argument of the Dirac delta
function restricts ~x to a single value
"
#
"
#
q
q
(~x , t) =
=
(16)
~ x ~x|
~
(1 ~n )|~
(1 ~n )R
t
t
"
#
"
#
~
~
q
~ x , t) =
A(~
=
(17)
~ x ~x|
~
(1 ~n )|~
(1 ~n )R
t
t
~ x , t) = q
A(~
#
"
#
q
q
=
(~x , t) =
~ x ~x|
~
(1 ~n )|~
(1 ~n )R
t
t
"
#
"
#
q ~
q ~
~ x , t) =
A(~
=
~ x ~x|
~
(1 ~n )|~
(1 ~n )R
"
(18)
(19)
~
Special Note about the shrinkage factor (1 ~n )
Consider a thin cylinder moving
along the x-axis with velocity v .
To calculate the field at x when the
ends of the cylinder are at (x1 , x2 ),
we need to know the location of the
retarded points x1 and x2
v
x1 x1
=
and
x x1
c
x2 x2
v
=
x x2
c
(20)
L
c
=
L
L
1 v /c
(21)
which holds for regular functions g (x) and f (x) of the integration
variable x where xi are the zeros of f (x).
The advantage in pursuing this path is that the derivatives in eqn (22)
can be carried out before the integration over the delta function.
Radiation by Moving Charges
dt
(26)
c t
R(t 0 )
Thus, differentiating the integrand in the first term, we get (HOW?)
Z
~n
~n 0 0
R(t 0 )
R(t 0 )
0
~
E (~x , t) = q
t t +
t t +
dt 0
R2
c
cR
c
Z ~ 0
q
(t )(t 0 t + R(t 0 )/c)
(27)
c t
R(t 0 )
But (HOW?)
R(t 0 )
R(t 0 )
0
0
t t +
= t t +
(28)
c
t
c
Z
Z
~
~n
R(t 0 )
(~n )
R(t 0 )
0
0 q
0
~
E (~x , t) = q
t t +
dt +
t t +
dt
R2
c
c t
cR(t 0 )
c
(29)
0
t
+
= 1 ~n ~
(30)
0
t
dt
c
with which we get the result (HOW?):
(
)
)
(
~n
~n ~
q
~
E (~r , t) = q
+
~ 2
~
c t (1 ~n )R
(1 ~n )R
t
t
(31)
Since
R
=
t
R
t 0
t 0
t
= ~n~v
t 0
t
t 0
t
1
=c 1
=
~
t
t
(1 ~n )
(32)
Thus
~
~n
~
(1 ~n )R
)
t
=
~
(1 ~n ) t
~
~n
~ 2
(1 ~n )R
)
(33)
t
(34)
i
c h
~ ~
~n |t =
~n(~n )
t
R
d
1 ~n ~ = ~n ~ + ~ ~n
t
d t
(35)
(36)
(~n )(1
~
2)
~ 3R 2
(1 ~n )
h
i
~ ~
~n (~n )
~ 3R
c(1 ~n )
(37)
~ shows that
A similar procedure for B
~ r , t) =
~ = ~n(t ) E
~
~ A
B(~
(38)
Some observations
I
We also see a clear separation into the near field (which falls off as
1/R 2 ) and the radiation field (which falls off as 1/R)
I Unless the particle is accelerated ( 6= 0), the field falls off rapidly
at large distances. But when the radiation field is present, it
dominate over the near field far from the source.
I As 1 with = 0 the field displays a bunching effect. This
bunching is understood as being a retardation effect, resulting
from the finite velocity of EM waves.
I
(~
n
)
q
~ =
(39)
E
c
R
ret
(40)
(41)
and if is the angle between the acceleration ~v and ~n then the power
radiated can be written as
dP
q2 2 2
=
|~v | sin
d
4c 3
Radiation by Moving Charges
(42)
Larmor Formula
The total instantaneous power radiated is obtained by integration over
the solid angle. Thus
Z
q2 2
2 q2 2
3
~
P=
|
v
|
2
sin
d
=
|~v |
(43)
4c 3
3 c3
0
This expression is known as the Larmor formula for a nonrelativistic
accelerated charge.
Relativistic Extension
Larmors formula (43) has an easy relativistic extension so that can be
applied to charges with arbitrary velocities
2 e2 2
|~p |
3 m2 c 3
where m is the mass of the charged particle and ~p its momentum.
The Lorentz invariant generalization is
dp dp
2 e2
P=
3 m2 c 3 d d
P=
(44)
(45)
=
2
=
2
(46)
d d
d
c
d
d
d
If (45) is expressed in terms of the velocity & acceleration (E = mc 2 &
~p = m~v with = 1/(1 2 )1/2 ), we obtain the Lienard result (HOW?)
2 e 2 6 ~ 2 ~ ~ 2
P=
(47)
3 c
Radiation by Moving Charges
Applications
In the charged-particle accelerators radiation losses are sometimes
the limiting factor in the maximum practical energy attainable.
For a given applied force the radiated power (45) depends inversely
on the square of the mass of the particle involved. Thus these radiative
effects are largest for electrons.
In a linear accelerator the motion is 1-D. From (46) we can find
that the radiated power is
2
dp
2 e2
(48)
P=
2
3
3m c
dt
The rate of change of momentum is equal to the rate of change of
the energy of the particle per unit distance. Thus
2
2 e2
dE
P=
(49)
3 m2 c 3 dx
showing that for linear motion the power radiated depends only on the
external forces which determine the rate of change of particle energy with
distance, not on the actual energy or momentum of the particle.
Radiation by Moving Charges
2
3
dE /dt
3 m c v dx
3 mc 2 dx
(50)
Which shows that the radiation loss in an electron linear accelerator will
be unimportant unless the gain in energy is of the order of mc 2 = 0.5MeV
in a distance of e 2 /mc 2 = 2.8 1013 cm, or of the order of
2 1014 MeV/meter. Typically radiation losses are completely negligible
in linear accelerators since the gains are less than 50MeV/meter.
? Can you find out what will happen in circular accelerators like
synchrotron or betatron?
In circular accelerators like synchrotron or betatron can change drastically.
In this case the momentum ~p changes rapidly in direction as the particle
rotates, but the change in energy per revolution is small. This means
that:
d~p
= |~p | 1 dE
(51)
d
c d
2 e2 2 2 2
2 e 2c 4 4
|~p | =
2
3
3m c
3 2
(52)
2
4 e 2 3 4
P=
c
3
(53)
[E (GeV)]4
(meters)
(54)
2
~n [(~n )
h
i
2
~
~
e
1
]
~S ~n
=
(55)
4c R 2 (1 ~ ~n)3
ret
ret
n
(1 ~ ~n)
(57)
d
dt 0
Radiation by Moving Charges
If ~ and ~ are nearly constant (e.g. if the particle is accelerated for short
time) then (57) is proportional to the angular distribution of the energy
radiated.
For the Poynting vector (55) the angular distribution is
~ }|
~ 2
e 2 |~n {(~n )
dP(t 0 )
=
~ 5
d
4c
(1 ~n )
(58)
The simplest example is linear motion in which ~ and ~ are parallel i.e.
~ ~ = 0 and (HOW?)
dP(t 0 )
e 2 v 2
sin2
=
d
4c 3 (1 cos )5
(59)
(60)
For relativistic particles, max is very small, thus the angular distribution
is confined to a very narrow cone in the direction of motion.
For small angles the angular distribution (59) can be written
8 e 2 v 2 8 ()2
dP(t 0 )
d
c3
(1 + 2 2 )5
(61)
E
The total power can be obtained by integrating (59) over all angles
2 e2 2 6
v
(63)
3 c3
in agreement with (47) and (48). In other words this is a generalization
of Larmors formula.
It is instructive to express this is terms of the force acting on the
particle.
~ = d~p /dt where ~p = m~v is the particles relativistic
This force is F
momentum. For linear motion in the x-direction we have px = mv and
dpx
= mv + mv 2 3 = mv 3
dt
and Larmors formula can be written as
~ |2
2 e 2 |F
P=
(64)
3
3 c m2
This is the total charge radiated by a charge in instantaneous linear
motion.
P(t 0 ) =
e2
|~v |2
sin2 cos2
dP(t 0 )
=
1 2
(65)
d
4c 3 (1 cos )3
(1 cos )2
Although, the detailed angular distribution is different from the linear
acceleration case the characteristic peaking at forward angles is present.
In the relativistic limit ( 1) the angular distribution can be written
dP(t 0 )
2e 2 6
|~v |2
4 2 2 cos2
(66)
1 2
d
c 3 (1 + 2 2 )3
(1 + 2 2 )2
Radiation by Moving Charges
(67)
P(t 0 ) =
3 c3
Since, for circular motion, the magnitude of the rate of momentum is
equal to the force i.e. m~v we can rewrite (67) as
Pcircular (t 0 ) =
2 e2 2
3 m2 c 3
d~p
dt
2
(68)
(69)
=
v
v
where v is the perpendicular component of the acceleration.
The angular distribution of radiation given by (65) and (66)
corresponds to a narrow cone of radiation directed along the
instantaneous velocity vector of the charge.
The radiation will be visible only when the particles velocity is
directed toward the observer.
Radiation by Moving Charges
t =
in a time
D = c t =
Since the particle is moving in the same direction with speed v and moves
a distance d in time t the rear edge of the pulse will be a distance
1
L=D d =
1
3
(70)
2
behind the front edge as the pulse moves off.
Radiation by Moving Charges
The Fourier decomposition of a finite wave train, we can find that the
spectrum of the radiation will contain appreciable frequency components
up to a critical frequency,
c
c
c
3
(71)
L
(72)
where
c 2 h
i
~
RE
(73)
4
ret
~ is the electric field defined in (37).
and E
Notice that here we will use the observers time instead of the
retarded time since we study the observed spectrum.
The total energy radiated per unit solid angle is the time integral of (72):
Z
dW
2
~
=
|A(t)|
dt
(74)
d
~
A(t)
=
This can be expressed via the Fourier transforms as an integral over the
frequency.
Radiation by Moving Charges
it
~
A(t)e
dt
(75)
Z
1
it
~
~
A(t) =
A()e
d
2
Then eqn (74) can be written
Z
Z
Z
1
dW
i( 0 )t
~ ( 0 ) A()e
~
=
dt
d
d 0 A
d
2
(76)
(77)
The energy radiated per unit solid angle per unit frequency interval is
Z 2
d I (, ~n)
dW
=
d
(79)
d
dd
0
where
d 2I
2
2
~
~
= |A()|
+ |A()|
(80)
dd
~
~
~ (). Then
If A(t)
is real, form (75) - (76) it is evident that A()
=A
d 2I
2
~
= 2|A()|
dd
(81)
h
i
~ ~
~
n
(~
n
)
~
~n
~ (~r , t) = e
+
(82)
E
~ 3R 2
~ 3R
c(1 ~n )
2 (1 ~n )
ret
By using (82) we will try to derive a general expression for the energy
radiated per unit solid angle per unit frequency interval in terms of an
integral over the trajectory of the particle.
We must calculate the Fourier transform of (73) by using (82)
"
#
2 1/2 Z
~ ]
~
e
n [(~n )
it ~
~
A() =
e
dt
(83)
8 2 c
(1 ~ ~n)3
ret
where ret means evaluated at t = t 0 + R(t 0 )/c. By changing the
integration variable from t to t 0 we get
~
A()
=
e2
8 2 c
1/2 Z
e i(t
n
+[R(t 0 )/c]) ~
~ ]
~
[(~n )
dt 0
2
~
(1 ~n)
(84)
e2
8 2 c
1/2 Z
e i(t~n~r (t)/c)
~ ]
~
~n [(~n )
dt
(1 ~ ~n)2
(86)
and the energy radiated per unit solid angle per unit frequency interval
(81) is
e 2 2
d 2I
=
dd
4 2 c
Z
2
~ ]
~
n [(~n )
i(t~n~r (t)/c) ~
dt
e
~ ~n)2
(1
(87)
~
~
For a specified motion ~r (t) is known, (t)
and (t)
can be computed,
and the integral can be evaluated as a function of and the direction of
~n.
If we study more than one accelerated charged particles, a coherent sum
~ j () (one for each particle) must replace must replace the
of amplitudes A
single amplitude in (87).
(88)
[~
n
2
3
dd
4 c
a result that can be obtained from the direct solution of the
inhomogeneous wave equation for the vector potential.
(92)
Synchrotrons
Synchrotrons are particle accelerators - massive (roughly circular)
machines built to accelerate sub-atomic particles to almost the speed of
light.
The accelerator components
include an electron gun, one or
more injector accelerators (usually
a linear accelerator and a
synchrotron but sometimes just a
large linear accelerator) to increase
the energy of the electrons, and a
storage ring where the electrons
circulate for many hours.
In the storage ring, magnets force
the electrons into circular paths.
Figure: Components of a synchrotron
As the electron path bends, light
light source typically include (1) an
is emitted tangentially to the curved
electron gun, (2) a linear accelerator,
path and streams down pipes called
(3) a booster synchrotron, (4) a
beamlines to the instruments where
storage ring, (5) beamlines, and (6)
scientists conduct their experiments.
experiment stations.
Radiation by Moving Charges
Synchrotrons
The storage ring is specifically
designed to include special magnetic
structures known as insertion
devices (undulators and wigglers).
Insertion devices generate specially
shaped magnetic fields that drive
electrons into an oscillating
trajectory for linearly polarized light
or sometimes a spiral trajectory for
circularly polarized light.
Each bend acts like a source
radiating along the axis of the
insertion device, hence the light is
very intense and in some cases takes
on near-laser-like brightness.
Synchrotrons
Synchrotron Radiation
To find the distribution of energy in
frequency and in angle it is necessary to
calculate the integral (89)
Because the duration of the pulse is
very short, it is necessary to know the
velocity ~ and the position ~r (t) over
only a small arc of the trajectory.
The origin of time is chosen so that at
t = 0 the particle is at the origin of
coordinates.
Notice tht only for very small angles
there will be appreciable radiation
intensity.
(93)
vt
= t sin
cos
(94)
t
c
c
Since we are dealing with small angle and very short time intervals
we can make an expansion to both trigonometric functions to obtain
~n ~r (t)
1
c2 3
2
t
t
+
t
(95)
c
2
2
32
where was set to unity wherever possible.
CHECK THE ABOVE RELATIONS
Radiation by Moving Charges
1
c 2t 3
c
2
t exp i
+ t +
dt
Ak ()
2
2
32
Z
1
c 2t 3
2
A ()
exp i
+
t
+
dt
2
2
32
(96)
(97)
(98)
(1/ 2
ct
+ 2 )1/2
=
3c
1
+ 2
2
3/2
(99)
Ak ()
A ()
Z
1
1 3
3
2
x
+
x
dx (100)
+
x
exp
i
2
2
3
1/2 Z
1
1 3
3
2
x
+
x
dx(101)
+
exp
i
c
2
2
3
2 mc 2
3
with harmonic number nc =
2
E
mc 2
3
(107)
4
c
For c
3 e 2 2 /c
d 2I
|=0
e
(109)
dd
4 c
c
These limiting cases show that the spectrum at = 0 increases with
frequency roughly as 2/3 well bellow the critical frequency, reaches a
maximum in the neighborhood of c , and then drops exponentially to 0
above that frequency.
The spread in angle at a fixed frequency can be estimated by
determining the angle c at which (c ) (0) + 1.
In the low frequency range ( c ), (0) 0 so (c ) 1 which
gives
1/3
1/3
3c
1 2c
c
=
(110)
We note that the low frequency components are emitted at much wider
angles than the average, h2 i1/2 1 .
Radiation by Moving Charges
|=0 e 3 /20
dd
dd
(111)
2c
3
1/2
(112)
/2
/2
d 2I
cos d 2
dd
d 2I
d
dd
(113)
e /c
(115)
d
2 c
c
(116)
Pn
2
c
2
1 c
2
1
2
d 2I
|=n0
dd
(117)
dI
|=n0
d
(118)
(119)
~ = qE
~ ) the acceleration will be
Then from the force eqn (F
e
~
~v (t) = ~0 E0 e i k0 ~x it
(120)
m
If we assume that the charge moves a negligible part of a wavelegth
during one cycle of oscillation, the time average of |v |2 is 21 <(v v )
Then the averaged power per unit solid angle can be expressed as
2 2
dP
c
e
h
i=
|E0 |2
|~ ~0 |2
(121)
d
8
mc 2
And since the phenomenon is practically scattering then it is convenient
to used the scattering cross section as
Energy radiated/unit time/unit solid angle
d
=
d
Incident energy flux in energy/unit area/unit time
(122)
The incident energy flux is the time averaging Poynting vector for the
plane wave i.e. c|E0 |2 /8. Thus from eqn (121) we get the differential
scattering cross section
2 2
d
e
|~ ~0 |2
(123)
=
d
mc 2
Radiation by Moving Charges
The total scattering cross section called the Thomson cross section
2 2
e
8
T =
(125)
3 mc 2
The Thomson cross section for electrons is 0.665 1024 cm2 . The unit
of length e 2 /mc 2 = 2.82 1013 cm is called classical electron radius.
This classical Thomson formula is valid only for low frequencies where
the momentum of the incident photon can be ignored.
When the photon momentum ~/c becomes comparable to or larger
than mc modifications occur.
The most important is that the energy or momentum of the scattered
photon is less than the incident energy because the charged particle
recoils during the collision.
The outgoing to the incident wave number is given by Compton formula
1
~
0
(1 cos )
(126)
k /k = 1 +
mc 2
In quantum mechanics the scattering of photons by spinless point
particles of charge e and mass m yields the cross section:
2 2 0 2
e
k
d
=
|~ ~0 |2
(127)
d
mc 2
k
Radiation by Moving Charges