i

ADVOCACY OF WOMEN PARLIAMENTARIANS AND EMPOWERMENT

OF WOMEN IN RURAL HOUSEHOLDS
THE CASE STUDY OF GISAGARA DISTRICT (2008-2013)

By

NKURUNZIZA Bonaventure

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters degree in
Development Studies

Kigali Independent University ULK

November 2014

ii

Declaration
I, NKURUNZIZA Bonaventure, do hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and I have
acknowledged sources which I have used. It has not been submitted previously for any degree or
examination at any university.
Signature: .................................
NKURUNZIZA Bonaventure
Date: ..

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Supervisors approval:
Dr. GAHUTU Pascal

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Dedication
This masters thesis is dedicated to my beloved wife Christine NYIRAMALIZA, my parents, my
brothers and sisters, my relatives, and my friends. It is also dedicated to Olga Gerdsmeyer,
Manuel Gerdsmeyer and other Germany friends who greatly supported me during my studies. It
is finally dedicated to all people who believe that women empowerment is the linchpin of
development goals.

Acknowledgement
I am deeply indebted to many people for their significant contribution to this research. Although
only a few are mentioned, the contribution of all is acknowledged. First and foremost, I would
like to thank Prof. RWIGAMBA BALINDA, the founder and president of ULK, for having
established the masters program in Development Studies.
Second, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Pascal GAHUTU who supervised
this thesis. His insights, advice and encouragement guided me towards successful completion of
this research. Third, my thanks are due to all lecturers in the Master of Development Studies at
ULK for the knowledge and skills they provided.
Fourth, I thank fellow students with whom we shared ideas during course works. The
information and assistance provided by citizens and local authorities in SAVE sector was very
invaluable to this research. A special note goes to Samson NTIYAMIRA for his heartfelt and
sincere cooperation. It is worth recognizing their immense contribution. I am particularly grateful
to Olga Gerdsmeyer and Manuel Gerdsmeyer and other Germany friends for their huge
sponsorship. My thanks also go to my colleague Evariste MANIRAKIZA for his highly
informative assistance.
Last but not least, I am most grateful to my wife Christine NYIRAMALIZA. She deserves
special and deep gratitude for her continuous assistance and encouragement all along my
masters studies and this research in particular.

NKURUNZIZA Bonaventure
November 2014

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Table of Contents
Declaration................................................................................................................................................... ii
Supervisors approval: .............................................................................................................................. iii
Dedication ................................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................................................... v
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. ix
Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................................................................................... x
Abstract....................................................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ............................................................................... 1
1.1

Background to the study................................................................................................................. 1

1.2

Problem statement .......................................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Research objectives ............................................................................................................................... 3

1.3.1 General objective........................................................................................................................ 3
1.3.2 Specific objectives ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.4

Research Questions ......................................................................................................................... 4

1.5

Scope of the study............................................................................................................................ 4

1.6

Significance of the study ................................................................................................................. 5

1.7

Structure of the thesis ..................................................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 6

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Definition of concepts ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Womens empowerment .................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Forms of power ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.2.3 Womens empowerment in households .................................................................................... 7
2.3 Critical Mass Theory and womens political representation ............................................................ 8
2.4 Dimensions and indicators of womens empowerment...................................................................... 9
2.4.1 Womens social empowerment ....................................................................................................... 11
. . Wo e s e o o i e power e t .......................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Womens political empowerment as a precondition for advancement in other areas ....... 11
2.5 Major achievements of Rwanda in the promotion of gender equality and empowerment of
women ........................................................................................................................................................ 12

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2.5.1 Constitutional and legal guarantees of womens rights ........................................................ 12
. . Pro otio a d prote tio of wo e s rights ........................................................................... 12
. . Progra s addressi g key halle ges to wo e s e power e t ............................................ 13
2.6 Related case studies............................................................................................................................. 13
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 16
3.1 Research Design .................................................................................................................................. 16
3.2 The population of the study................................................................................................................ 16
3.3 Study area description ........................................................................................................................ 17
3.4 Sampling .............................................................................................................................................. 17
3.5 Data Collection techniques and tools ................................................................................................ 19
3.5.1 Secondary data ......................................................................................................................... 19
3.5.2 Primary data ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.5.2.1 Quantitative data collection ................................................................................................. 20
3.5.2.2 Qualitative data collection ...................................................................................................... 20
3.6 Data processing and (methods of data) analysis .............................................................................. 21
3.7 Limitations/delimitations.................................................................................................................... 21
3.8 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH
FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................................. 23
4.1 Respondents profile ........................................................................................................................... 23
4.2 What women parliamentarians in Rwanda did as regards womens empowerment ................... 28
4.3 Womens social empowerment .......................................................................................................... 29
4.3.1 Freedom from violence ............................................................................................................ 30
4.3.1.1. Prevalence of domestic violence (physical, psychological or sexual) ............................... 30
4.3.1.2 Changes in attitudes to domestic violence for women as well as men .................................. 32
4.3.2 Education of girls ..................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.2.1 Views about the relevance of girls education and the value placed on girls ................... 35
4.3.2.2 Enrollment of girls in different levels of education and school dropouts ........................ 36
4.3.3 Improvement in nutrition........................................................................................................ 38
4.3.4 Healthcare ................................................................................................................................. 40
4.3.5 Improvement in literacy among women ................................................................................ 42
4.3.6 Extent to which women participate in household decision making .......................................... 43

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4.3.6.1 Decisions on how to spend money ......................................................................................... 44
4.3.6.2 The level of participation of women in decision making over other key household decisions
............................................................................................................................................................ 44
4.4 Womens economic empowerment .................................................................................................... 46
4.4.1 Enhanced decision-making power and rights over land ............................................................ 46
4.4.2 Control over income .................................................................................................................. 48
4.4.2.1 Womens freedom to dispose of their own income/earnings ............................................. 49
. . . Wo e s de isio

aki g power o the i o e fro

the sales or other earnings.............. 51

4.4.3 Access to and control of family resources ................................................................................. 52

. . Wo e s e o o i

o tri utio to household welfare ........................................................... 54

4.4.5 Skills development/training ....................................................................................................... 56

4.4.6 Access of women and men to financial institutions (Bank/MFI) ............................................... 57
4.5 Identified opportunities and challenges to womens social and economic empowerment............ 59
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................... 61
5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 61
5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................... 67
5.3 Suggested areas for further research ................................................................................................ 69
References .................................................................................................................................................. 70
Appendices ................................................................................................................................................. 75

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List of Tables
Table 1: Proposed framework of dimensions and indicators of womens empowerment ............. 9
Table 2: Sector, cells, villages names, population and samples .................................................. 19
Table 3: Respondents age ............................................................................................................ 23
Table 4: Length of marriage, type of marriage and type of matrimonial regime ......................... 24
Table 5: Household monthly income, water from a safe and non distant source ......................... 26
Table 6:Prevalence of forms of violence in rural households....................................................... 33
Table 7: Women and mens views on husbands justification for beating his wife ..................... 30
Table 8: Number of children (both girls and boys) in the households.......................................... 34
Table 9: Respondents who agree that education is more relevant for boys than girls ................. 35
Table 10: Households with girls enrolled in different levels of education and school dropouts .. 36
Table 11: The number of meals a household is able to take a day and......................................... 38
Table 12: Households sleeping under mosquito bed nets and ...................................................... 40
Table 13: Women and men who are able to read and write and those who are not ..................... 42
Table 14: Womens participation in decisions on how to spend money ...................................... 44
Table 15: The level of participation of women in decision making over other key household .... 45
Table 16: The extent of womens secured access and equal decision making over land and ...... 47
Table 17: The level of womens freedom to dispose of their own income................................... 49
Table 18: The level of womens decision making power on the income from the sales .............. 51
Table 19: Women owning resources in their households ............................................................. 52
Table 20: Types of employment that help women generate and increase income in households 54
Table 21: Women and men who are skilled in different activities ............................................... 56
Table 22: Access of women and men to financial institutions (Bank/MFI) ................................. 58

Abbreviations and Acronyms

BDPfA
CEDAW

Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action

Convention for the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women

DCEBR

Danish Centre for Economic and Business Research

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

MFI

Micro Finance Institution

MINECOFIN Ministry Of Finance

MPs

Members of Parliaments

IRDP

Institute of Research and Dialogue for Peace

RWAMREC

Rwandas men Resource Center

SACCO

Saving and Credit Cooperative

UNICEF

United Nations Childrens Fund

UNWOMEN

United Nations for Women

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

VSO

Voluntary Services Overseas

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Abstract
This study was carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of the high representation of women in
the parliament in advocating for gender sensitive laws and lobbing for policies and programs
able to socially and economically empower women in poor rural households in Rwanda. It also
analyzed the extent to which the laws, policies and programs have served to provide women in
poor rural households in Rwanda with social and economic power. The study was constructed
upon the critical mass theory.
Data were collected from twelve villages of the five cells of SAVE sector in GISAGARA
district. SAVE sector was randomly selected from the list of seven poor sectors appearing on the
list of VIUP. The population was made up of 1736 households. Data were collected from 176
sampled households using the questionnaire. In addition, some local leaders and women
members of the National Womens Council were selected for the interview.
The findings revealed that the high representation of women in the parliament was effective in
advocating for gender sensitive laws and lobbing for policies and programs able to socially and
economically empower women in poor rural households in Rwanda. The findings also revealed
that the laws, policies and programs have socially and economically empowered women in poor
rural households to a satisfactory extent.
Therefore, it was suggested that more sensitization on womens rights, continuous promotion of
gender sensitive laws, continuous advocacy for policies and programs and their implementation
with much focus on poor rural households would advance the level of womens empowerment.
Finally, this study consists of five chapters: the introduction, literature review, research
methodology, analysis and interpretation of research findings, and lastly conclusion,
recommendations and suggested areas for further research.
Keywords:

Advocacy,

parliamentarians,

womens

empowerment,

rural,

household.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.1 Background to the study
Beginning in 2008, Rwanda accelerated implementation of Vision 2020, which aims for the
country to achieve middle-income status by 2020 while maintaining its strong commitment to
attaining the Millennium Development Goals (UNICEF, 2013). The Millennium Development
Goal (MDG) 3 aims to promote gender equality and empower women. Of the three targets set for
this goal, one relates to political empowerment of women as measured by the proportion of seats
held by women in national parliaments (Vetten, Makhunga, and Leisegang, 2012).
Vetten, Makhunga, and Leisegang, (2012) opine that this target is a global recognition that there
is a close relationship between womens political voice and policymaking capacities and gender
equality outcomes. The United Nations Development Group (2010) proclaims that Rwanda was
the first country in the world to elect more women parliamentarians than men in 2008, and then
had the highest number of female parliamentarians in the world at 56.3 per cent.
The aim of this study was to assess the significant correlation between womens political
representation and outcomes, outcomes in terms of its effectiveness in providing women with
social and economic power. How significantly did it influence their social and economic position
in their households? While more effort has been made to empower women in Rwanda, did
representation of women in the parliament (2008-2013) necessarily translate well to the social
and economic needs and aspirations of Rwandan women at the household level?
The theory upon which the study was constructed is not new. There may be many theories
underlying womens political representation; one theory within which the research problem was
investigated is the critical mass theory. It stipulates that legislatures with high proportions of
women introduce and pass more bills on womens issues than their female counterparts in lowrepresentation legislatures. In other words, as the number of women increases, the number and
rate of enactment of such bills also increases (Bratton 2005 as cited in Childs and Krook, 2008).
Oxaal and Baden (1997) emphasize the centrality of womens political empowerment to other
areas. They stress that one important approach to supporting womens empowerment is the
promotion of the participation of women in formal politics.

Lopez-Claros and Zahidi (2005) affirm that the absence of women from structures of governance
inevitably means that national, regional and local priorities (i.e. how resources are allocated) are
typically defined without meaningful input from women, whose life experience gives them a
different awareness of the communitys needs, concerns and interests from that of men. Lastly,
Dahlerup (2005) insists that political representation cannot stand alone; it must be complemented
with necessary socio-economic changes in society at large.
Bayisenge (2010) asserts that in order to be empowered, women have to have a say in
institutions where decisions are taken. As stated by Hassim (2013), the more women enter
parliaments, the more legislation there is that addresses gender inequalities and womens needs.
Finally, according to UNDP (2011) fair political representation and participation enable women
to lobby for more female-specific poverty reduction policies and programs.
GISAGARA district was chosen as the area of the study due to the fact that the Rwanda
household survey (EICV 3) on poverty and extreme poverty ranked the Southern province the
first with the highest level of poverty in 2010/11 (56.5%) and extreme poverty (31.1%)
compared to Kigali city, for example, with 16.8% of the poor and 7.8% of the poorest
(MINECOFIN, 2013). Furthermore, the Southern Province has been reported to have the poorest
districts in the country (Gisagara and Nyaruguru) and also with the second highest prevalence of
GBV in Nyamagabe and Gisagara districts (CARE Rwanda, CNF, and ARBEF 2008).
1.2 Problem statement
The International Development Association (IDA, 2012) states that in many developing
countries women lack a voice in their households, communities, and governments, as well as
access to resources. IDA (2012) asserts that increasing womens economic opportunities and
participation such as through access to land, financial services and other resources can promote
womens status and help their countries reduce poverty and develop faster.
In Rwanda, according to the African Development Bank Group/ADBG (2008), women
accounted for 55.2% of the economically active population in 2008. Despite progress in gender
equality and womens empowerment, women continued to face serious challenges of poverty.
Around 5.2 million women lived in poverty and 3.6 million of them in extreme poverty (ADBG,
2008).

The magnitude of the problem lies in the fact that, according to MIGEPROF (2010), women are
more affected by poverty than their male counterparts. For example, the low levels of literacy for
women discouraged them from competing with their male counterparts and participating in
household decision-making processes. Gender-based violence among women and girls was an
area of serious concern; in 2010, at least 56 per cent of women aged 15 to 49 had experienced
physical or sexual violence. Other challenges include lower levels of income, limited skills for
women to take technical jobs that are paying, limited capacities and skills for women to invest in
business oriented activities, limited access to financial services, and others (MIGEPROF, 2010).
Hence, the study sought to assess the effectiveness of womens higher representation in
parliament (2008-2013 Mandate) in attending to these serious challenges of poverty especially in
male headed households in rural areas. Aside from the increasing number of representation, how
effective this was in terms of policy development and implementation that really affect the
distribution of social and economic power suitable for poor households in rural areas?
This study limited itself to women's empowerment at the household level by focusing on male
headed households due to the centrality of these types of households in gender relations. Poor
rural households were chosen owing to the fact that poverty incidence was much higher in rural
areas than in urban areas in 2006 , 66 percent incidence in rural areas compared to 11 percent in
Kigali and 18 percent in other cities (ADBG, 2008).
1.3 Research objectives
1.3.1 General objective
The overall objective of this study was to assess the significance of womens high representation
in the parliament (the lower house) in poor rural households in Rwanda.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
The overall objective was achieved by specifically looking at the following objectives:
1. To evaluate the effectiveness of the high representation of women in the parliament in
advocating for gender sensitive laws and lobbing for policies and programs able to
socially and economically empower women in poor rural households in Rwanda;
2. To analyze the extent to which the laws, policies and programs have served to provide
women in poor rural households in Rwanda with social and economic power;

1.4 Research Questions

The present study had the following research questions.
1. What is the significance of womens high representation in the lower house of parliament

in poor rural households in Rwanda?

2. Has womens higher representation in the lower house of parliament been effective in

enabling women to advocate for gender sensitive laws and lobby for policies and
programs able to socially and economically empower women in poor rural households in
Rwanda?
3. To what extent the laws, policies and programs have served to provide women in poor

rural households in Rwanda with social and economic power?

1.5 Scope of the study
This study was carried out in GISAGARA district, in the southern province. Since it was not
feasible to be done in all sectors, one sector, SAVE, was selected among the thirteen sectors
respectively in highly rural areas. Also, due to the fact that many households in rural areas were
reported to be below the poverty line (ADBG, 2008); the study area was confined to households
in rural areas. Again, since conducting the study on all households in the study area was not
feasible, I made use of Kotharis sampling formula (see the methodology chapter) to determine
the sample.
This study was conceptualized considering basically social and economic dimensions of
womens empowerment at the household level. The framework of dimensions and indicators of
womens empowerment suggested by Malhotra, Schuler, and Boender (2002) served as a guide
in assessing the effects of womens political representation in the parliament on the social and
economic status of women in poor rural households. To this end, the study covered advocacy of
women parliamentarians in the second mandate 2008-2013.
In this regard, the social dimension measured indicators such as freedom from violence,
education of girls, improvement in nutrition and healthcare, improvement of literacy among
women, and the extent to which women participate in household decision making. The economic
dimension measured the following indicators: enhanced decision-making power and rights over
land and assets, control over income, access to and control of family resources, economic
contribution to household welfare, skills development, and access of women and men to
financial institutions.

1.6 Significance of the study

This study was framed around the significance of the higher representation of women in the
parliament in poor rural households in Rwanda. A number of writers wrote about the
achievements under the MDG3 in terms of the increased number of women in parliament
(quantity of women representatives); it is the case in Rwanda where women held up 56.25% of
the seats in the lower house of the parliament in the 2008-2013 Mandate. There might not be
many studies in the area of the outcomes (quality of women representatives) even the effects of
representation of women on social and economic transformation of the rest of the society, more
particularly on poor rural households where many fall below the poverty line.
The study will be an academic contribution to the increasing of awareness of the relevance of
womens high representation in parliament. The value of the findings to society lies in the fact
that they will reveal the extent to which having a higher number of women in parliament can
help women in poor rural households gain enhanced social and economic power to help them
reduce poverty in their households. Finally, policymakers will take a good opportunity to
strengthen areas that are successful and correct areas which are proved futile.
1.7 Structure of the thesis
The present study consists of five chapters. The first one is concerned with the introduction to
the study which embraces background to the study, problem statement, research objectives,
research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and structure of the thesis. The
second chapter deals with the literature review. It includes a short introduction on the coverage
of this chapter, conceptual and theoretical perspectives and related case studies.
The third chapter deals with research methodology. It shows the methods and approaches used to
obtain data and information from the field. Its subchapters are research design, the population of
the study, sampling, data collection techniques and tools, data processing, methods of data
analysis, limitations/delimitations, and ethical considerations. The fourth one is about research
findings where they are presented, analyzed, and interpreted in respect to each study objective.
Finally, chapter five is composed of conclusion, recommendations and suggested areas for
further research.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This chapter aims to review and analyze theories and terms related to womens empowerment.
Much emphasis is on womens political empowerment and its effectiveness. These theories
helped determine the significance of high representation of women in parliament in Rwandan
households. Case studies related to the numbers of women in parliament were reviewed in order
to specify areas that this study focused on. This was done with an objective to have a sound
grasp of the field of the study.
2.2 Definition of concepts
2.2.1 Womens empowerment
According to Suguna (2006), the concept of womens empowerment is the outcome of several
important critiques and debates generated by the womens movements throughout the world,
particularly by the third world feminists. Its source can be traced from the interaction between
feminism and the concept of Popular Education developed in Latin America in the 1970s
(Walters, 1991 as cited in Suguna, 2006). Suguna (2006) affirms that the empowerment
approach was first clearly articulated in 1985 by Development Alternatives with Women for a
New Era (DAWN).
Lownes-Jackson and Guy (2012) put that in particular, the notion of womens empowerment
refers to providing equal access to women for the use and accumulation of economic
endowment, market participation, a voice in society, and ultimately shaping desired outcomes.
By granting rights, power, and resources, women are able to accumulate human capital, in terms
of both health and education.
With that at hand, argue Lownes-Jackson and Guy (2012), guaranteeing access to markets allows
them to have an active economic life, which in turn enhances their influence within the
household and in society at large. According to Bhuyan (2006), women empowerment is the
process by which women negotiate a more equitable distribution of power, a greater space in the
initial decision making process in the home, in the community, and in economic and political
life.
Finally, empowerment of women means many things to Bhasin (1992). It means recognizing
womens contribution, womens knowledge; helping women fight their own fears, and feelings

of inadequacy and inferiority. It also means women enhancing their self respect and self dignity,
women controlling their own bodies, women becoming economically independent and self
reliant, women controlling resources like land and property; reducing womens burden of work,
specially within the home, creating and strengthening womens groups and organizations
(Bhasin, 1992 as cited in Sahay 1998).
2.2.2 Forms of power
Rowlands (1997) emphasizes that in order to understand the process of empowerment; we need
to be aware that power can take many different forms:

Power over: controlling power which may be responded to with compliance, resistance
(which weakens the process of victimization) or manipulation.

Power to: generative or productive power (sometimes incorporating or manifesting as

forms of resistance or manipulation) which creates new possibilities and actions without
domination.

Power with: a sense of the whole being greater than the sum of the individuals,
especially when a group tackles problems together

Power from within: the spiritual strength and uniqueness that reside in each one of us
and make us truly human. Its basis is self acceptance and self respect which extend, in
turn, to respect for and acceptance of others as equals.

Reeves and Baden (2000) contend that womens empowerment does not imply women taking
over control previously held by men, but rather the need to transform the nature of power
relations. They put that power may be understood as power within, or self confidence, power
with, or the capacity to organize with others towards a common purpose and the power to
effect change and take decisions, rather than power over others.
2.2.3 Womens empowerment in households
Vuuren (2003) puts that scientific research on Africa often considers the household as the basic
unit of social analysis. Vuuren goes on to argue that most studies regard the household as a
socio-economic unit, which is involved in certain household activities (production,
consumption, reproduction and socialization) in order to survive. He understands household as a
social unit, its basic elements being the persons living together within it.

Household headship is of paramount importance in dealing with womens power within

households. As noted by Momsen (2004), it is usually assumed that the household head is male
and that he allocates household labor and organizes the distribution of consumption goods
among household members so that all benefit and participate equally. Clearly, Momsen
continues to argue, this is not always so and much depend on gender relations and power within
the household.
Reeves and Baden (2000) put that there is some evidence that women spend a higher percentage
of their generally smaller incomes on family consumption and childrens welfare. It seems more
reasonable, Ostergaard (1992) continues to argue, that women accept low wages because they
bear final responsibility for the welfare of their families and need to augment family incomes in
order to alleviate the poverty of their households. Still on the point of the role of women in
shaping households, Christabell (2009) puts that womens earnings increase the aggregate
income levels of poor households.
As stated by Reeves and Baden (2000), certain theorists suggest that womens bargaining
position within the household is enhanced when they work outside the home. However, Burnell,
Rakner and Randall (2014) put that women provide extensive unpaid labor in households, from
food cultivation and preparation, to caring for family members, especially children. They
conclude that in many parts of Asia and Africa women invest considerable time to grow and
process food, cook and feed family members, haul water, and gather firewood.
Unfortunately, the Danish Centre for Economic and Business Research (2008) argues, the
activities undertaken by women in the almost invisible care economy imply that women
contribute less to household funds and/or are time poor. This constrains womens access to and
control over household resources. Even in the case where women contribute to overall household
income (by working on the family farm or outside the household) they may not have control over
a proportional fair share of total household resources.
2.3 Critical Mass Theory and womens political representation
According to Childs and Krook (2008), the debate on critical mass in women and politics
research can be traced back to three seminal works, two by Kanter (1977a; 1977b) and one by
Dahlerup (1988), which, respectively, analyze the experiences of women who form small

minorities in the corporate and political spheres. Although both authors are concerned primarily
with how women respond to dynamics of marginalization in minority situations, each concludes
with some speculations as to how these experiences will change as the number of women
increases.
As stated by Childs and Krook (2008), only as their numbers increase will women be able to
work more effectively together to promote women-friendly policy change and to influence their
male colleagues to accept and approve legislation promoting womens concerns. Grey (2001)
argues that Critical mass is an idea that has moved from sociology to political science and into
popular usage over the last 30 years. In political science literature, the concept of critical mass
infers that the election of an adequate number of female politicians will result in governance
more responsive to women (Grey, 2001).
2.4 Dimensions and indicators of womens empowerment
Different authors wrote about dimensions and indicators of womens empowerment with
different perspectives. In order to build on the strengths of the existing literature, Malhotra and
Schulers (2002, 2005) decided to develop a comprehensive framework of domains or
dimensions that can be applied across settings and contexts, and used as a reference point in
developing context-specific indicators.

The table below shows the first attempt they made at

this by drawing on the frameworks developed by various authors in order to propose potential
indicators within each dimension and at different levels of aggregation.
Table 1: Proposed framework of dimensions and indicators of womens empowerment
Dimension

Household

Community

Broader arenas

Economic

Control over income;

ownership of assets and
land;
relative contribution to
family support, access to
and control of family
resources

Access to employment,
access
to
credit,
involvement
and
representation in local
associations, access to
markets

Representation in
high paying jobs,
number of women
CEOs,
representation
of
womens economic
interests
in
macroeconomic
policies and budgets

10

and Freedom of movement,

lack of discrimination
against women and
girls, education of girls,
participation in domestic
decision making, control
over sexual relations,
contraception, time of
marriage,
spouse
selection, freedom from
violence

Access to and visibility

in social spaces, social
networks,
shift
in
patriarchal norms, greater
value and autonomy for
women, local campaigns
against domestic violence

Literacy and greater

access to a broad
range of education
options,
positive
media images of
women,
regional
and national trends
favoring women in
things like age of
marriage, political,
legal and religious
support for such
shifts,
health
systems providing
easy
access
to
contraception,
reproductive health
services

Legal

Knowledge of legal
rights and mechanisms,
familial support for
exercising rights

Community mobilization
for rights, campaigns for
rights awareness, access
to legal mechanisms,
effective
local
enforcement of rights

Laws
supporting
womens
rights,
access to resources
and
options,
advocacy for rights
and legislation, use
of judicial system to
redress
rights
violation

Political

Knowledge of political
system and means to
access
it,
familial
support for political
engagement, ability to
exercise right to vote

Involvement
or
mobilization in political
systems
/campaigns,
support
for
specific
candidates /legislation,
representation in local
government

Representation in
regional and local
government,
strength as a voting
bloc, representation
of women interests
in effective lobbies
and interest groups

Psychological

Self
esteem,
self Collective awareness of Collective
efficacy, psychological injustice, potential for expression
of
well-being
mobilization
inclusion
and
entitlement,
systemic acceptance
of
womens
entitlement
and
inclusion

Social
Cultural

Source: (Malhotra and Schulers 2002, 2005)

11

2.4.1 Womens social empowerment

The report of the Danish Centre for Economic and Business Research (2008) connects the social
empowerment with legal empowerment. The center states that the social empowerment refers to
womens roles as social actors in the community and in the household. According to Action Aid
(2008 as cited in Kilonzo and Magak 2014), womens social empowerment brings about social
inclusion.
Social inclusion is the removal of institutional barriers and the enhancement of incentives to
increase the access of diverse individuals and groups to development opportunities. It requires a
shift from an institutional environment that gives some individuals and groups more opportunity
to realize their agency than others to one group where the political system and the rules of law
support equal agency for all (Action Aid, 2008 cited in Kilonzo and Magak 2014).
Kilonzo and Magak (2014) assert that while gender is a widespread basis of social
discrimination, the intersection of gender inequality and economic deprivation means that
women from poor households represent a particular category of the multiply disadvantaged.
They add that often, although not always, women and girls are at a disadvantage to men and boys
in relation to literacy, education, earnings and employment while in some parts of the world it
also extends to physical wellbeing and life expectancy.
2.4.2 Womens economic empowerment
Sida defines womens economic empowerment as the process which increases womens real
power over economic decisions that influence their lives and priorities in society. Womens
economic empowerment can be achieved through equal access to and control over critical
economic resources and opportunities, and the elimination of structural gender inequalities in the
labor market, including a better sharing of unpaid care work (Trnqvist and Schmitz, 2009).
Lownes-Jackson and Guy (2012) states that womens economic empowerment involves the
ability of women to engage in income-generating activities that will lead to financial
independence.
2.4.3 Womens political empowerment as a precondition for advancement in other areas
Haynes (2008) puts that poverty remains a global problem of huge proportions. He adds that it is
evident in poor peoples lack of political power and voice and in their extreme vulnerability to ill

12

health, economic dislocation, personal violence, and natural disasters. Haynes puts women in the
category of those traditionally lacking political influence. Lindsey (1990) argues that inequality
between the sexes persists because the power base women possess is more circumscribed than
that of men. Finally, Lindsey ascertains that restrictions in terms of political power and legal
authority are at the core of inequality.
In its study on Economic Empowerment of Women, the Danish Centre for Economic and
Business Research (2008) includes womens political empowerment as a key aspect of
empowerment. Political empowerment is defined by the center as increasing the participation of
women in legislative assemblies, their decision power in these assemblies, the ability of women
to publicly voice their opinions and to affect the composition of legislative assemblies. LownesJackson and Guy (2012) state that womens political empowerment entails the ability to analyze
situations politically so as to facilitate social change.
2.5 Major achievements of Rwanda in the promotion of gender equality and empowerment
of women
The UN Women (2011) argues that empowering women is a strategy for successful development
in Rwanda. As noted by UNICEF (2013), Rwanda has registered notable progress in the area of
gender empowerment. One area that stands out is the high representation of women in
Parliament: 56.25 per cent (in the second mandate 2008-2013). Key achievements are
highlighted in the following paragraphs.
2.5.1 Constitutional and legal guarantees of womens rights
The constitutional foundation has led to major reforms in the legal and justice sectors. Gendersensitive laws have been passed and discriminatory laws revised. They include Law no.59/2008
on the Prevention and Punishment of Gender-Based Violence (GBV), Law no 27/2001 on the
Rights and Protection of Child against Violence, Land Law no.08/2005, Labor Law (2009), the
law on Matrimonial Regimes, Liberalities and Successions, and the Revised Organic Budget
Law no. 12/2013, and others (UN Women, 2014).
2.5.2 Promotion and protection of womens rights
Womens rights have been codified in the Rwandan legal system by revising existing laws and
promulgating new ones. These are among the major achievements in this area: unprecedented

13

participation of women in all spheres of development, increased womens economic and social
rights, and protection against GBV (UN Women, 2014).
2.5.3 Programs addressing key challenges to womens empowerment
According to MIGEPROF (2009), poverty, limited skills and capacity for employability, and
negative cultural and patriarchal attitudes are the major challenges to womens empowerment.
A number of policies and programs have been developed to address them. They include the
Womens Guarantee Fund, now managed by the Business Development Fund (BDF), Savings
and Credit Cooperatives at Sector level (Umurenge SACCO), the Youth and Women Access to
Finance Strategy (2012), and the Girinka or One Cow per Poor Family.
They also include High Intensity labor programs (HIMO), Ubudehe, Vision 2020 Umurenge
programme (VUP), compulsory 9-years basic education (9YBE) that was extended to 12-years
(12YBE) in 2012 , the national Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) policy
(2008) , 5181 literacy centers that have been set up across the country, with the target of having
at least four centers in each administrative cell by 2017, legal reforms carried out in order to end
harmful and discriminatory practices, and others (UN Women, 2014).
2.6 Related case studies
There are many case studies related to the high representation of women in the parliament of
Rwanda, only few of them were selected to identify the gaps (in terms of coverage, context,
timing and methodology) existing in literature and specify the ones that the research will focus
on. A lot of importance, in this study, is attached to the impact of the high number of women in
parliament on womens empowerment in households, more particularly male-headed households.
According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (2009), in its 2009 African
Womens Report, in discussing participation in formal arenas, cognizance is also to be taken of
the complexities associated with decision-making at the household/family level, where gender
relations are best observed. It is at this level that issues of disposal of family income, number and
timing of children, use of family planning methods, and related family matters are discussed. It is
also to be pointed out that decision-making in the public arena tends to mirror the situation at the
African household level.

14

In their case study on Rwanda, the United Nations Development Program/UNDP and the
National Democratic Institute/NDI (2011) point out that legislative reform has focused on the
law on inheritance and succession (1999), the child protection law (2001), and the gender based
violence law (2009). They add that women have also been influential in ensuring that other
pieces of legislation are gender-sensitive and child friendly, including the law on national
citizenship, the classification of genocide crimes, and the protection of witnesses.
A case study by Elizabeth Powley (Consultant in Gender and Governance) in Inter-Parliamentary
Union (2008) reveals that Rwanda offers an opportunity to examine a parliament where women
have not only reached, but actually exceeded, the standard definition of critical mass. According
to the case, womens subsequent success in shaping the parliamentary agenda is due in part to
their large number, as well as to the presence of an activist womens caucus, and the highly
consultative model of policy making that they have developed.
Powleys case continues to explain that the womens agenda in Rwandas parliament is
coordinated by a cross-party political caucus, the Forum of Rwandan Women Parliamentarians
(Forum des Femmes Rwandaises Parlementaires, or FFRP). She then puts that since the 2003
election, the FFRP has worked to revise existing discriminatory laws, and pushed for the
inclusion of gender perspective new laws.
In a case study by the African Woman and Child/AWC Feature Service (2010) on Eastern
African womens participation and representation in political decision making, it is reported that
Rwanda was standing tall (in the 2008-2013 mandate) among countries in Africa and also all
over the world as the only country where women had achieved 56.2 percent out of 80
parliamentary seats. The AWC Feature Service (2010) further argues that Rwanda has gone to
fulfill the MDG Goal 3, which calls for gender equality and empowerment as well as the African
Union solemn declaration of 50-50 representation which the heads of states committed
themselves to.
The Government of Rwanda, as noted by AWC Feature Service (2010), has taken certain policy
and legislative measures that have been very useful in the quest for gender equality. They include
addressing Gender Violence and the issue of property rights for women, engendering the budget,
improving the girl child education, and engendering the judicial system.

15

In spite of the achievements, the UNDP (2010) report reveals that there is still a gender gap in
public sector higher education, especially in science and engineering, but women are taking
advantage of the opportunities to study in the private higher education institutions. However, the
majority of women, especially poor women in rural areas have yet to benefit. Nearly 59 per cent
of women were employed as dependent family workers, and only 28 per cent of those working in
non-farm employment, own account and employee, were women. The Indicator of 50 per cent of
those in paid non-agricultural employment being women by 2015 is unlikely to be met (UNDP,
2010).
Finally, all these cases give very important appraisals of the achievements of Rwanda with
regard to its world record of having the highest percentage of female parliamentarians (mandate
2008-2013 as the focus of this study). The coverage, timing, and methodology are worth a lot of
appreciation. However, there are no discussions, in the cases, on the effectiveness of this highest
number in empowering women in Rwandan households, especially poor rural households headed
by men. The gap has been identified in this area, which is the main focus of the present study.

16

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodological procedures that were undertaken in order to carry out
the study. It includes information about research design, area of the study, population of the
study,

sampling

procedures,

data

collection,

data

processing

and

analysis,

limitations/delimitations and finally ethical considerations.

3.1 Research Design
This study adopted a survey design. According to Bhattacherjee (2012), this kind of design is an
excellent vehicle for measuring a wide variety of unobservable data, such as peoples preferences
(e.g., political orientation), traits (e.g., self-esteem), attitudes (e.g., toward immigrants), beliefs
(e.g., about a new law), behaviors (e.g., smoking or drinking behavior), or factual information
(e.g., income). He adds that survey involves the use of standardized questionnaires or interviews
to collect data about people and their preferences, thoughts, and behaviors in a systematic
manner.
Marczyk, DeMatteo, and Festinger (2005) are other scholars who studied how survey studies
work. They contend that Survey studies ask large numbers of people questions about their
behaviors, attitudes, and opinions. Some surveys merely describe what people say they think and
do. Other survey studies attempt to find relationships between the characteristics of the
respondents and their reported behaviors and opinions.
Based on these scholars, this design is suitable for this study because it surveyed poor rural
households attitudes, behaviour, factual information, and their beliefs towards womens social
and economic empowerment. For example, through questionnaire (for quantitative data) and
interviews (for qualitative data), attitudes towards violence against women and education of girls
were surveyed. The study also surveyed factual information on levels of income, literacy rates,
employment types and others.
3.2 The population of the study
The household was the unit of analysis of the study, more specifically male headed households
due to the centrality of its gender relations and also to the fact that Rwanda is committed to
placing the family at the centre of development, the care and protection of children, of gender
equality, and as a prerequisite to achieve equitable and sustainable development for women and

17

men, girls and boys (MINECOFIN 2013). The population of the study area was made of 1736
households from 12 villages that are highly rural in SAVE sector.
However, since it was not practical to reach all households in the study, I proceeded to sample
selection to find a reasonable number of households for the survey. In addition, in each
household I only took the wife and husband as respondents. Given the centrality of their role in
gender relations in the household, they were in a position to provide information which is correct
and reliable enough.
3.3 Study area description
The present study was conducted in SAVE sector, GISAGARA district, in the southern province.
SAVE sector is located in the west of the district. GISAGARA district is composed of thirteen
sectors; the sector was randomly selected among the seven poor sectors appearing on the list of
VIUP sectors for the financial year 2012-2013. SAVE sector consists of five (5) cells, forty-four
(44) villages and six thousand seven hundred and sixty-six (6766) households with a total
population of 28248.
The purposeful sampling technique was used to determine villages of the study in all five cells.
In this regard, twelve villages which are still highly rural were selected. These are Gashubi and
Rugarama in Gatoki cell; Rugogwe, Ryamurongo and Ryarubayi in Zivu cell; Bazenga, Gahora,
and Kivumu in Rwanza cell; Ryakabuye and Ryamutabazi in Shyanda cell and finally Gakombe
and Nyarure in Munazi cell.
3.4 Sampling
This research embraced the systematic random sampling and purposive sampling (techniques) to
identify the appropriate samples. With regard to the sample size for households, I applied the
sample formula offered by Kothari (2004, p.179) which is used to compute the sample size in
case of finite population.
The sample formula is stated as follows: = 2

2 . . .

+ 2 . .

(with n being the sample size; z with

a value of 1.96 which is the area under normal curve for the given confidence level, p standing
for the probability of success with a value of .5 while q representing the probability of failure

18

having a value of .5, e stands for 0.07 of margin error out of 93% of the level of confidence and
N being the study population).
Therefore, with e equals to 0.07: =
.
.

+ .

+ .

. 2

2 + 2 . .

2 . . .
.

+ .

+ .

= 176.11176 households

Hence, the sample of the study in SAVE sector was 176 respondents out of 1736, the total
number of households in the twelve selected villages. In order to effectively and adequately
represent the sampling population, I had to ensure the number of respondents in each cell was
proportional to the number of its households in comparison with the total number of households
in the sector. This means that among 306 households in Gatoki cell the sample was 31
respondents, in Zivu cell the sample was 40 respondents among 395 households, in Rwanza cell
42 respondents were sampled among 414 households, the sample was 29 respondents among 281
households in Shyanda cell, and finally among 340 households in Munazi cell the sample was 34
respondents.
This sample of respondents in cells was obtained by applying the following formula:

cell =

SAVE

e. g The sample in Gatoki

= 31.02 31 households.

The same procedure was used to determine the number of respondents within villages that are
highly rural in all five cells of SAVE sector. Household samples in villages were obtained by
applying the following formula:
The sample in Gashubi village of Gatoki cell =

e.g.

= 14.68 15 households.

Indeed, at the village level the systematic random sample technique was used to select
households in the villages under study. In this regard, the selection process started by picking a
random sample in the list of poor male headed households, and then every household was
selected until the desired number was secured. To this end, the list of households that SAVE
sector provided was used.

19

Table 2: Sector, cells, villages names, population and samples

Sector

Cell name

Village name

SAVE

Gatoki

Gashubi
Rugarama
Total

Total number of Household

households
samples
145
15
161
16
306
31

Zivu

Rugogwe
Ryamurongo
Ryarubayi
Total

141
137
117
395

14
14
12
40

Rwanza

Bazenga
Gahora
Kivumu
Total

149
129
136
414

15
13
14
42

Shyanda

Ryakabuye
Ryamutabazi
Total

125
156
281

13
16
29

Munazi

Gakombe
Nyarure
Total

186
154
340

19
15
34

5 Cells

12 Villages

1736

176

Grand
total

3.5 Data Collection techniques and tools

The techniques and instruments used to collect data from the field are many and varied. As
regards this study, both secondary and primary data collection tools were used. For primary data
collection, various sampling techniques to gather quantitative and qualitative data were used.
3.5.1 Secondary data
Secondary data were collected from governments reports, National Gender Policy (NGP), GMO
reports, UNwomen, UNDP, UNICEF, GISAGARA district website, and other gender related
publications. These data helped me to write the literature review related to the topic and (to) have
a thorough understanding of the field. Ideas drawn from different readings were the source of
information which served as the foundation of the present research.

20

3.5.2 Primary data

Primary data collection is a stage in research where a researcher meets his respondents at the
field and uses different kinds of techniques. As far as the present study is concerned, the
questionnaire and interviews were used. Due to the remotely situated households for survey, I
worked with data collectors who were hired to make the task more feasible. Local leaders helped
me in choosing them; they selected secondary school graduates who were ready to register for
the academic year 2014-15 in higher learning institutions. I was told they had done another
similar activity some months before.
3.5.2.1 Quantitative data collection
Quantitative data were collected by means of the questionnaire. This tool was used to collect data
from households in villages. The questionnaire helped respondents to give answers to questions;
it was made of closed-ended questions for data to be easily quantified.
3.5.2.2 Qualitative data collection
Qualitative data were collected by means of semi-structured interviews. I made use of the
purposeful sampling technique to select respondents for the semi-structured interview. This
category of respondents included 2 women members of the Rwanda National Women Council
(NWC) at cell level. Normally, there are seven members making the committee of the National
Women Council at the cell and sector level, which makes the total number of 14 persons.
The same data collection tool was used to collect data from selected local administrative
authorities. As a matter of fact, they were deemed very informative with regard to their
experience of their every day duties and responsibilities. So, they could give information relevant
to the study. Key informants in this category of local authorities were the leader in charge of
social affairs at the sector level, 2 executive secretaries of cells. The information they gave
reflected the reality of the situation in villages as they learn it from different reports. At the cell
level, the random sample selection technique was used to select leaders for the interview.

21

3.6 Data processing and (methods of data) analysis

The data of the present study were analyzed by means of the Statistical Package of Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 16. Subsequently, descriptive statistics were used to summarize and
analyze data quantitatively. After gathering data in quantitative tables, I went on to explain them
to facilitate a clear understanding of the situations under study. With regard to qualitative data,
answers to each item of the questions were thoroughly looked at to find different emerging
patterns of responses and themes.
Then, I made use of the results from respondents to show the magnitude of their answers in
relation to the situation under study. Qualitative interpretation of quantified data enabled to
question why certain patterns have emerged.
3.7 Limitations/delimitations
Within the context of this study, some limitations were associated with questionnaires, others
with interviews.
The first limitation concerns administering questionnaires in remote rural areas and sometimes
not easily accessible. The sampled households were in remotely situated areas, it was hard work
to reach every selected household in all five cells. But, data collectors did their utmost best and
accomplished the task.
Another limitation is related to questions that were set to measure respondents attitudes and
sometimes necessitated the presence of both the wife and the husband. It was difficult when the
wife and the husband were together, depending on patriarchal attitudes it was difficult for some
women to speak freely when their husbands were present. For example, some women were not
very open to talk about some issues like domestic violence. Even when they were alone, it was
difficult due to cultural barriers where some women still hold the wrong attitude of silence
towards violence inside their houses.
Daily activities also constrained field work with questionnaires. It was difficult to meet
respondents as some of them were busy in their fields. It was also difficult to meet them on
market days as many had to go to sell their products and buy other things for home use.

22

As far as interviews are concerned, talking to selected local leaders was not easy as in most cases
they were involved in solving issues (e.g. land and marriage issues) with their community. Some
appointments failed because leaders were attending meetings or were busy with other works
helping them to earn their livings. Interviews were also constrained by the fact that women
members of the National Womens Council do not hold regular offices. The ideal was to ask
leaders to look for them and fix the time and place for the interview. One woman was reluctant
to talk about women issues when she was among those who could be easily reached. Hence, the
number of interviewees was hugely affected.
As regards delimitations, this study was designed to analyze the significance of womens
political empowerment in Rwandan households. It intended to cover the area of advocacy of
women parliamentarians for womens empowerment in rural households. This is because poverty
is more frequent in rural areas than urban areas. In addition, women are more vulnerable to
poverty than men. The study did not seek to see the causes behind some factual information, but
quantitative information resulting from the effects of laws, policies and programs that passed or
were voted for in the second mandate (2008-2013) of the parliament. The questionnaire and
interview methods were used because they were believed to provide more relevant information
to this study than other methods.
3.8 Ethical considerations
With regard to ethical considerations in this study, permission to collect data in poor rural
households in 12 villages from the five cells of SAVE sector in GISAGARA was requested from
the office of the executive secretary of the sector. Other local leaders were also informed about
the objectives of the study and the rationale behind it.
As regards gaining informed consent from the research participants, it was sought before by the
aid of local leaders. Informants were called to kindly and willingly provide correct information
especially by telling them the benefit of the research for their households.
With regard to matters of confidentiality, they were assured that the information gathered would
be strictly shrouded in secrecy.

Informants were also called to feel fully safe as their

participation would not expose them to any risk.

23

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE

RESEARCH FINDINGS
This chapter presents, analyzes and interprets the findings from the study area. It aims to discuss
the significance of the high representation of women in parliament in poor rural households in
Rwanda. To this end, the chapter reveals the extent to which the laws, policies and programs, for
which female parliamentarians advocated and lobbied, served to provide women in poor rural
households in Rwanda with social and economic power. Before the analysis, some details
regarding respondents profile were provided since they could help explain some patterns of
womens social and economic empowerment in poor rural households.
4.1 Respondents profile
During research, it was necessary to find background information of respondents in terms of
their age, length of marriage, type of marriage, type of matrimonial regime, monthly income,
safe water from a non distant source, and the kind of fuel for cooking. The information was of
great help in having a clear understanding of their living conditions, wealth, and others.
Table 3: Respondents age (wives and husbands)
Age Group
21-31 years
31-41 years
41-51 years
51-61 years
Above 61 years
Total

Wife
Frequency
47
63
32
23
11
176

Percentage
27
35.7
18.1
13
6.2
100

Husband
Frequency
37
53
40
27
19
176

Percentage
21
30
23
15.3
10.7
100

Source: Field survey, September 2014

As presented in table 3, information on respondents age is shown. It is clear that the majority of
respondents, both wives and husbands, were between 31 and 41 years of age representing 35.7%
and 30%. It represents the number of middle aged respondents. In this category and in that of the
youngest, the number of women was higher than that of men, 35.7% versus 30%; the number of
the youngest respondents was 27% (women) and 21% (men). Spousal age difference is not high;
this removes the risk that Kishor and Gupta (2009) presented that young brides, by virtue of their

24

young age and relationship, are unlikely to be accorded much power or independence. The oldest
respondents were 6.2% women and 10.7% men, they were above 61 years.
The situation of respondents about age shows that the population in poor rural households in
SAVE sector is generally still very young. It implies that this population, especially men who
evolved in a patriarchal society, can easily copy with development policies and programs aiming
at empowering women socially and economically. It can also be noted that women in the
households, even those with the youngest age, are matured enough to take their own decisions.
Table 4: Length of marriage, type of marriage and type of matrimonial regime
Category/Type (in years)
1-5 years
5-10 years
10- 15 years
15-20 years
20-25 years
Above 25 years
Total
Civil Marriage
Type of marriage
Marriage under customary law
Total
Type
of
matrimonial Community of property
regime
None (do not belong to any
type)
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014
Length of marriage

Frequency
59
25
36
16
18
22
176
157
19
176
157

Percentage
33.5
14.2
20.5
9.1
10.2
12.5
100
89.2
10.8
100
89.2

19

10.8

176

100

Table 4 displays information on length of marriage, type of marriage and type of matrimonial
regime as well. The majority of respondents were newly-married couples, the age ranging from
1-5 years that is 33.5% households. The middle aged married couples, 10-15 years of marriage,
were found to have another similarly higher number of respondents; 20.5% households.
Respondents in the ranges 15-20 and 20-25 years were fewer in numbers, 9.1% and 10.2%
respectively. The oldest couples, over 25 years of marriage, were 12.5% households.
The fact that the majority of households were newly married may have both positive and
negative impact on households development. Young married couples may feel much concerned
with different programs intending to bring positive change in their lives, but old ones may not
want to give up some of the traditional routines disadvantaging women and their households in

25

general. Not only this, but old married couples may also not feel very motivated to have a great
development vision of the future thinking it will not serve them for long or their experience
whatsoever is enough.
The negative impact of young married couples may be experienced in households with brides
who were married at a young age. As it has been presented in table 9, 27% women were in the
group of 21-31 years old. Kishor and Gupta (2009) opine that an early age at marriage typically
curtails womens access to education and cuts short the time needed to develop and mature
unhampered by responsibilities of marriage and children.
This study did not investigate on whether women in these households were married at a legally
accepted age or not; 21 and above is a legally accepted age of marriage in Rwanda. Nevertheless;
serious attention needs drawing in the category of women in their twenties in poor rural
households as they can be subjected to increased risk of adverse reproductive and other health
consequences owing to uncontrolled births.
As regards types of marriage, 89.2% households were regally married under civil marriage while
10.8% were married under customary law. This type of marriage curtails some rights of women
and children, for example joint land registration right since only those married under civil
marriage are eligible to land registration. As the constitution recognizes only civil marriages,
reports UNICEF (2013), the gender equality provisions of The Law on Matrimonial Regimes,
Donations, Succession and Liberalities (1999) do not protect the rights of women married under
the customary law and those in polygamous unions. Though the number of households married
under customary law is small, womens cases in these households are worth considering.
Table 4 finally presents information on types of matrimonial regimes. 89.2% households chose
the community of property in their marriage. According to UNICEF (2008), the Law on
Matrimonial Regimes, Donations, Succession and Liberalities (1999) is a key legal framework
that stipulates equality in property and inheritance rights between men and women. It adds that
upon entering marriage, spouses have the options to choose one of the following matrimonial
regimes: (i) community of property; (ii) limited community of assets; and (iii) separation of
property. 10.8% households do not belong to any type as they were not married under civil
marriage which is the only marriage recognized by the constitution.

26

Table 5: Household monthly income, water from a safe and non distant source, and the
kind of fuel used for cooking
Less than RWF 10000
Between RWF 10001
and 25000
Btween 25001 and 50000
Total
Water from a safe/improved source Yes
No
Total
Less than 10 minutes
Time it takes to get to the water
source
Between 10 and 15
minutes
Between 15 and 30
minutes
Above 30 minutes
Total
Charcoal
The kind of fuel used for cooking
Firewood
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014
Monthly income

Frequency
144
25

Percentage
81.8
14.2

7
176
132
44
176
45

4.0
100
75
25
100
25.6

2.8

30

17.0

96
176
173
3
176

54.5
100.0
98.2
1.8
100

Results of household monthly income, improved water from a non distant source, and the kind of
fuel used for cooking by respondents are displayed in table 5. The table shows that the majority
of respondents, 81.8%, fell in the monthly income category of less than RWF 10000. 14.2%
respondents were in the middle category ranging between RWF 10001 and 25000. Only 4%
respondents said that their monthly income was between RWF 25001 and 50000.
This situation shows that poverty is still a huge problem even in male headed poor rural
households in SAVE sector.The GISAGARA district monthly magazine IMBANZABIGWI
NO14 of August 2012 says that 59% of the population in this district lived below the poverty
line. The same magazine states that the districts target is to move at least 30% of the population
up the poverty line by 2015. The magazine talked about the population in general, the results of
this study show that the population in poor rural households suffers more than others living in
areas that are not highly rural. Female headed households had been reported to be poorer by
researches, but these results make it clear that even meale headed households in rural areas are
very poor.

27

GISAGARA district plans to move at least 10% of the population up the poverty line every
budgetary year. This target needs serious attention to be attained owing to these results where
81.8% of poor rural households in SAVE sector earn less than RWF 10000 per month, that is
RWF 333 per day.
With regard to safe water from a non distant source, 75% of respondents said that they get water
from safe or improved sources while 25% answered that they get water from unsafe sources.
Concerning the time it takes to get to the water source, the majority of respondents 54.5%
answered that it takes them above 30 minutes to get to the water source while 25.6 % use less
than 10 minutes to reach the source. 17% of respondents said that it takes between 15 and 30
minutes to get to the source while 2.8% said that it take them between 10 and 15 minutes.
Getting water from safe sources is advantageous to poor households in rural areas, more
particularly to women as it helps them to live healthily. Having 75% of rural households drinking
healthful water is a great achievement, nonetheless; the case of 25% of households still drinking
impure water needs tackling. Fetching water from distant sources may prevent women in poor
rural households from participating in productive activities. The results show clearly that the
majority of households in SAVE sector use above 30 minutes to get to water sources, which may
be relatively distant. Only a few households, 25.6%, use less than 10 minutes to get to the source.
According to MIGEPROF (2010), the National Gender Policy plans to facilitate access to safe
and clean water for households in both rural and urban areas to reduce the burden of obtaining
household water on women. MIGEPROF contends that the key gender inequalities are firstly the
huge time women use to fetch water due to long distance they cover to reach sources of clean
and safe water. As a consequence, women have limited time to engage in other important
activities including income generating activities, children of both sexes especially girls, face
school absenteeism as they are also involved in water collection. The limited access to clean
water is the major cause of poor sanitation and hygiene in households which is among other
causes of diseases affecting families and communities (MIGEPROF, 2010).
UN (2009) asserts that improved access to water and energy in developing countries can reduce
womens workloads, increase productivity and provide more time for income generation,
political participation and leisure. Women face greater obstacles in accessing irrigation for crop
production and livestock raising, due to insecurity of land tenure and their exclusion or marginal

28

involvement in user associations. Equitable access to infrastructure and services are critical for
womens economic empowerment (UN, 2009).
Burnell, Rakner and Randall (2014) put that women provide extensive unpaid labor in
households; from food cultivation and preparation, to caring for family members, especially
children. They conclude that in many parts of Asia and Africa women invest considerable time to
grow and process food, cook and feed family members, haul water, and gather firewood. To add
to this, long distances to water sources would extend time women spend in extensive unpaid
labor in households. Looking at the results, the majority of poor rural households drink safe and
clean water, however; there is need to make an issue of distance though it is not very bad.
Table 5 finally presents information on the kind of fuel used for cooking in poor rural households
in SAVE sector. 98.2% households said that they use charcoal as fuel for cooking while only
1.8% use firewood for cooking. Gathering firewood was mentioned by Burnell, Rakner and
Randall (2014) as one of the extensive unpaid labor provided by women in households. Using
charcoal for cooking is advantageous to women in poor rural households in SAVE sector as
gathering firewood is both tiring and time-consuming.
However, the National Gender Policy provides for the reduction of the number of households
dependent on firewood and charcoal. The ideal would be, according to MIGEPROF (2010), to
have both women and men involved in the development of renewable sources of energy. One of
the ways planned to achieve this, is training rural households in the use of energy saving stoves
and facilitating them in their access.
4.2 What women parliamentarians in Rwanda did as regards womens empowerment
The laws, policies and programs presented in this section evidence what women in the
parliament of Rwanda, in their high number, did as regards womens empowerment. They
worked at their best results in a synergy that has been very productive. Hence, womens social
and economic empowerment in rural households of GISAGARA district discussed in the next
sections resulted from their actions.
Some of the policies and programs they lobbied for or assisted in their implementation in the
second mandate 2008-2013 are: Land Policy, Girls Education Policy, Decentralization Policy,
The national Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) policy, and the Policy
against Gender-Based Violence. The programs include programs that have been developed to

29

increase womens access to finance and the formal business sector such as

Womens

Guarantee Fund, now managed by the Business Development Fund (BDF), and Umurenge
SACCO. They also include pro-poor programs such as GIRINKA or One Cow per Poor Family,
UBUDEHE (Community-based and participatory effort towards problem solving) which revives
the traditional collective action at village level and reduces poverty among the poorest
population .This program is also supported by Ubudehe Credit Scheme.
Other programs include Vision Umurenge Program (VIUP), 9-years basic education (9YBE),
extended to 12-years (12YBE) in 2012, Functional Literacy, parents evening (umugoroba
wababyeyi), a number of health policy and programs, including the Health Sector Strategic Plan
II (2008-2012), the National Accelerated Plan on Women, Girls, Gender Equality and HIV
(2010-2014), the Universal Community Health Insurance scheme (Mutuelle de sant) , the
universal distribution of treated bed nets , indoor residual spraying , among others. There are also
programs to improve womens nutritional status such as Community-Based Nutrition
Programmes (CBNPs), and kitchen garden (Akarima kigikoni).
The laws include Law n 59/2008 on prevention and punishment of gender based violence , Law
No 13/2009 regulating Labor in Rwanda as well as the revision of the penal code in 2012 which
criminalizes all traditional practices that violate women, Organic Law No 08/2005 of 14/07/2005
determining the use and management of land in Rwanda, as revised in 2013 also provides for
equal rights between men and women in all aspects of acquisition, management and inheritance
of land, Organic Law No 30/2008 of 25/07/2008 relating to Rwandan Nationality, and the law on
Matrimonial Regimes, Liberalities and Succession.
4.3 Womens social empowerment
In this study, the social dimension of womens empowerment measured indicators such as
freedom from violence, education of girls, improvement in nutrition and healthcare,
improvement in literacy among women, and the extent to which women participate in household
decision making.
Respondents were asked questions on the following sub indicators: forms of violence occurring
in households, changes in attitudes to domestic violence, the relevance of girls education,
households with girls enrolled in different levels of education and girls who were school
dropouts, the number of meals a household is able to take a day and the ability to eat a healthy

30

diet, households sleeping under mosquito bed nets/insecticide-treated nets , households covered
by the health insurance scheme Mutuel de Sante, Women and men who are able to read and
write and those who are not, decisions on how to spend money, and the level of participation of
women in decision making over other key household decisions.
4.3.1 Freedom from violence
Freedom from violence is an indicator of social empowerment which was used in this study to
measure the degree to which women in poor rural households enjoy freedom form violence. In
this respect, two sub indicators were measured; prevalence of domestic violence and changes in
attitudes to domestic violence for women as well as men.
4.3.1.1. Prevalence of domestic violence (physical, psychological or sexual)
Prevalence of domestic violence (physical, psychological or sexual) is a sub indicator proposed
to measure the degree to which women enjoy freedom from violence. Respondents were given
some form of violence and asked to rate their prevalence in their households. Lower rates of
prevalence were concluded to represent the degree to which women enjoy freedom from
violence.
To this end, the rate of prevalence for the response mode never was labeled very low, the
response mode rarely was given a low rate, the response sometimes was labeled medium,
very often was given a high rate and finally the response always was given a very high rate
of prevalence.
Table 6: Prevalence of forms of violence in rural households
Response
mode
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Very often
Always
Total

Intimidation Coercion

Insulting

Beating

73(41.5%)
47(26.7%)
41(23.3%)
11(6.2%)
4(2.3%)
176

45(25.6%)
30(17%)
65(36.9%)
18(10.2%)
18(10.2%)
176

64(36.4%)
42(23.9%)
58(33%)
10(5.7%)
2(1.1%)
176

65(36.9%)
55(31.2%)
39(22.2%)
12(3.8%)
5(2.8%)
176

Source: Field survey, September 2014

Marital
rape
80(45.5%
27(15.3%)
46(26.1%)
12(6.8%)
11(6.2%)
176

31

Table 7 provides the results on the prevalence of forms of violence in poor rural households. It
shows the rate of prevalence of intimidation, coercion, insulting, beating, and marital rape. From
these results, a big number of women (41.5%) are never intimidated while 2.3% always face
intimidation in their households. 26.7% women rarely have cases of intimidation in their
households while 23.3% sometimes have them. 6.2% of women are very often intimidated by
their husbands. With regard to coercion, 36.9% of women answered that it does never happen in
their households while 2.8% agreed that it always happens. 31.2% of women responded that their
husbands rarely use coercion in their households. Women who said that they are very often
coerced into doing things they are unwilling to do are 3.8%.
Violence through insulting appears to happen at a medium rate because many women (36.9%)
responded that it sometimes happens in their households. The percentage of women who are
always insulted is comparatively higher (10.2%). The percentage of women who are never
beaten is higher (36.4%) than that of those who are rarely beaten (23.9%), sometimes beaten
(33%), and very often beaten (5.7%). The percentage of women who are always beaten is
comparatively lower (1.1%). Marital rape has the lowest rate of prevalence since 45.5% never
experienced it in their households. Women who are rarely raped by their husbands are also fewer
(15.3%).
Although these forms of violence are prevalent at different rates in poor rural households in
SAVE sector, responses where these forms never happen are more prevalent. The number of
women who responded that these forms rarely and sometimes occur in their households is also
higher than that of women who very often and always experience these forms of violence. It then
follows that intimidation, coercion, insulting, beating, and marital rape happen at low rates in
poor rural households in SAVE sector of GISGARA district.
As stated by Harper,Nowacka, Alder, and Ferrant (2014), lower rates of prevalence and
acceptance of violence against women and girls represent the degree to which social norms
within a community act to recognize and value their physical integrity and human rights.
Harper,Nowacka, Alder, and Ferrant (2014) also put that measuring the prevalence of domestic
violence over time provides an indication of what is happening on the ground (and can be
triangulated with the existence of national laws on VAW).

32

The presence of women parliamentarians in the parliament of Rwanda had a beneficial influence
on both the law and policy on Gender Based Violence. The law against any gender-based
violence (GBV), promulgated on 10 October 2008, was initiated by the Rwandan Women
Parliamentarians Forum. The women parliamentarians highlighted the urgent need for this bill
to address the high incidence of GBV, but also stated that GBV obstructs efforts to attain gender
equality and is detrimental to development and security in Rwanda and in the region at large.
Women parliamentarians were very instrumental in passing this law (IRDP, 2010).
The Government has made ending VAW and GBV a national security priority. Strategies for
addressing this problem include a policy of zero tolerance to GBV across all sectors, supported
by laws such as the anti- GBV Law, which provides severe punishment for all GBV and VAW
offenses. An outstanding model of response to VAW/GBV is the Isange One Stop Centers
(IOSC) initiated by Rwanda National Police (RNP) which provide holistic response to GBV
under one roof, in order to minimize the risk of re-victimization, spoiled evidence and delayed
justice (UN Women, 2014).
MIGEPROF (2011) announces that community groups and community leaders have a key role to
play in preventing GBV and in providing support to victims. In this regard, when interviewed;
the leader in charge of social affairs in SAVE sector talked about the role of the organization
named IMPURUZA in preventing GBV. This organization is made of people selected from the
district and are given phones to report any case of violence. The same interviewee added that
there are also GBV clubs in schools and in organizations of youth.
The executive secretary of one of the cells in which the study was conducted said that GBV is
also fought through INTEKO ZABATURAGE. These are Citizen Forums that are held every
first weeks of the month where GBV cases are tackled, and serious cases are handled by
mediators (ABUNZI). Finally, the secretary said that Association Modeste et Innocent (AMI)
help in their programs called ISANAMIRYANGO and ISANAMITIMA. All these
contributed to the diminution of the prevalence of violence against women.
4.3.1.2 Changes in attitudes to domestic violence for women as well as men
Changes in attitudes to domestic violence for women as well as men were measured by asking
respondents to show the degree to which they agree or disagree that a husband is justified in
beating his wife under certain circumstances. With this aim, the degree of respondents who

33

responded by strongly agree was labeled very poor, those who responded by agree were given a
poor degree while those who were undecided were labeled uncertain, respondents who
disagreed were assigned a degree satisfactory and strongly disagreed were given a very
satisfactory degree. Higher numbers of women and men who disagreed with the statement meant
that there were lower rates of acceptance of Violence Against Women (VAW) and a good degree
of enjoyment of freedom from violence.
Table 7: Women and mens views on husbands justification for beating his wife under
certain circumstances
Response mode
Frequency

Women
Percentage

Strongly agree
8
4.5
Agree
35
20
Undecided
4
2.2
Disagree
73
41.4
Stronly disagree 56
31.9
Total
176
100
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Men
Frequency

Percentage

14
45
2
68
47
176

8
25.5
1.1
38.7
26.7
100

Table 7 provides percentages of women and men who agreed or disagreed that a husband is
justified in beating his wife under certain circumstances. A big number of both women (41.4 %)
and men (38.7%) disagreed that a husband is justified in beating his wife under certain
circumstances. women who strongly disagreed were 31.9 % while men were 26.7%. Percentages
of women and men who agreed and strongly agreed that a husband is justified in beating his wife
under certain circumstances were comparatively lower.
From the results above, it is obvious that women and men in poor rural households have different
attitudes towards domestic violence. It can be noted that attitudes changed for the better since the
majority of respondents, both women and men, disagreed that a husband is justified in beating
his wife under certain circumstances. Thus, women in poor rural households enjoy freedom from
violence to a satisfactory degree. It means that the degree of enjoyment of freedom from violence
is good despite having a number of women and men who agreed with the statement.
Though the number of those who agreed and strongly agreed with the statement is comparatively
small, a lot of effort still needs to be invested in the fight against violence against women in poor
rural households. Harper, Nowacka, Alder, and Ferrant (2014) opine that attitudes to domestic
violence in many countries are alarming with many women accepting that it is justified. They say

34

that this represents an internalization of disempowerment. They conclude that Changes in these
attitudes for women as well as men indicate change on the ground, as attitudes and prevalence
are closely linked.
4.3.2 Education of girls
Respondents were asked questions on two sub indicators: the relevance of girls education, and
households with girls enrolled in different levels of education and girls who were school
dropouts. Before discussing the results on the relevance of the girls education, it is worth noting
that there is a considerable number of girls in poor rural households of SAVE sector in
GISGARA district as it is shown in the table below.
Table 8: Number of children (both girls and boys) in the households
Number of children
Frequency
0(none)
44
1
56
2
24
3
33
4
18
6
1
Total
176
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Girls
Percentage
25.0
31.8
13.6
18.8
10.2
0.6
100.0

Boys
Frequency
30
61
33
29
21
2
176

Percentage
17.0
34.7
18.8
16.5
11.9
1.1
100

Table 8 shows the number of both girls and boys in poor rural households in SAVE sector.
31.8% households had 1 girl each while 34.7% households had 1 boy each. In 13.6% households,
each had 2 girls and in 18.8% each had 2 boys. 18.8% households responded that they had 3 girls
each while 16.5% households had 3 boys each. Households that had 4 girls each were 10.2% and
those with 4 boys each were 11.9%. There were 6 girls in 0.6% and 6 boys in 1.1% households.
There was not any girl in 25% households and there was not any boy in 17% households. The
total number of female children was 281 in 176 households while male children were 295 in 176
households.
From the results above, it is obvious that though the number of boys exceeds that of girls by 14;
girls represent a very considerable number in poor rural households of SAVE sector. Not setting
a high value on their education would be considered a serious hindrance of the development
process.

35

4.3.2.1 Views about the relevance of girls education and the value placed on girls
Measuring the percentage of respondents who agree that Education is more relevant for boys
(attitudinal) informs on attitudes of the population towards son preference in education. If the
population prefers boys to girls in education, girls may be denied their right to education. In
measuring attitudes over time towards the education of girls, we gain a better understanding of
the value placed by families and communities on girls as compared to boys, beyond their time
spent in the education system (Harper, Nowacka, Alder, and Ferrant, 2014).
In an attempt to gain a better understanding of the value placed on girls by poor rural households
as compared to boys, respondents were asked to say whether they agree or disagree that
education is more relevant for boys than girls. With this aim, the value of respondents who
responded by strongly agree was labeled very low, those who responded by agree were said to
set a low value on girls while those who were undecided were labeled uncertain, respondents
who disagreed were reported to put a high level on girls and those who strongly disagreed were
found to place a very high value on girls.
Table 9: Respondents who agreed and disagreed that education is more relevant for boys
than girls (attitudinal)
Scale
Strongly agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Women
Frequency Percentage
10
5.6
18
10.2
5
2.8
70
40
73
41.4
176
100

Men
Frequency
11
20
10
64
71
176

Percentage
6.2
11.4
5.6
36.5
40.3
100

Table 9 displays the results of respondents who agreed and disagreed that education is more
relevant for boys than girls. The majority of respondents, both women 41.4% and men 40.3%,
strongly disagreed that education is more relevant for boys than girls. These are followed by
another high percentage of women 40 % and men 36.5% who disagreed with this statement. Few
respondents, 10.2 % women and 11.4% men, agreed that education is more relevant for boys
than girls.

36

Owing to the fact that the percentage of respondents who disagreed and strongly disagreed that
education is more relevant for boys than girls is higher than that of those who agreed and
strongly agreed, it is certain that households in poor rural households in SAVE sector place a
high value on the education of girls. There has been a positive change in attitudes towards son
preference in education. Only few households still take the attitude that only boys should be
allowed to go to school. The majority of households find girls education as relevant as boys
education. Harper,Nowacka, Alder, and Ferrant (2014) argue that if populations believe that
education is just as relevant for girls as (it is) for boys, then school completion rates for girls are
likely to be higher, and it is more likely that girls will then go on to higher education or enter the
labor market.
4.3.2.2 Enrollment of girls in different levels of education and school dropouts
As regards enrollment of girls in different levels of education, emphasis was not put on the
number of girls; but rather on the number of households with enrollment of girls in different
levels of education. In the same way, concerning girls who are school dropouts, the emphasis
was put on the number of households with no school dropouts and those with 1 to 6 girls who
were school dropouts.
Table 10: Households with girls enrolled in different levels of education and girls who are
school dropouts
Enrollment in education
Households with girls enrolled in primary education
Households with girls enrolled in Secondary education
Households with girls enrolled in Higher education
Households with girls enrolled in TVT
Not enrolled in any level
Total
School dropouts
Households with no school dropouts
Households with 1 girl school dropout
Households with 2 girls school dropouts
Households with 3 girls school dropouts
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Frequency
76
50
20
17
13
176
Frequency
140
16
14
6
176

Percentage
43.2
28.4
11.4
9.7
7.4
100
Percentage
79.5
9.1
8.0
3.4
100

The results on girls who are enrolled in different levels of education and girls who are school
dropouts are displayed in table 10. The majority of households had girls who were enrolled in
primary school 43.2%, 28.4% households had their girls enrolled in secondary school, 11.4% had

37

them enrolled in higher education, and in 9.7% households girls were enrolled in Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET). Girls in 7.4 % households were not enrolled in any
education. As regards school dropouts, the majority of households had their girls 79.5% still in
school. Girls who are school dropouts were registered in few households; 9.1% households had 1
girl each, 8% households had 2 girls each, and 3.4% had 3 girls each.
The results above reveal that percentages of poor rural households with girls enrolled in different
levels of education look promising. Households with girls enrolled in primary education took the
lead; they were followed by households with girls in secondary school education. The number of
households with girls enrolled in higher education was still low. Participation of girls in
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVT) needs to be given attention as some
may still have the traditional belief that there are female-specific jobs. School retention was at a
high level since the majority of households did not have girls who dropped out their education.
Though the cases of girls who dropped out their education were not many, they are worth
attending to.
The achievements in education have greatly resulted from the programs of both the National
Gender Policy and the Girls Education Policy, of which women parliamentarians were
instrumental in their initiation and implementation. According to MIGEPROF (2011), one of the
strategic objectives coupled with policy actions is to improve women/girls access, performance,
retention and completion at all levels of education. For example, as stated by MIGEPROF
(2010), nine year-basic education facilitated full access to education by both girls and boys. The
Forum for Rwandan Women Parliamentarians is one of the key stakeholders at central level in
the implementation of the strategic plan of the National Gender Policy.
When interviewed on the education of girls, the leader in charge of social affairs in SAVE sector
talked about the role of the project called Keeping Girls at School (KGS) in encouraging
young girls to stay in school and perform well. It is based in schools where there are females
who act like godmothers and advise girls on the benefits of staying in school. Another helpful
program mentioned by the leader is Icyumba cyumwana wumukobwa, this is a special room
for the hygiene of girls in schools.
For example, the leader said, girls from poor households benefit from this room especially in
their menstrual periods as they get appropriate hygienic materials to use. In the past, they could

38

feel uncomfortable to come to school due to lack of suitable materials. The leader went on to say
that there are special programs for parents aiming to teach them on

the equality of children.

These programs help parents place a high value on the education of girls. In advocating for
gender equality in education, women members of the National Womens Councils (NWC/CNF)
who were interviewed said that they hold meetings and look into some issues related to
education of girls. For example, when a young girl fails to go to school due to lack of school
materials, they report the case to the leader in charge of social affairs of SAVE sector and assist
in buying them.
4.3.3 Improvement in nutrition
This indicator aimed at measuring the nutritional status in terms of food security and the ability
to eat the food that can fight malnutrition. Respondents were asked to state the number of meals
they were able to take a day. They were also asked if they were able to eat a healthy diet.
Households were asked to state the number of meals they were able to take a day because in
rural areas some people may have only one meal a day, not because they are unable to have the
three meals but because they spend a lot of time in farms/fields and come back home very late in
the evening.
Table 11: The number of meals households were able to take a day and ability (food +
knowledge) to eat a healthy diet
Frequency
123

Percentage
69.8

41
12
176
48

23.3
6.9
100.0
27.2

No

102

58

Don't know
Total

26
176

14.8
100.0

Number of meals households were able to 1

take a day
2
3
Total
Ability (food+ knowledge) to eat a healthy Yes
diet

Source: Field survey, September 2014

Table 11 displays the results of improvement in nutrition. The results show that a big number of
households (69.8%) were able to have only one meal (lunch or dinner) a day. 23.3% households

39

were able to eat two meals (lunch and dinner) a day while only 6.9% households had the ability
to eat three meals a day (i.e. breakfast, lunch, and dinner)
Regarding their ability (food + knowledge) to eat a healthy diet, only 27.2 % households
responded that they eat a healthy diet. A big number of households 58% were not able to eat a
healthy diet while 14.8% households did not know anything about a healthy diet. This situation
shows that the nutritional status in poor rural households in SAVE sector seems problematic. The
number of those who were able to have at least two meals (lunch and dinner) a day was very low,
so was the number of those who had the capacity to have three meals (breakfast, lunch and
dinner) a day.
Based on the results above, two reasons prove that the nutritional status of poor rural households
lags behind, though local authorities may have done a lot to improve it. Firstly, there is a high
number of households that can only have one meal (lunch or dinner) a day and secondly there is
a high number of households which do not eat a healthy diet. These findings reflect the low
levels of monthly income that have been discussed in respondents profile. Both insufficiency of
food and lack of knowledge even ability to eat a healthy diet characterize the nutritional status in
poor rural households in SAVE sector.
Food security, according to MIGEPROF (2010), is one of the programs of the National Gender
Policy. It is aimed at enhancing womens and mens agricultural productivity for food security,
ensuring women and mens capacity to preserve and store food surplus is enhanced for future,
and ensuring that women and men have the necessary facilities for efficient food distribution.
Looking at the results of improvement in nutrition, these aims seem not to have been attained.
Lack of food or the types of food necessary for good health may cause malnutrition in poor rural
households in SAVE sector, which has more adverse effects for women than men. Oniango and
Mukudi (2002) opine that in essence, women with poor nutrition are caught in a vicious circle of
poverty and under nutrition. They add that malnutrition in women contributes significantly to
growing rates of maternal deaths and is directly related to faltering nutritional status and growth
retardation in children.
In a bid to help improve nutritional status in poor rural households, women members of the
National Womens Councils at the cell level said that they collaborate with Health Advisors in
trying to know what is happening as regards good nutrition. Whenever there is a case of

40

malnutrition, they report it to the leader in charge of social affairs who in turn report to other
competent leaders. The executive secretary of one of the cells where this study was conducted
shared some of the programs set to improve nutrition; they include teaching households how to
work and get money for food (e.g. wage farm/paid farm works, forming associations, etc),
preparing the kitchen garden (akarima kigikoni) for vegetables, and advising them to store food
surplus if they have had any.
Finally, the sector leader of social affairs also talked about different ways that are part of sector
strategies targeting improvement in nutrition. They include urging women to meet in the parents
evening umugoroba wababyeyi where they talk about, for example, igikoni cyumudugudu
or village kitchen for good nutrition. The leader also talked about taking children under 5 years
to health centers to check if they are nutritionally suitable. Lastly, there is One Cup of milk per
child program (Inkongoro yUmwana) where children at school and malnourished children are
given milk in order to fight malnutrition.
4.3.4 Healthcare
This indicator measured poor rural households ability to combat malaria and ability to cover
their medical costs. Respondents were asked to say whether they sleep under mosquito bed nets/
insecticide-treated nets. They were also asked to say whether members of their households were
covered by the National Health Insurance scheme Mutuel de Sante.
Table 12: Percentage of households sleeping under mosquito bed nets/insecticide-treated
nets and households covered by the health insurance scheme Mutuel de Sante

Households sleeping under mosquito bed None

nets/insecticide-treated nets
In some bed
rooms
In all bed rooms
Total
Households covered by the health None
insurance scheme Mutuel de Sante
Some members
All members
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Frequency

Percentage

4.5

44

25

124
176

70.5
100

65

36.9

51
60
176

29
34.1
100

41

The results on households sleeping under mosquito bed nets and households covered by the
health insurance scheme Mutuel de Sante are shown in table 12. As regards sleeping under
mosquito bed nets, the majority of respondents 70.5% had mosquito bed nets in all bed rooms,
25% had them in some bed rooms and 4.5% did not have any mosquito bed net at all.
Concerning the National health insurance scheme, all members in 36.9% households were not
covered by the health insurance scheme Mutuel de Sante; in 29% households some members
were covered by the scheme and all members in 34.1% households were covered by the health
insurance scheme.
From the results above, it is evident that though some households did not have any mosquito bed
net and others had them in some bed rooms the number of households sleeping under mosquito
bed nets is higher. This is a good sign of lower rates of malaria prevalence in poor rural
households in SAVE sector. High rates of prevalence of malaria in rural areas would lead poor
rural households to continue to have poor economic growth.
However, National health insurance Mutuel de Sante coverage was at a lower level; the
percentage of households in which all members were not covered by this medical scheme was
higher. It follows that they were not able to cover their medical costs. Talking about the impact
of health insurance schemes, Juutting (2003) asserts that the direct impact would be, by
preventing impoverishment due to catastrophic health expenditures. The indirect impact would
be by ensuring access to health and thereby improving health, thus allowing the individual to
take advantage of economic and social opportunities.
Combating malaria and other disease is a Millennium Development Goal (6). GMO (2010) says
that health advisers contributed to massive use of mosquito bed nets by pregnant women and
thus they have contributed to a decrease in cases of malaria. The National Gender Policy
provides for access to health facilities for both women and men in rural health systems and
referrals. It stipulates that Health Advisors all over the country mobilize and monitor the
implementation of health programs in community.
According to MIGEPROF (2010), putting in place the National Health insurance scheme is one
of the key achievements in gender equality and womens empowerment. This has brought a
remedy to the issue of human rights in relation with access to health services, especially for
women due to their specific reproductive health problems. In spite of the little achievement,

42

health insurance program was not being effectively implemented in poor rural households in
SAVE sector.
Despite the low access to health insurance scheme, interviewed leaders in SAVE sector proved
to have done their best to mobilize poor rural households for the purpose. The executive
secretary of one of the cells in which the study was carried out said that they advise the rural
people to work in groupings (Amatsinda) that contribute 100 Rwanda francs per week. These
groupings work together with Ikimina cya Mutuel to pay health insurance scheme of the
members.
The leader in charge of social affairs in SAVE sector added that divisions of Community-based
and participatory effort towards problem solving (Ibyiciro byubudehe) help rural poor where
they pay depending on their financial capacity. These strategies, the leader said, are believed to
achieve positive results since they successfully helped poor rural households to increase their
access to health insurance scheme in the previous years of Mutuel de Sante. Efforts to fight
malaria, the leader said, include providing households with mosquito bed nets. Health centers
also provide bed nets for pregnant women. Lastly, the indoor residual spraying in GISAGARA
district contributed a lot in fighting Malaria.
4.3.5 Improvement in literacy among women
Improvement in literacy is another indicator of social empowerment. In this study, it was
measured by the number of women and men who are able to read and write and those who are
not. The aim was to find out how literacy programs have been instrumental in improving poor
rural households literacy.
Table 13: Women and men who are able to read and write and those who are not
Scale
Able to read
Not able to read
Total

Women alone
129(73.3%)
47(26.7%)
176

Husband alone
149(84.7%)
27(15.3%)
176

Both
141(79.7%)
35(21.3%)
176

Source: Field survey, September 2014

Table 13 presents percentages of women and men who are able to read and write and those who
are not. 73.3% women are able to read and write while 26.7% are not. 84.7% men are able to
read and write while 15.3% are not. In all surveyed households, the literacy rate for both women
and men is 79.7%; illiterate men and women make 21.3%.

43

The results above clearly show that literacy programs are being a success in poor rural
households in SAVE sector of GISAGARA district. However, literacy rates are still lower for
women (73.3%) than for men (84.7%). According to James and Trail (1995 as cited in Parveen
and Leonhuser (2004), improving literacy skills of women have a beneficial impact on their
socio-economic condition. They go on to stress that proper training and implementation of
literacy programs are essential for the empowerment of women and this could be one of the best
solutions to rural poverty. Literate women can more easily demand and protect their rights in
order to change and improve their situations.
Addressing adult literacy is one of the strategies of the National Gender Policy to improve the
Rwandan mens and womens welfare. The Government of Rwanda continues to strive to make
all Rwandans literate, in order to be competitive in local and international markets and to achieve
Rwandas aspiration of becoming a knowledge-based economy and a middle-income country by
2020. In this regard, some 5181 literacy centres have been set up across the country, with the
target of having at least four centers in each administrative Cell, by 2017. Bringing these centers
closer to the community enables women to factor the unpaid care work time within the literacy
program (UN Women, 2014).
Both the in charge of social affairs and the executive secretary, when interviewed, said that they
urge rural men and women in households to enroll in literacy centers that are based in cells of
SAVE sector. They added that they have church partners in increasing literacy rates, for example
the Pentecost Church in Rwanda is one of the churches that help in literacy programs. They
talked about functional literacy where women and men do not only learn to read and write, but
they are also taught some other helpful skills in their daily lives. Some of them are ways of
saving, tailoring, life skills like domestic harmony (good feelings in the family or home),
working in associations to develop their households, and others. The results showed that all these
efforts are being a success.
4.3.6 Extent to which women participate in household decision making
In measuring the extent to which women participate in household decision making, respondents
were asked questions under the following three headings: who decides how to spend money (the
wife? the husband? both?) and womens participation in decision-making over other key

44

household decisions (e.g. decisions affecting childrens health and education, as well as
decisions over their own well being).
4.3.6.1 Decisions on how to spend money
This indicator aimed at measuring womens empowerment in terms of joint decision making
ability on how to spend money. Respondents were asked a question that would show that women
in poor rural households can jointly participate in households decisions on how to spend money.
Table 14: Womens participation in decisions on how to spend money
Who decides how to spend money
The wife
The husband
Both
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Frequency
29
50
97
176

Percentage
16.5
28.4
55.1
100

Table 14 shows the results of the level of participation of women in household decisions on how
to spend money. The results clearly show that in many households (55.1%) both the wife and
husband jointly decide how to spend money in their households. In 28.4% husbands, the husband
alone decide how to spend money while in 16.5% the wife lone decide how to spend money. The
level of joint decision in deciding how to spend money is higher; this is a good sign of women
empowerment in these households.
4.3.6.2 The level of participation of women in decision making over other key household
decisions
Other key household decisions include decisions affecting childrens health and education, as
well as decisions over their own well being. In measuring the level of womens participation in
such decisions, respondents were asked to rate it high, medium or low. The purpose was to see
how different programs contributed in overcoming patriarchal attitudes with which men denied a
voice to women in decisions on their childrens life and those affecting womens good life in
their households.

45

Table 15: The level of participation of women in decision making over other key household
decisions
Level
Frequency Percentage

High

69

39.2

Medium
Low
Total

82
25
176

46.6
14.2
100

Source: Field survey, September 2014

Table 15 presents percentages of the level of participation of women in decision making over
other key household decisions. A big number of respondents (46.6%) responded that the level of
womens participation in decision making over other key household decisions is medium. 39.2%
respondents said that this level is high while only 14.2% respondents answered that the level of
womens participation in decision making over other key household decisions is low. These
results clearly show that, given that the higher percentage of respondents responded by medium,
the level of womens participation in these decisions is medium.
In short, the level of joint decisions on how to spend money is higher and the level of womens
participation in decision making over other key household decisions is medium. Looking at the
results, it is obvious that the extent to which women participate in household decision making
(joint decision making ability over income, key decisions affecting childrens health and
education, as well as over their own well being) is high.
As stated by Harper,Nowacka, Alder, and Ferrant (2014) , joint decision-making ability within
the household is key to womens empowerment. They argue that women who can jointly
participate in household decisions have a greater say over how their own income is spent, over
key decisions affecting their childrens health and education, as well as over their own wellbeing.
Local leaders who were interviewed gave their concerns. Women members of the National
Womens Councils said that women hold meetings, sometimes invite men and talk about the
benefits of joint decision making in their households; they also read related laws together. In
their role of advocacy, women of the NWC speak for other women towards their husbands. The
leader in charge of social affairs at the sector level said that, though a lot has been achieved, joint

46

decision making ability within the households needs strengthening given the prevailing
patriarchal attitudes in some poor rural households.
To conclude the discussion on this section on womens social empowerment, high representation
of women in the parliament (in the second mandate 2008-2013) has been very critical to women
in rural poor households in advocating for laws, policies and programs which provided them
with the social power to a satisfactory extent. MIGEPROF (2010) asserts that having critical
representation of women in the parliament, one of the key decision making organs of the
country, is one of many opportunities that Rwanda offers and contribute positively to the
implementation of the national gender policy.
4.4 Womens economic empowerment
The economic dimension of womens empowerment measured the following indicators:
enhanced decision-making power and rights over land, control over income, access to and
control of family resources, womens economic contribution to household welfare, skills
development/training and women and mens access to financial institutions.
Respondents provided responses to the following sub indicators: the extent of womens access
and equal decision making over land, womens freedom to dispose of their own income/earnings,
decision making power on the income from the sales or other earnings, womens ownership of
resources in households and control (decision making power) on these intra-household resources
and on the use of loans in particular, employment gains made by women from farm and nonfarm jobs, women and men who are skilled in different activities, and finally women and men
accessing financial institutions (Bank/MFI) and took out a bank loan to start their own business.
4.4.1 Enhanced decision-making power and rights over land
This economic empowerment indicator was set to measure the extent of womens access and
equal decision making over land. The issue was to assess the extent to which laws, policies and
programs advocated by women parliamentarians enabled women in poor rural households to
have decision making power over land. Women were asked to rate how they consider the extent
of their decision making power over land such as through entrepreneurship or accessing credit
(used as collateral for a loan).

47

Table 16: The extent of womens access and equal decision making over land
Extent
High
Medium
Low
Total

Frequency
69
72
35
176

Percent
39.2
40.9
19.9
100

Source: Field survey, September 2014

Table 16 displays the results on the extent of womens access and equal decision making over
land, such as through entrepreneurship or accessing credit (used as collateral for a loan). The
majority of respondents (40.9%) responded that the extent of womens access and equal decision
making over land is medium. Those who responded by high were 39.2% while 19.9% responded
that this extent is low.
These results show that the extent of womens access and equal decision making over land such
as through entrepreneurship or accessing credit (used as collateral for a loan) in poor rural
households is medium. This is because the number of those who ranked this extent medium and
high was higher than those who ranked it low. This means that women have a medium decision
making power on how the land is going to be used, such as who can sell the plot, who can rent
out the plot, who can offer the plot as collateral, and on who can decide who inherits the plot.
Harper,Nowacka, Alder, and Ferrant (2014) argue that womens economic empowerment
depends on their rights, access and ability to make decisions over land and assets. They go on to
say that decision-making power over land and assets is linked to economic empowerment, such
as through entrepreneurship or accessing credit. It also increases their status within the family
and their ability to make joint decisions involving the household. Harper,Nowacka, Alder, and
Ferrant (2014) also stress that discrimination in the laws and practices that govern inheritance or
land and asset ownership deepens womens economic vulnerability to external changes and
severely reduces their ability to escape poverty.
Economic empowerment for rural women is one of the programs of the National Gender Policy.
As regards womens economic empowerment through their rights, access and ability to make
decisions over land and assets, the Government of Rwanda promulgated the Land Law,
no.08/2005; it guarantees women equal rights with men on access, ownership and utilization of
land, thereby increasing womens access and control of major economic resources (UN Women,
2014).

48

In 1999, the Civil Code was revised to institute Part V on Matrimonial Regimes, Liberalities and
Successions. This law provides for equal inheritance rights between women and men, girls and
boys (UN Women, 2014.p.3). Ensuring effective dissemination and enforcement of the land law
is one of the strategies of the National Gender Policy. In addition to the National Gender Policy,
as the main tool, the land policy is another tool which refers to the Land Law to banish
unfavorable land tenure system to women. The results of womens secured access and equal
decision making over land and assets in poor rural households reflect the effectiveness of these
tools. Though some of the laws may have passed in the first mandate 2003-2008, women
parliamentarians were very instrumental in implementing them in the second mandate 20082013.
When interviewed about the strategies to strengthen womens access and equal decision making
over land and assets, the leader in charge of social affairs at the sector level pointed out that
Sensitization of the people is the main tool they use for this purpose. They sensitize households
to womens land rights and its positive impact on their households. The good result is that no
husband dares to sell land without seeking his wifes consent.
Finally, women members of the National womens council said that they do their best to get
information on the enforcement of the Land Law in rural households. They do not hesitate to
report any case of land dispute to the executive secretary of the cell to pursue the case; he can for
example submit it to Mediators (Abunzi). In everything they do, women members of the
National Womens Council are guided by appropriate policies, programs and laws.
4.4.2 Control over income
Control over income was assessed through two sub indicators of womens economic
empowerment; these are womens freedom to dispose of their own income and womens
decision making power over income from the sales or other earnings. Women were asked to say
how often they gain freedom to dispose of their own income in their households. They were also
asked to say how often they have decision making power on the income from the sales (e.g.
cattle, goat, pig and other common property sales) or other earnings.

49

4.4.2.1 Womens freedom to dispose of their own income/earnings

In measuring the level of womens freedom to dispose of own income and, the response mode
showing the frequency of freedom of the wife to dispose of her own income was used. The
response mode never was given a very low level, the response mode rarely was given a low
level, the response sometimes was labeled medium, very often was given a high level and
finally the response always was given a very high level of freedom to dispose of her own
income.
Table 17: Level of womens freedom to dispose of their own income
Response mode
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Very often
Always
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Frequency
75
14
34
39
14
176

Percentage
42.6
8.0
19.3
22.2
8.0
100

Table 17 displays the level of womens freedom to dispose of their own income/earnings. The
majority of respondents 42.6% responded that women are never free to dispose of their own
income while 8% respondents said that women are always free to dispose of their own income.
8% respondents proved that women rarely dispose of their own income and 19.3% agreed that
women are sometimes free to dispose of their income. Finally, 22.2% respondents responded by
very often.
The results above indicate different levels of womens freedom to dispose of their own
income/earnings in poor rural households in SAVE sector of GISAGARA district. In fact, in the
majority of households womens freedom to dispose of their own income is at a very low level
(they are never free to own their income). Putting all levels together, it can be observed that
women in the rest of the households are at least free to dispose of their own income though high
levels have lower percentages. There are low percentages varying from low to very high.
Womens own income is relevant to households welfare and to their agency (womens ability to
make effective choices and to transform those choices into desired outcomes). According to
World Bank (2012), when higher incomes come mainly through mens greater earnings, the

50

impact on womens agency might be muted or even negative. But higher incomes that come
through womens own earnings increase their voice and bargaining power in multiple ways.
With regard to rural womens ability to dispose of their own income, the National Gender Policy,
in its programs, provides for womens trainings in order to be able to invest in income generating
activities through facilitated access to credits and other production means. It also facilitates and
supports the enhancement of rural womens entrepreneurial skills. Not only this, but also the
policy was designed to ensure that rural womens products are given greater value through
quality improvement of their products and skills development. It can be observed that, though
there are many poor rural households in SAVE sector where women are not free to dispose of
their own income, the programs are leading to promising results.
Womens sources of own income in poor rural households in SAVE sector, according to the
interviewees, are varied. There are womens associations (amatsinda yabagore) which borrow
money from Vision Umurenge Program (VIUP) and conduct small businesses like selling crops,
drinks, and other things. They also use the VIUP loan to breed livestock. There are also VIUP
jobs like building roads, and other public works. Some other sources are skilled activities such as
tailoring, weaving and others.
As it has been discussed earlier on joint decision making ability, Women who can jointly
participate in household decisions have a greater say over how their own income is spent. After
women have owned their income, the husband should not deny her the right to decide on how to
spend the money. Women members of the NWC said that this wrong attitude has been changing
for the better. Before sensitization, men in rural households had stuck to the idea that all
resources in the household belonged to them.
Where respondents answered by never (very low level), women are denied by their husbands the
right to go outside the households and make their own money. This means that they spend all
their time at home doing unpaid non-farm works; they totally depend on their husbands. Other
levels from the rest of the households that were presented in the results depend on the sources of
income stated above. Looking at the results, we cannot say that women are at a greater
disadvantage, but leaders still need to push hard to help women gain freedom to dispose of their
own income; which is beneficial to their households and their agency as well.

51

4.4.2.2 Womens decision making power on the income from the sales or other earnings
In measuring the level of decision making power on the income from the sales or other earnings,
the response mode showing the frequency of decision making power on the income from the
sales or other earnings was used. The response mode never was given a very low level, the
response mode rarely was given a low level, the response sometimes was labeled medium,
very often was given a high level and finally the response always was given a very high level
of decision making power on the income from the sales or other earnings.
Table 18: Level of womens decision making power on the income from the sales or other
earnings
Scale
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Very often
Always
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Frequency
11
22
39
69
35
176

Percentage
6.2
12.5
22.2
39.2
19.9
100

Table 18 shows the results of the level of womens decision making power on the income from
the sales or other earnings. In the majority of households (39.2%) women very often have
decision making power on the income from the sales or other earnings. This is followed by
22.2% households where women sometimes have this decision making power. Women in 19.9%
households always have the power to decide on the income from the sales or other earnings. 12.5
% households rarely give women the power to make decisions on the income from the sales or
other earnings while only 6.2% never give women this power.
These results clearly identify different levels of womens decision making power on the income
from the sales or other earnings in poor rural households in SAVE sector in GISAGARA district.
In fact, in the majority of households women have decision making power on the income from
the sales or other earnings. Percentages of medium and high levels are higher than low levels.
This is a good sign of empowerment in process as many husbands do not tend to ignore the voice
of their wives in deciding what to do (and when to do it) with the income from sales. According
to World Bank (2012) in its 2012 World Development report, womens control over income is
one of the outcomes or expressions of her agency.

52

The National Gender Policy, in its programs, provides for human rights and the rule of law. In
this regards, leaders do their best, as they conveyed it in the interview, to raise husbands
awareness on womens rights and ask them to observe them as human rights. It can be noted that
the achievements in the area of womens decision making power on the income from the sales or
other earnings result from the combined work of local leaders and women in key decision
making organs of the country, especially the parliament through the Forum for Rwandan Women
Parliamentarians. It should be noted that this forum is one of the institutional framework for the
implementation of the National Gender Policy.
4.4.3 Access to and control of family resources
This indicator measured womens economic empowerment in terms of ownership of resources in
their households. It also analyzed if women had control (decision making power) on those
resources and on the use of loans in particular. Women were asked to say if they own land,
livestock, and other assets in their households.
Table 19: Women owning resources in their households
Scale

Rural Land

Livestock
(e.g. Other Assets Joint Land
cow, got, etc.)
registration
(with land
title)

86(48.9%)
98(55.7%)
Women
who own
resources
90(51.1%)
78(44.1%
Women
who do not
own
resources
Total
176
176
Source: Field survey, September 2014

Access
to
Credit
(commercial
or
microcredit)
With access:
74(42%)

69(39.2%)

141(80.1%)

107(60.8)

35(19.9%)

With
no
access:
102(58%)

176

176

176

Table 19 presents the results on womens ownership of resources in their households. It is

evident that the number of women with joint land registration (with land title) is higher (80.1%)
than that of women who were not jointly registered (19.9%). The number of women who own
livestock (e.g. cow, got, pig, and others) 55.7% exceeds that of women who do not own any
livestock (44.1%). Womens ownership of rural land (48.9%) was lower than that of women who
do not own any land of their own. Women who own other assets (especially non-productive

53

assets) are far fewer (39.2%) than those who do not own any other asset (60.8%). Womens
access to Credit (commercial or micro-credit) was lower (42%) compared to women with no
access to credit (58%).
From the results above, it is evident that many women own land through joint land registration
(with land title). This resulted from the enforcement of the land law at the same time respecting
womens land rights in the registration process. To add to this, due to the fact that the
constitution recognizes only the rights of women regally married under civil marriage, local
leaders and the NWC work together to mobilize households to join this marriage. Women
members of the National Womens Council said that they make lists of all households married
under customary law and the sector organizes their civil marriage. Another positive remark from
the results is the high number of womens ownership of livestock (especially cow); this was
caused by the provision of One Cow per Poor Family Program (GIRINKA program).
A part from the land owned from joint registration, women own rural land especially inherited
from their parents. Ownership of these resources has for sure been a source of economic
empowerment for women in poor rural households in SAVE sector in GISAGARA district. The
evidence is the number of women who proved their access to Credit (commercial or microcredit), though they are not many compared to women with no access to credit.
Zeller et al. (1997 as cited in Njuki and Sanginga 2013) contend that farmers and livestock
keepers who have access to credit, savings and insurance services can afford to finance the
inputs, labor and equipment they need to generate income. They can invest in more profitable
enterprises and are more likely to participate in markets more effectively; and can adopt more
efficient strategies to stabilize their food consumption, meaning they are more food secure.
A part from being used as collateral or a source of income, land enhances womens bargaining
power in the households. FAO (2002 cited in Kathewera-Banda, Kamanga- Njikho, Malera,
Mauluka, Mazinga, and Ndhlovu 2011) contends that there is a strong correlation between the
decision making powers that a person enjoys and the quantity and quality of the land rights held
by that person. FAO further argues that a majority of womens access to and control over land
often reflects intra-household decisions which create gender asymmetries in bargaining power
between household members.

54

To Parveen and Leonhuser (2004), access to resources refers to the right, scope, power or
permission to use and/or get benefits from household resources; these are equal consumption of
nutritious food, handling and spending money, selling of minor agricultural products,
interpersonal communication, and utilization of credit money if they receive. They further assert
that ownership of assets, productive and non-productive, refers to the ability of a woman to
control her own current assets and enjoy benefits accruing from them. Ownership of resources is
one thing, and control is another thing. Women may own resources but lose the power to have
control over them. The levels of control discussed in the previous paragraphs give hope that
womens control over household resources is becoming promising in poor rural households in
SAVE sector.
4.4.4 Womens economic contribution to household welfare
As regards womens economic contribution to household welfare, a lot of interest was on
employment gains made by women from farm and non-farm jobs. Particular attention was drawn
to womens contribution through non-farm jobs. Another important point was to analyze if
women in poor rural households do not spend a lot of time in unpaid care, which prevents them
from participating in income generating activities outside their households.
Table 20: Types of employment that help women generate and increase income in
households
Scale
Women alone
Husband alone
118(67%)
109(62%)
Unpaid farm worker
39(22.2%)
46(26.1%)
Wage farmer
11(6.2%)
15(8.5%)
Wage non-farm
8(4.5%)
6 (3.4%)
Unpaid Non farm worker
176
176
Total
Source: Field survey, September 2014
Table 20 shows percentages of womens contribution to household welfare through different
types of employment. The results show that the majority of women (67%) and men (62%) are
unpaid farm workers. In this category, the number is higher for women than men. The number
of men wage farmers (26.1%) exceeds women wage farmers (22.2%). Women who do off-farm
jobs (wage non-farm) are also fewer (6.2%) than men (8.5%) in this type of job. 4.5% women do
unpaid non-farm works (these include tasks typical for women (domestic work): cleaning, child-

55

rearing, cattle feeding, and food processing and selling) compared to men 3.4% in the same
works.
The results above show clearly that many women and men in households are unpaid farm
workers, and there are more women than men in this area. This might be the reason why monthly
income levels are lower in poor rural households in SAVE sector. Men wage farmers exceed
women wage farmers. This simply means that there are not many women who earn money from
farm works.
Many women and men work in other peoples farms and earn cash wages on a daily basis.
Women who do off-farm jobs (wage non-farm) are also fewer than men in this type of job. This
implies that womens economic contribution to households welfare in terms of off-farm jobs is
very low. A large proportion of money earned by poor rural households in SAVE sector comes
from paying farm works. It would not be easy to raise the level of their monthly income with this
type of employment since it pays less than off-farm jobs.
Having a lower percentage of women in unpaid non-farm works (tasks typical for women
(domestic work): cleaning, child-rearing, cattle feeding, and food processing and selling), also
referred to as household chores or unpaid care, means that the number of women in the care
economy has significantly reduced. The National Gender Policy plans to reduce this economy
through trainings of women with the aim of enabling them to invest in income generating
activities through facilitated access to credits and other production means. Looking at the results,
this aim has not been very successfully achieved. Still on unpaid care, it is observed that that the
number of women is not very different from that of men. This means that unpaid care is almost
equally distributed between women and men.
The National Gender Policy provides for employment of women. During the interview, local
leaders said that off-farm jobs come from VIUP jobs and loans, UBUDEHE program, and skilled
activities. It should be noted that VIUP loans increase in quantity depending on the high number
of women. Some of them have been discussed earlier in this section. Owing to the fact that
womens contribution in terms of off-farm jobs is low, a lot needs to be done to strengthen them
in order to avoid economic violence or any other related adverse effects on households
development.

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4.4.5 Skills development/training

Skills development is an indicator of economic empowerment which was set to know if women
and men in poor rural households had skills in different activities. Some of the activities include
handcrafts, tailoring, and carpentry. Skills development for women is of major concern as it is an
opportunity for them to overcome the burden of unpaid care and start generating income for their
households.
Table 21: Percentages of women and men who are skilled in different activities
Scale
Women
Men
77(43.5%)
62(35.2%)
Handcrafts (weaving, etc)
54(31%)
18(10.2%)
Tailoring
8(4.5%)
48(27.3%)
Carpentry
37(21%)
48(27.3%)
Others
Total
176
176
Source: Field survey, September 2014
Table 21 shows the percentages of women and men who are skilled in different activities. The
majority of men (35.2%) and women (43.5%) are skilled in handcrafts (weaving, making wood
products like milk containers (ibyansi), and others). The number of women in this area exceeds
that of men. Similarly, women make a higher number (31%) in tailoring than men (10.2%). On
the contrary, there are more men (27.3%) in carpentry (making wooden objects like chairs, beds,
tables, and others) than women (4.5%). 21% women versus 27.3% are in other activities
(building, ceramics and pottery, bead work (making jewelry (e.g. necklace) with beads, shoe
mending, and others).
In light of these results, it is noticed that there are more women in handcrafts and tailoring than
men. Another observation is that there are fewer women than men in carpentry. It follows that
some skilled activities/jobs are still regarded as feminine (handcrafts, tailoring and others) others
are regarded as masculine (especially carpentry and building). This area of jobs traditionally
regarded as masculine needs improving in rural households. It is also important to invest more
efforts in skills development to empower women with many off-farm jobs. This will strengthen
womens economic contribution to households welfare.
FAO (2010) argues that Skills development is a key to improving rural productivity,
employability and income-earning opportunities, enhancing food security and promoting
environmentally sustainable rural development and livelihoods. FAO further claims that despite

57

rural womens major role in agriculture and other rural activities, higher barriers in education
and training limit their participation in more productive and remunerative work, perform
managerial and leadership roles and participate fully in the development of their communities.
Targeted action is needed to dismantle these barriers.
FAO finally contends that Skills development is particularly important to rural women who are
more likely to be contributing family workers, subsistence farmers or home-based micro
entrepreneurs in the informal sector, or performing low-paid, unskilled work as seasonal
workers. Women often have different training needs than men, linked to their domestic work and
care responsibilities, as well as to gender based divisions of labor for managing or undertaking
specific tasks in crop, livestock, forestry or fish production and processing (FAO, 2011).
Skills development is an essential component of the program of economic empowerment for
rural women. In addition, different strategies have been developed, they include equipping both
men and women with skills and knowledge needed for market oriented production and better
management, training more women for them to acquire needed skills and knowledge for
professional well paying jobs and others (GMO, 2010). Looking at the results, it is clear that
these programs have been being effective; nevertheless, a lot needs to be done to develop skills
for women in poor rural households.
During the interview, one of the local leaders said that different skills are taught in SAVE sector.
The leader added that skills development has reached a good step, for example women who are
gathered in a skill center formed a saving association (INTAMBWE). They save money for a
given time, and then they meet on an agreed day to hit the target (Igihe cyo kurasa ku ntego). On
this day, they meet for a very profitable action for every member of INTAMBWE. For example,
they can buy mattress and leave an amount of money for home use. Skills are also taught in
AGAKIRIRO skills development center in Rwanza cell.
4.4.6 Access of women and men to financial institutions (Bank/MFI)
In measuring access of women and men to financial institutions, the aim was to ensure if women
in poor rural households were mobilized to work with financial institutions. But more
importantly, the number of women who took out a bank loan to start their own business was of
concern as regards their economic empowerment. Questions set on this area aimed to find out

58

how programs and policies lobbied by women parliamentarians enabled women to increase their
economic power in their households.
Table 22: Access of women and men to financial institutions (Bank/MFI)
Scale
Have a Bank Account
Took out a bank loan
Women
Husband
Women
Husband
45(25.5%)
17 ((9.6%)
29 (16.5%)
Classical 44(25%)
banks
50 (28.5%)
32 (18.2%)
44(25%)
SACCO 66 (37.5%)
& MFI
81(46%)
Do not 66(37.5%)
have a
bank
account
Total
176
176
Source: Field survey, September 2014

127(72.2%)

103(58.5%)

176

176

Table 22 displays percentages of women and men who access financial institutions (Bank/MFI)
and those who took out a bank loan to start their own business. All respondents with access to
financial institutions have their accounts in Peoples Bank/Banque Populaire du Rwanda (BPR)
and Umurenge SACCO. The results show that more women (25 % + 37.5%=62.5%) than men
(25.5% + 28.5%=54%) have a bank account, but women who took out a bank loan (9.6% +
18.2%=27.8%) are less than men (16.5% + 25%=41.5%). Women without a bank account are
fewer (37.5%) than men (46%), but women who did not take out a bank loan are more (72.2%)
than men (58.5%).
From the results above, it is observed that more women than men own a bank account, but fewer
women than men took out a bank loan. Talking about the level of womens freedom to dispose of
own income, it was found that the majority of women are never free to dispose of their own
income in their households. Lack of this freedom may be curtailing womens access to financial
services. During the interview, women of the NWC councils agreed that some men still take the
attitude that all household resources belong to men. Husbands with such a bad attitude towards
womens freedom to dispose of their own income translate womens ability to make their own
money into female domination. It then follows that some of these poor rural households are still
characterized by male domination and female subordination.
As it was discussed with local leaders in the interview, most of the women with bank accounts
took out loans from UMURENGE SACCO where they use the money in their small projects

59

either individually or in their cooperatives. The Gender Policy provides for a gender sensitive
legal and regulatory framework for micro-finance. Facilitating access to bank credits for majority
of women involved in business is one of the strategies of the policy. In light of the results, the
area of womens access to financial services needs improving so as to lead to the effectiveness of
the policies and programs lobbied in this area.
As stated by Fletschner and Kenney (2011), rural womens access to financial resources should
be enhanced to strengthen their ability to influence household decisions. When spouses have
conflicting preferences, what the household borrows, invests, produces, consumes, spends and
saves depends on the power each spouse has to influence these decisions. Spouses relative
bargaining position and, as a result, the extent to which they shape their households behavior
depends on how their individual economic and social fallback positions compare (Lundberg and
Pollak, 1993 cited in Fletschner and Kenney (2011).
Fletschner and Kenney (2011)go on to explain that those with considerably more access and
control over resources than their partners will be able to exert greater pressure and tilt their
households decisions towards the economic activities and allocations they prefer. Conversely,
spouses who, compared with their partners, have very limited access to and control over
resources will have very little influence, if any, on their households economic behavior.
As a conclusion of the discussion on this section on womens economic empowerment, high
representation of women in the parliament (in the second mandate 2008-2013) has been very
critical to women in poor rural households in providing them with the economic power to a
satisfactory extent.
4.5 Identified opportunities and challenges to womens social and economic empowerment
A lot has been achieved with regard to womens social and economic empowerment in poor rural
households. This was made possible due to several opportunities at hand. The major opportunity
lies in the fact that the Government of Rwanda attaches great importance to the promotion of
gender equality and womens empowerment as a prerequisite for sustainable development.
According to UN Women (2014), gender equality and the empowerment of women are
recognized as central pillars to sustainable development in all national planning instruments,
including Rwandas long-term development, Vision 2020, all development strategies since

60

2000 (PRSPI and EDPRS I&II) and the two Government 7-year Programs (2003-2010 and 20102017).
Having the Forum for Rwandan Women Parliamentarians (FFRP) is another opportunity. In line
with its role, lobbying and advocating for decision makers, advocating for gender equality in
legislation and line ministries and institutions affiliated to Government, the FFRP has been very
instrumental in bringing changes with regard to womens empowerment in poor rural
households. During the interview, local leaders highly appreciated its implication in monitoring
the implementation of the laws and policies at the grassroots level. For example, as local leaders
and women members of NWC said, women parliamentarians, in their different commissions,
visited different associations and activities of women in GISAGARA district.
Another opportunity is that local leaders in GISAGARA district work with a will to promote
gender equality and empower women through different activities, some of them were discussed
in this chapter. However, challenges to womens social and economic empowerment in poor
rural households in GISGARA district remain. They include patriarchal attitudes in some
households leaving women at a disadvantage with regard to decision making power on
household resources, women being unaware of their rights, women lacking self-confidence and
slow to participate in development programs, low levels of understanding of the rationale behind
gender equality and womens empowerment, and cultural barriers leaving women unable to
report anything against their empowerment (e.g. GBV cases in households).

61

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
The present study whose topic is Advocacy of Women Parliamentarians and Empowerment of
Women in Rural Households: The case study of GISAGARA district(2008-2013) mainly aimed to
assess the significance of womens higher representation in the lower house of the parliament (in
the second mandate 2008-2013) in poor rural households. With the aim of achieving this overall
objective, the study evaluated the effectiveness of the high representation of women in the
parliament in advocating for gender sensitive laws and lobbing for policies and programs able to
socially and economically empower women in poor rural households in Rwanda. It also analyzed
the extent to which the laws, policies and programs have served to provide women in rural poor
households in Rwanda with social and economic power.
Rwanda developed a National Gender Policy which serves as a tool to facilitate the
implementation of various short-term government programs in a gender sensitive manner. The
achievement of those programs is a prerequisite for the attainment of the government long-term
programs. In other words, through Rwandas development vision, the national gender policy has
been a tool that helps to facilitate to take into account equality of opportunities between women
and men, boys and girls in every sector.
The critical role of women parliamentarians in the implementation of this overall policy and in
lobbying for other policies and programs has been evidenced through the work of the Forum for
Rwandan Women Parliamentarians (FFRP). This forum speeds up the implementation of a
gender approach in the parliaments mission and structure, promotes gender sensitive laws,
carries out a gender-based control of Government action and budget, and monitors the
implementation of the laws and policies and oversees how they are translated into actions to
equally benefit women and men at the grassroots level. It then follows that the laws, policies and
programs presented in chapter 4 evidence the effectiveness of the high number of women in the
parliament of Rwanda as regards empowerment of women in rural households. Hence, the first
objective was achieved.
The second objective of this study was to analyze the extent to which the laws, policies and
programs, advocated and lobbied by women parliamentarians, have served to provide women in
poor rural households in Rwanda with social and economic power. Based on the findings from

62

the research, the laws, policies and programs have socially and economically empowered women
in poor rural households to a satisfactory extent.
To reach this conclusion, different indicators and sub indicators were measured under the social
and economic dimensions of women empowerment. Discussions on the social dimension of
womens empowerment followed the results on these measured indicators: freedom from
violence, education of girls, improvement in nutrition and healthcare, improvement in literacy
among women, and extent to which women participate in household decision making.
The results proved that attitudes towards domestic violence changed for the better since the
majority of respondents disagreed that a husband is justified in beating his wife under certain
circumstances. Thus, women in poor rural households enjoy freedom from violence to a
satisfactory degree. The forms of violence such as intimidation, coercion, insulting, beating, and
marital rape happen at low rates in poor rural households in SAVE sector of GISGARA district.
As regards education of girls, it was found that households in poor rural households in SAVE
sector place a high value on the education of girls. Another good point is that enrollment of girls
in different levels of education in poor rural households in SAVE looks promising and school
retention is at a high level.
With regard to improvement in nutrition and healthcare, the nutritional status of poor rural
households lags behind, though local authorities did a lot to improve it. This is justified by a high
number of households that can only have one meal (lunch or dinner) a day and a high number of
households who do not eat a healthy diet. These findings reflect the low levels of monthly
income that have been discussed in the results on respondents monthly income.
Regarding healthcare, there are lower rates of malaria prevalence in poor rural households in
SAVE sector since the number of households sleeping under mosquito bed nets is higher and the
indoor residual spraying was going on in GISAGARA district. Still on healthcare, it should be
noted that the Universal Community Health Insurance scheme (Mutuelle de sant) coverage still
lagged behind when the study was carried out; the percentage of households in which all
members were not covered by this medical scheme was higher. It follows that they were not able
to cover their medical costs. Nevertheless, this was not the case in previous years; there were
satisfying numbers of households covered by Mutuelle de Sante.

63

Finally, the last indicators in the area of womens social empowerment were literacy rates and
joint decision making ability within households. The results showed that literacy programs are
being a success in poor rural households in SAVE sector of GISAGARA district. However,
literacy rates are still lower for women (73.3%) than for men (84.7%). Concerning joint decision
making ability within households, the level of joint decisions on how to spend money is higher
and the level of womens participation in decision making over other key household decisions is
medium. It then follows that the extent to which women participate in household decision
making (joint decision making ability over income, key decisions affecting childrens health and
education, as well as over their own well being) is high.
As regards womens economic empowerment, discussions on this dimension followed the results
on these measured indicators: enhanced decision-making power and rights over land, control
over income, access to and control of family resources, womens economic contribution to
household welfare, skills development/training, and access to financial services.
Womens enhanced decision-making power and rights over land and assets was measured by the
extent of womens access and over land. The results showed that the extent of womens access
and equal decision making over land such as through entrepreneurship or accessing credit (used
as collateral for a loan) in poor rural households is medium. This means that women have a
medium level of decision making power on how the land is going to be used, such as who can
sell the plot, who can rent out the plot, who can offer the plot as collateral, and lastly on who can
decide who inherits the plot.
Control over income was measured by womens freedom to dispose of their own
income/earnings and womens decision making power on the income from the sales or other
earnings. The results indicated different levels of womens freedom to dispose of their own
income/earnings in poor rural households in SAVE sector of GISAGARA district. In fact, in the
majority of the households womens freedom to dispose of their own income was at a low level.
As regards decision making power on the income from the sales or other earnings, the results
clearly identified different levels of womens decision making power on the income from the
sales or other earnings in poor rural households in SAVE sector in GISAGARA district. In fact,
in the majority of households women had decision making power on the income from the sales
or other earnings at a high level. This is a good sign of economic empowerment in process as

64

many husbands do not tend to ignore the voice of their wives in deciding what to do (and when
to do it) with the income from sales. However, though women in poor rural households are
satisfactorily free to decide on the income; many are denied freedom to own their income.
Access to and control of family resources was measured by womens ownership of resources in
households, control (decision making power) on these intra-household resources and on the use
of loans in particular. The results proved that many women own land through joint land
registration (with land title), in other words land co-owned by spouses. This resulted from the
enforcement of the land law at the same time respecting womens land rights in the registration
process. To add to this, due to the fact that the constitution recognizes only the rights of women
regally married under civil marriage, the work of local leaders and the National Womens
Council in mobilizing households to join this marriage was very important.
Another positive remark from the results is the high number of womens ownership of livestock
(especially cow). This was caused by the provision of One Cow per Poor Household Program
(GIRINKA program). A part from the land owned from joint registration, women own rural land
especially inherited from their parents. Ownership of these resources has for sure been a source
of economic empowerment for some women in poor rural households in SAVE sector in
GISAGARA district. The evidence is the number of women who proved their access to Credit
(commercial or micro-credit), though they were not many compared to women with no access to
credit. The levels of control discussed in the previous paragraphs give hope that womens control
over household resources is getting promising.
Womens economic contribution to household welfare was measured by employment gains made
by women from farm and non-farm jobs. The results proved that womens economic contribution
to household welfare through non-farm jobs was low. The majority of women were unpaid farm
workers. A large proportion of the money earned by poor rural households in SAVE sector was
found to come from paying farm works. It would not be easy to raise the level of their monthly
income with this type of employment since it pays less than off-farm jobs.
Women in unpaid non-farm works, also referred to as household chores or unpaid care, were
very few. This implies that the number of women in the care economy has significantly reduced.
It was observed that the number of women is not very different from that of men. This means
that unpaid care is almost equally distributed between women and men. Owing to the fact that

65

womens contribution in terms of off-farm jobs is low, a lot needs to be done to strengthen them
in order to avoid economic violence or any other related adverse effects on households
development.
Skills development/training was measured by women and men who are skilled in different
activities. In light of the results, it was noticed that there were more women in handcrafts and
tailoring than men. Another observation is that there were fewer women than men in carpentry. It
follows that some skilled activities/jobs are still regarded as feminine (handcrafts, tailoring and
others) others are regarded as masculine (especially carpentry and building). This area of jobs
traditionally regarded as masculine needs improving in rural households. It is also important to
invest more efforts in skills development to empower women with many off-farm jobs. This will
strengthen womens economic contribution to households welfare. Looking at the results, it is
clear that programs in this area have been effective; nevertheless, a lot needs to be done to
continue to develop skills for women in poor rural households.
Access to financial institutions was measured by percentages of women and men who access
financial institutions (Bank/MFI) and those who took out a bank loan to start their own business.
The results showed that more women than men owned a bank account, but fewer women than
men took out a bank loan. In the discussion on the level of womens freedom to dispose of own
income, it was found that the majority of women were never free to dispose of their own income
in their households. Lack of this freedom may be curtailing womens access to financial services.
During the interview, women of the NWC agreed that some men still take the patriarchal attitude
that all household resources belong to men. Husbands with such outdated attitude towards
womens freedom to dispose of their own income translate womens ability to make their own
money into female domination. It then follows that some of these poor rural households were
still characterized by male domination and female subordination. In light of the results, the area
of womens access to financial services needs improving so as to lead to the effectiveness of the
policies and programs advocated for in this area. As a conclusion, the second objective of this
study was achieved.
To conclude this chapter, though some areas still lag behind, advocacy of women
parliamentarians in terms of laws, policies and programs has been translated into social and
economic empowerment of women in poor rural households to a satisfactory extent. To reach

66

this extent, both the Forum for Rwandan Women Parliamentarians (FFRP) and the National
womens council, whose bill on responsibilities and structure was passed in parliament in the
second mandate, have been very instrumental in collaboration with the Gender Monitoring
Office (GMO) and the Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion (MIGEPROF). All these
institutions were gathered in an apparatus called Gender machinery whose work was very
critical in advancing the implementation of the policies and programs of Gender Equality and
Womens Empowerment (GEWE).

67

5.2 Recommendations
After the data analysis and interpretation, the following recommendations can be given to
different stakeholders in the implementation of gender equality and womens empowerment in
poor rural households. These include citizens in poor rural households, local authorities, Forum
for Rwandan Women Parliamentarians (FFRP), National womens council (NWC/CNF), and the
Government of Rwanda.

To citizens in poor rural households

To regard womens empowerment (both men and women) as a linchpin of the

development of their households;
To make gender equality and womens empowerment their priority not the
government or local authorities priority only;
To overcome patriarchal attitudes that lead to social and economic disempowerment
of women in their households (specially addressed to husbands/men);
To continue to be self-confident (women) in their struggle for social and economic
empowerment in their households.

To local authorities

To continue to strengthen and implement sector strategies and district plans focusing on
interventions that reduce poverty levels among men and women, gender balance, and
malnutrition;
To strengthen public sensitization to raise the level of awareness on womens rights in
communities and discourage patriarchal attitudes where they still prevail.
To the National womens council (NWC/CNF)
To use its opportunity of being organized in executive committees throughout the
administrative levels and advocate on serious issues affecting the development and the rights
of women in rural households;

68

To continue to build the capacity of women members of the National Womens Council at
the grassroots level to be able to advocate for womens rights and gender equality and
mobilize them to participate in different development activities;
To continue to build the capacity of rural women in general in order to be able to overcome
various hurdles they encounter in their households.

To the Forum for Rwandan Women Parliamentarians (FFRP)

To continuously promote gender sensitive laws and lobby for policies and programs in order
to effectively empower women in poor rural households socially and economically;
To keep carrying out a gender-based control of Government action and budget;
To enhance its focus on monitoring the implementation of the laws, policies, and programs
and oversees how they are translated into actions by paying as many visits as possible to
local leaders and poor rural households.

To the Government of Rwanda.

To continue to provide line ministries with administrative directives to continue to

mainstream gender into their respective policies and programs, womens empowerment in
poor rural households being their main focus of interest;
To foster monogamous civil marriage in order to discourage marriage under customary laws
(households in cohabiting relationships) and polygamous marriages (polygamous
households) which leave women in poor rural households at a disadvantage, especially by
limiting their access to land;
To continue to empower the Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion in playing its leading
role in the implementation of promotion of gender equality and womens empowerment
throughout the development process of the country, poor rural households being its focus of
attention;
To continue to promote positive masculinity (e.g. creating more centers similar to the
Rwanda Men Resource Center (RWAMREC) to address gender inequalities in general and
GBV in particular);
To foster research on the advancement of womens empowerment in poor rural households.

69

5.3 Suggested areas for further research

There are other areas related to this topic which may bring relevant information to the public if
they are dealt with in the future, especially regarding the impact of womens political
empowerment on different areas of peoples lives and women in particular. They include the
role of women parliamentarians in implementing the family planning policy in poor rural
households, effectiveness of womens political empowerment in promoting positive masculinity
in poor rural households, effectiveness of womens political empowerment in advancing Gender
Equality and Womens Empowerment in the Private Sector, and the socioeconomic impact of
womens political empowerment on urban households.

70

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Appendices

Appendix I: The questionnaire for selected households in SAVE sector of GISGARA

district
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR A THESIS RESEARCH
ADVOCACY OF WOMEN PARLIAMENTARIANS AND EMPOWERMENT OF
WOMEN IN RURAL HOUSEHOLDS: THE CASE STUDY OF GISAGARA DISTRICT
(2008-2013)
By: Bonaventure NKURUNZIZA
Dear respondent,
This questionnaire intends to provide data for a thesis research for the degree of Masters in
Development Studies. Therefore the researcher looks forward to getting your useful information
for his study.
Bwana/Madamu,
Iyi nyandiko ikubiyemo ibibazo bikeneye ibisubizo bigamije gufasha mu bushakashatsi bujyanye
namasomo y icyiciro cya gatatu cya Kaminuza Masters mu bijyanye nIterambere ku
nsanganyamatsiko igira iti: Uruhare rwumubare munini w abagore bari mu Nteko
Ishinga Amategeko umutwe wAbadepite mu kwongerera ubushobozi abagore mu ngo zo
mu cyaro mu Rwanda. Bityo rero, ukora ubu bushakashatsi akaba yishimiye kubona ubufasha
bwanyu musubiza ibibazo neza.

Section one/Igice cya mbere: Households profile

Amabwiriza: Usubiza mu kazu akoresha akamenyetso X
1)Sector/Umurenge:Cell/Akagari:...Village/Umudugudu:

2) Age group for the husband/Imyaka yumugabo: 21-31

51-61

31-41

41-51

above 61

3) Age group for the wife/Imyaka yumugore: 21-31

51-61

31-41

41-51

above 61

4) How long have you been married/Mumaze igihe kingana iki mushakanye? : 1-5
5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

above 25

5) Type of marriage/Ubwoko bwishyingirwa: civil marriage/Gushyingirwa imbere yubutegetsi

(mu Murenge)

marriage under customary law/Ishyingirwa rishingiye ku migenzo ya kera

(batarasezeranye imbere yubutegetsi)

6)

Type

of

matrimonial

property/Ivangamutungo rusange
muhahano

regime/Ubwoko

bwamasezerano:

community

of

limited community of assets/Ivangamutungo

separation of property/Ivanguramutungo risesuye

7) Which of the following categories best reflects the monthly household income/Muri ibi
byiciro bikurikira, ni ikihe kigaragaza amafaranga urugo rwanyu rwinjiza buri kwezi? (Total
income earned by all those living in your home/Amafaranga yose yinjizwa nababa mu rugo
bose) less than/Munsi ya 10000
ya 25001 na 50000

between/hagati ya 10001 na 25000

between/hagati ya 50001 na100000

8) How many children do you have/Mufite abana bangahe?

girls/abakobwa

between/hagati

above/hejuru ya 100000

Boys/abahungu

9) a) Dou you obtain water near at hand and from a safe/improved water source/Mwaba muvoma
amazi hafi cyane ndetse ku isoko nziza /yatunganyijwe neza? Yes/yego

No/Oya

b) How long does it take/Bibatwara igihe kingana iki? Less than/munsi yiminota 10
between 10 and 15 min /hagati yiminota 10 na 15

15 min to 30/iminota 15 kugera kuri 30

above 30 min/ hejuru yiminota 30

10) What kind of fuel do you use for cooking / Ni iki mukoresha mu guteka? Firewood/inkwi
Charcoal/amakara
Others/ibindi/specify/bivuge
Section two/Igice cya kabiri: Social empowerment/Ubushobozi mu mibereho myiza
A. Violence against women (VAW)/Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore- Freedom from
violence/Uburenganzira bwo kudahohoterwa
Question 1/Ikibazo cya 1: Do you agree that a husband is justified in beating his wife under
certain circumstances/Mwemera ko umugabo agira impamvu zo gukubita umugore bitewe
nibihe runaka?
1. Strongly 2.
3.
agree/Yego Agree/Yego Undecided/Simbizi
rwose

4.
5.
Strongly
Disagree/Oya disagree/Oya
rwose

WIFE
HUSBAND
Question 2/Ikibazo cya 2: How often do the following forms of domestic violence against
women happen in your household/Ibikorwa byihohoterwa bikorerwa abagore biba kangahe mu
rugo rwanyu?
1.
2.
Never/Nt Rarely/Gacy
a
na e cyane
rimwe
Intimidation/Guter
a ubwoba
Coercion/Guhatira
gukora
ibyo
adashaka
Beating/Gukubita

3.
Sometimes/Rimw
e na rimwe

4.Very
5.
often/Kensh Always/Bur
i
i gihe

Insulting/Gutuka
Marital
rape/Gukoresha
imibonano
ku
ngufu
B. Education of girls/ Uburezi bwabana babakobwa
Question 3/Ikibazo cya 3: Do you agree that education is more relevant for boys than
girls/Mwemera ko uburezi bufite akamaro cyane ku bahungu kurusha ku bakobwa?
1. Strongly
Agree/Yego
rwose

2. Agree/Yego

3.Undecided/Si 4.
mbizi
Disagree/Oya

5.
Strongly
disagree/
Oya
rwose

WIFE
HUSBAND
Question 4/Ikibazo cya 4: If you have girls (with school age) among your children, are they
enrolled in the following Education/Niba mufite abana babakobwa (bagejeje imyaka yishuri)
mu bana banyu, baba hari kimwe mu byiciro byamashuri bikurikira bigamo?
1.
Primary 2.
Secondary 3.
High
education/amashuri
education/High
education/amashuri
abanza
school/amashuri
makuru / kaminuza
yisumbuye

4. Technical and
vocational
training/amashuri
yimyuga

Question 5/Ikibazo cya 5: How many girls are school dropouts in your household/Mufite abana
bangahe babakobwa bataye cyangwa bavuye mu ishuri mu rugo rwanyu ?
0

C. Improvement in nutrition and healthcare/Imirire iboneye nubuzima bwiza

Question 6: a) How many meals do you have a day/Mufata amafunguro angahe ku munsi?
0
1
2
3
Others/Ibindi (Please specify/bivuge) -----------------------------------------------------------------

b) Do you eat a balanced/healthy/varied diet/Murya indyo yuzuye?

1.Yes/Yego

2. No/Oya

3. Do not know about it/Ntidusobanukiwe

indyo yuzuye icyo ari cyo

Question 7: Do you sleep under mosquito bed nets/insecticide-treated nets in your

household/Muryama mu nzitiramibu iteye umuti mu rugo rwanyu?
1. No/Oya

2. In some rooms/Mu byuma 3. In a ll rooms/Mu byumba

bimwe
byose

Question 8: How many members are covered by Mutuel de Sante in your household/Ni
bangahe bafite ubwisungane mu kwivuza Mutuel de Sante mu rugo rwanyu?
1. No one/nta numwe

2. Some/bamwe

3. All/bose

D. Improvement in literacy among women/Umubare wabazi gusoma no kwandika

Question 9: Are you able to read and write (Wife and husband)/uzi gusoma no kwandika?
1. Wife/umugore
YES

NO

2. Husband/umugabo
YES
NO

E. Extent to which women participate in household decision making (joint decision making
ability over income, key decisions affecting childrens health and education, as well as over
their own well being)
Question 10: Who decides how to spend money (for home needs such as buying food and other
items)/Ni nde ufata umwanzuro ku mikoreshereze yamafaranga ( mu bikenerwa mu rugo nko
kugura ibiryo nibindi)
1. the wife/Umugore

2. the husband/Umugabo

3. both/bombi

Question 11: To what extent do you consider the level of participation of women in decision
making over other key household decisions (e.g. decisions affecting childrens health and
education and others)/Ni rugero ki mwaha ijambo umugore agira mu gufata ibyemezo/imyanzuro
ku bindi byingenzi bikorerwa mu rugo (urugero: imyanzuro ijyanye nubuzima nuburezi
bwabana, nibindi)?
1. High/Hejuru /Runini

2. Medium/ruringaniye

3. Low/Ruri hasi/Ruto

Section three: Womens economic empowerment/Ubushobozi mu bukungu

A. Enhanced decision-making power and rights over land /Ubushobozi bwisumbuye bwo
gufata ibyemezo nuburenganzira ku butaka
Question 12: How do you consider the extent of womens access and equal decision making
over land, such as through entrepreneurship or accessing credit (used as collateral for a
loan)/Uburenganzira nimyanzuro ku butaka, nko mu kubuheraho yihangira imirimo cyangwa
ayifashisha mu kubona inguzanyo (ayikoresha nkingwate ku nguzanyo)buri ku rugero rungana
gute mu rugo rwanyu?
WIFE/UMUGORE

HUSBAND/UMUGABO

1. HIGH/HEJURU/RUNINI
2. MEDIUM/RURINGANIYE
3. LOW/HASI/RUTO
B. Control over income/Kugira uburenganzira ku mutungo
Question 13: How often does the wife in the household gain freedom to dispose of her own
income/earnings? /Ni kangahe umugore agira uburenganzira bwo kugira/kwinjiza amafaranga ye
bwite mu rugo rwanyu?
1. Never/Nta 2. Rarely/Gacye 3.
na rimwe
cyane
Sometimes/Rimwe
na rimwe

4.Very
often/Kenshi

5. Always/Buri gihe

Question 14: How often does the wife have decision making power on the income from the sales
(e.g. cattle, goat, pig, and other common property sales) or other earnings? /Ni kangahe umugore
agira uburenganzira ku mafaranga yavuye ku byagurishijwe (urugero: inka, ihene, ingurube
nindi mitungo yagurishijwe) cyangwa ku wundi mutungo winjira mu rugo?
1. Never/Nta na 2.
Rarely/Gacye 3. Sometimes/Rimwe 4.Very
5.Always/Buri
rimwe
cyane
na rimwe
often/Kenshi gihe

C. Access to and control of family resources/Kugira ubushobozi, ubwisanzure

nuburenganziraku mitungo yurugo
Question 15: Does the wife in your household enjoy the following?/Ese umugore mu rugo
rwanyu agira ubushobozi bwo kugira imitungo ikurikira?
YES/YEGO

NO/OYA

1. ownership of rural land/farms/Gutunga ubutaka

2. ownership of livestock (e.g. cow,
goat)/Gutunga itungo (inka, ihene, nandi
matungo)
3. Ownership of other assets (Kugira indi
mitungo)
4 Joint registration of land (with land title)
Kwandikwa hamwe nabo mu rugo bandi ku
mutungo wurugo (akagira icyemezo cyubutaka)
5. Access to credit (commercial or micro-credit)
(Kuba yafata inguzanyo (yubucuruzi cyangwa
iciriritse)
Question 16: Does the wife have control (decision making power) on these intra-household
resources and on the use of loans in particular?/Ese umugore afite ubushobozi ku myanzuro
yumutungo wurugo no ku mikoreshereze yinguzanyo byumwihariko?
YES/YEGO

NO/OYA

WIFE/UMUGORE
HUSBAND/UMUGABO
D. Economic contribution (employment gains made by women from farm and non-farm
jobs) to household welfare/Uruhare rwumugore mu kwinjiza umutungo (uva ku mirimo
yo mu murima (ubuhinzi) niyitari ubuhinzi) ufasha urugo gutera imbere no kumererwa
neza
Question 17: What type of employment that helps you to generate and increase income in your
household? /Ni uwuhe murimo ugufasha kwinjiza no kwongera amafaranga mu rugo rwanyu?
TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT/Umurimo/Akazi
1. Unpaid farm worker/Umuhinzi utishyurwa
2. Wage farmer / Umuhinzi wishyurwa
3.Wage non-farm/Imirimo/Akazi
katari ubuhinzi

gahemba

WIFE/UMUGORE HUSBAND/UMUGABO

4. Unpaid non-farm worker (include tasks

typical for women (domestic work): cleaning,
child-rearing, cattle feeding, and food
processing and selling) Hours?/Imirimo yo mu
rugo itagira igihembo/Ikorwa amasaha
angahe?
5.Not able to work/Udashobora gukora
6. State other ways of earning money (e.g.
from cooperative) / Vuga ubundi buryo
ubonamo
amafaranga
(urugero:
muri
copeartive cyangwa mu ishyirahamwe)
E. Skills development/training and access to financial services/Ubumenyi bwimyuga no
gukorana nibigo byimari.
Question 18: Do you belong to any financial institution (Bank/MFI)? Did you take out a bank
loan to start your own business? /Waba uri umukiriya wimwe mu mabanki cyangwa ibigo
byimari iciriritse? Waba warafashe inguzanyo yo gutangira ubucuruzi bwawe bwite?
WIFE/UMUGORE
CUSTOMER/UM LOAN/INGUZA
UKIRIYA
NYO
1.
BPR/BANKI
YABATUR
AGE
2.
UMURENGE
SACCO

HUSBAND/UMUGABO
CUSTOMER/UM LOAN/INGUZ
UKIRIYA
ANYO

Question 19: Dou you have skills in the following? (Mufite ubumenyi mu myuga ikurikira?)
WIFE/UMUGORE
HUSBAND/UMUGABO
YES/YEGO

1. Handcrafts
(weaving, etc)
Kuboha
ibiseke,
nibindi
2. Tailoring
/kudoda
imyenda
3.
Carpentry/ubu
baji
4. Others

NO/OY
A

Improving
YES/Y
access to
EGO
micro-credits
and
others/gufash
a kubona
inguzanyo
iciriritse
YES NO

NO/OY
A

Improving
access
to
microcredits and
others/gufas
ha kubona
inguzanyo
iciriritse
YES NO

Appendix II: A semi-structured interview guide for local authorities in SAVE sector
Question 1: How would you rank the implication of womens representation in Rwandan
parliament (2008-2013) as regards lobbying for female- specific poverty reduction policies and
programs able to provide women in rural poor households with social and economic power?
1. HIGH

2. MEDIUM

3. LOW

Question 2: Could you provide evidence justifying the level of implication you have mentioned
for both womens social and economic empowerment?

Question 3: Would you mention your sector strategies for social empowerment of women in
poor rural households in the following areas:

Freedom from violence...

Education of girls

Participation in household decision making..

Improvement in nutrition...

Literacy rate.

Healthcare...

Question 4: What have you achieved in those areas (of womens social empowerment) in poor
rural households of your sector/cell/village?

Freedom from violence...

Education of girls

Participation in household decision making..

Improvement in nutrition...

Literacy rate.

Healthcare...

Question 5: Which areas, among those mentioned above, are still lagging behind? Why? What
can you suggest as an effective remedy for their achievement? ...
Question 6: Would you mention your sector strategies for economic empowerment of women in
poor rural households in the following areas:

Enhanced decision-making power and rights over land

Control over income

Access to and control of family resources..

Economic contribution (both from farm and non-farm) to household welfare .

Skills development/training and access to financial services..

Question 7: What have you achieved in those areas (of womens economic empowerment) in
poor rural households of your sector/cell/village?

Enhanced decision-making power and rights over land

Control over income

Access to and control of family resources..

Economic contribution (both from farm and non-farm) to household welfare ..

Skills development/training and access to financial services

Question 8: Which areas, among those mentioned above, are still lagging behind? Why? What
can you suggest as an effective remedy for their achievement?........................................................

Question 9: To what extent can women in poor rural households of your sector/cell/village
freely analyze, develop and voice their needs and interests, without being imposed from above
by planners or other social actors?
1. HIGH

2. MEDIUM

3. LOW

Question 10: Could you provide evidence justifying the level of participation of women (in the
process of their empowerment) you have mentioned? .
Question 11: What is the level of participation of women parliamentarians in the
implementation of the female- specific poverty reduction policies and programs able to provide
women in rural poor households with social and economic power?
1. HIGH

2. MEDIUM

3. LOW

Question 12: Could you provide evidence justifying the level of participation you have
mentioned?

Appendix III: A semi-structured interview guide for women members of the National
Womens Council in SAVE sector
Question 1: How would you rank the implication of womens representation in Rwandan
parliament (2008-2013) as regards lobbying for female- specific poverty reduction policies and
programs able to provide women in rural poor households with social and economic power?
1. HIGH

2. MEDIUM

3. LOW

Question 2: Could you provide evidence justifying the level of implication you have mentioned
for both social and economic empowerment? ..
Question 3: Gathering and analyzing ideas of women is one of the core functions of the National
Womens Council (NWC), would you give ideas that best contribute to the social and economic
empowerment of women in poor rural households? .
Question 4: In building the capacity of women, what areas of social and economic
empowerment of poor rural households do you emphasize most? ...
Question 5: Sensitizing women to participate in the countrys development programs is another
core function of the National Womens Council; could you spell out important programs able to
contribute to the social and economic empowerment of their households do you sensitize them
to? ..
Question 6: As you advocate for gender equality, how do you address the following concerns of
social and economic empowerment?
a) Social empowerment:

Freedom from violence

Education of girls.

Participation in household decision making

Improvement in nutrition.

Literacy rate.

Healthcare..

b) Economic empowerment:

Enhanced decision-making power and rights over land.

Control over income....................

Access to and control of family resources

Economic contribution (from farm and non-farm jobs) to household welfare

skills development/training and access to financial services ..

Question 7: The National Womens Council is duty bound to advocate on serious issues
affecting the development and the rights of women, what are they, more particularly in poor rural
households?........................................................................................................................................
Question 8: What do you find successful and unsuccessful as regards womens social and
economic empowerments in poor rural households in SAVE sector? What can you suggest as an
effective remedy for the achievement of those unsuccessful? ..
Question 9: To what extent has the role of women parliamentarians been significant in helping
to fulfill the functions of the National Womens Council in SAVE sector?
1. HIGH

2. MEDIUM

3. LOW

Question 10: Would you provide evidence justifying the level of significance you have
mentioned...

Appendix IV: The map of GISAGARA district showing the study area (SAVE sector)