Conservation Laws

Conservation Laws
Conservation laws describe the conservation of certain quantities

and are based on fundamental physical laws.

When taken together, they establish relations between the various
parameters / quantities of the system
Velocity,
Pressure,
Density,

The commonest conserved quantities are

Mass
Momentum,
energy

Mass of object:

Forms
Differential: applicable at a point
Momentum
Integral: applicable to an extended region

m = dV
V

of object: P = u dV
~

The general form of all conservation

laws that we will use is:

dA

D
F=
dV

Dt VM

D dV + C n dA

VM
A

V (t )

A(t )

Rate of change of F = effects of volume sources + effects of surface sources

Quantity (F) Volume sources (D)

Surface sources (C)

Momentum1 Gravity

Stresses
(pressure/viscous)

Heat

Dissipation

Diffusion/radiation

Salt (scalar)

None

Diffusion

Algae (e.g.)

Growth

Diffusion

Note: momentum is a vector quantity

The Law of Conservation of Mass

Within some problem domain defined by a control volume,

the net mass of fluid passing from outside to inside through

the control surfaces equals the net increase of mass in the
control volume.
In its most general form: the law stat that
mass is neither created not destroyed in a closed
system

Conservation of Mass
For any arbitrary material volume
D
dV = 0 =

Dt VM

( )

u
dV
+

~
t

VM

Mass is conserved (non-relativistic fluid mechanics)

Since integral is zero for any volume, the integrand must be zero

( )

+ u =0
~
t

Process: We have taken an integral conservation law and used it

to produce a differential balance for mass at any point

However,

u
~

(ui ) = ui + ui
xi
xi
xi

ui

+
+ ui
=0
t
xi
xi

and

=
+ ui
Dt t
xi

1 D
= u
~
Dt

Thus if the density of fluid particles changes, the velocity field must
be divergent. Conversely, if fluid densities remain constant,
u =0
~

Any other fluid property (scalar, vector,.. also drop triple integral)
Let F = f where f is an intensive property (amount/mass)

( fui ) dV
f dV = ( f ) +

t
xi
Dt VM

VM

f

f
dV
= f
+
+f
( ui ) + ui
t
t
xi
xi
VM

f

f

dV
+
( ui ) = 0 + ui
But
t xi
t
xi
VM
Df
=
dV
Dt
VM
D
Df
dV

f dV =

Dt VM
Dt
VM

Why is this important/useful?

Rate of Change of Momentum = Net Applied Force

Because Newtons

2nd

law:

D
udV = F dV

~
Dt VM ~
VM

Du
D
~
But from above:
dV
dV
u
=

Dt
Dt VM ~
VM
F =
~

Du
~

Dt

Net Applied Force = Mass

Acceleration

Independent of volume type!

Some Observations

1 D
= u

~
Dt

1. Incompressible
1 D
=0

Dt

[ No volumetric dilatation, fluid particle density conserved]

ui
u =
=0
~
xi

Differential form of Continuity

2. Slightly Compressible
Typically found in stratified conditions where
= ( x, y, z , t ) = 0 + ( z ) + '( x, y, z , t )
Reference density (1000
kg/m3 for water)

Background variation (typ. 110 kg/m3 for water)

Perturbation density
due to motion (typ.
0.1-10 kg/m3 for
water)

Boussinesq Approximation
- Vertical scale of mean motion << scale height
or + '
<< 1
0
Allows us to treat fluid as if it were
slightly incompressible
Note: Sound and shock waves are not included !

Informal Proof
If a fluid is slightly compressible then a small disturbance
caused by a change in pressure, dP , will cause a change in
density d . This disturbance will propagate at celerity, c.
dP
c=
d

dP =c 2 d

If pressure in fluid is hydrostatic

dP
d
g
= g = 2
dz
dz
c
Now
and

d d dz
=
dt dz dt

dz
w
dt

[ Streamline curvature small]

d gw

=
dt
c2

1 d gw

= 2
dt c
Typically: g 10 m/s2 ; c 1500 m/s ; w ~ 0.1m/s

u 0
~

The Law of the Conservation of

Momentum
Momentum is one description of the state of motion of a

system of masses.
The physical system responsible for the transformation of the
state of motion of a mass system from the initial state to the
final state is effected by a system of FORCES acting over
TIME
. =
=
=
=
13

()

Stress Field
A fluid subjected to two types of forces
Surface forces, and
Body forces
Interfacial forces

1.

Surface forces

Forces that are acting on the surfaces or boundaries of a fluid

element/ control volume through direct contact,

A force per unit surface area is STRESS.
The concept of stress provides a convenient means to describe the
manner in which forces are acting on the boundaries of the medium
are transmitted through the medium.
Stress developed depends
position of the molecules on the surface
the average relative motion of the molecules

14

 Two types of stresses

Pressure (P)
Viscous stress
When a fluid has no motion, the only stress is the first kind. This stress

component is normal to the surface.

When the fluid moves, there will be a viscous stress.
2.

Body forces
Body forces are all forces that are

developed with out physical contact with

the fluid element, and are distributed
through out the element.

e.g., gravitational forces

The magnitude and direction of the gravity

force is given by the product of the mass of

the fluid element times the local
acceleration due to gravity.

15

3. Interfacial forces:
- act at fluid interfaces, esp. phase discontinuities (air/water)
- do not appear directly in equations of motion (appear as
boundary conditions only)
- e.g. surface tension surfactants important
- very important for multiphase flows (bubbles, droplets,. free
surfaces!)

16

Stresses at a point
Is specified by 9 components

Where , , are called normal stresses

the rest is called shear stresses

17

Newton's 2nd law for the object is given by:

F =
~

d
d
P(t ) = u dV = F
+ F body
~ surface
~
~
dt V
dt ~
Surface forces
e.g. Friction

Body forces
e.g. Gravity

Example: Block of mass m pushed with force F

along surface with friction coefficient b:

u
F

d
u dV = F
+ F body

~
~
~
surface
dt V
d
1
1
3
3
u dV = bu a + F a + N a g a dV
~
~
~
~
dt ~ V

Surface

du
m

dt

Body

= bu a + F a + N a mg a
1

du

m
= bu + F

dt
dw
m
= N mg = 0
dt

m
N

Fixed volumeVF : Flow of fluid through system boundary

(control surface) is non zero, but velocity of boundary is
zero. For this case we get
F
d
F ( x, t )dV =
dV

~
dt VF
t
VF

Material VolumeVM : Consists of same fluid particles and

thus the bounding surface moves with the fluid velocity.
Thus, the second term from the Leibnitz rule is now nonzero, so
D
F
F ( x, t )dV
=
dV + F u n dA

~
~ ~
Dt VM
t
VM
A
Using Gauss' theorem:

F u n dA= ( F u ) dV
A

D
, t )dV
F ( x=

~
Dt VM

~ ~

VM

( )

+ F u dV

~
t

VM

This is Reynolds transport theorem, where D/Dt is the same as d/dt

but implies a material volume.

Note that the Reynolds transport theorem is often written in the

more general form which does not assume that the control volume
is bounded by a material surface. Instead, the control volume is
assumed to move at some velocity u and that of the fluid is
~b
defined as relative to the control volume,
such that u = u u
~r

~b

D
F
(
,
)
F
x
t
dV
dV + F u n dA + F u n dA
=

~
~b ~
~r ~
Dt V
t
V
A
A

In this case, V is not necessarily a material surface. If ur=0, then

ub=u and we revert to the form on the previous page. ~
~ ~

Methods of Analysis
Fluid flow problems can be analyzed in one of the three

approaches:

Control volume of integral approach

Infinitesimal or differential approach
Experimental approach

In fluid dynamics system

A quantity of matter or a finite region in space is choosen for

study

Control Volume / open system

Control mass /closed system/ system

21

Control volume or integral approach

A control volume (CV) is an arbitrary finite volume of an

arbitrary shape that is chosen from a fluid region for analysis.

The boundaries of a control volume are referred as control
surfaces (CS).

A control volume is an open system

mass and energy enter and leave the control volume through

the control surfaces.

A control volume is fixed in space
22

Control Mass / Closed System/ System

A quantity of matter of fixed identity is chosen for a study

i.e., fixed mass of fluid

In a closed system, mass is not allowed to enter or leave.
Unlike a control volume, a control mass moves with the fluid
since we are dealing with the same fluid elements (mass)

23

Infinitesimal or differential formulation

Control volume / Integral formulations are useful when we are

24

interested in the gross behavior of a flow field and its effect on

devices.
It does not provide a detailed (i.e., point by point) knowledge of
the flow field.
To obtain this detailed knowledge, we must formulate the
conservation equations in differential forms.
The analysis will be in terms of infinitesimal system.
Recall that the fluid properties are continuous in both spatial
coordinates and time,
, , ,
= , , , , , , , , , , ,

Experimental Approach
Analytical solutions exists for simple cases
Simple geometry
Simple initial and boundary conditions

A need for experimental and laboratory based approaches

Full and model scales
Dimensional Analysis and similarity

25

Conservation of Momentum Navier-Stokes

We have:

F = ~ = ~ + u u
t ~ ~

Dt

Du

Two kinds of forces:

Body forces
Surface forces

Two kinds of acceleration:

Unsteady
Advective (convective/nonlinear)

Two kinds of surface forces:

Those due to pressure
Those due to viscous stresses

Divergence of Stress Tensor

Plan for derivation of the

Navier Stokes equation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Determine fluid accelerations from velocities etc.

Decide on forces
Determine how surface forces work : stress tensor
Split stress tensor into pressure part and viscous part
Convert surface forces to volume effect (Gauss' theorem)
Use integral theorem to get pointwise variable p.d.e.
Use constitutive relation to connect viscous stress tensor to strain
rate tensor
8. Compute divergence of viscous stress tensor (incompressible fluid)
9. Result = Incompressible Navier Stokes equation

Stress at a point

(From K&C remember difference in

nomenclature,i.e. ij ij)

What is the force vector I need to apply at a face defined by the

unit normal vector n to equal that of the internal stresses?
~

Consider a small (differential) 2-D element

22

11

cut away

21

n2

12

11

11
dx2

12
21

22

12

n1

ds

dx1
21

22

dF

=
= 11dx2 + 21dx1
dF1 force component in x1 direction

dF1
dx2
dx1
f1 =
= 11
+ 21
ds
ds
ds
=11 cos 1 + 21 cos 2
=11n1 + 21n2

[ n has magnitude of 1]
~

Defining the stress tensor to be ij

11 12

21 22

31 32

13

23
33

f1 = j1n j and f 2 = j 2 n j
And in general

f i = ji n j

But ji = ij [see Kundu p90]

fi

dFi
=
ij n j =
ds
Surface force
or
per unit area
dF
(note this is a 2D area)
= n =
ds
or (3D)
dF
= n = Ftotal = n dA

dA

CS
Total, or net, force due to surface stresses

Conservation of momentum

31 ( x1 , x2 )

21 dx2
21 ( x1 , x2 ) +
x2 2

31 dx3
x3 2

x2
dx
11 ( x1 , x2 ) 11 1
x1 2

x1

x3

21 ( x1 , x2 )
31 dx3
31 ( x1 , x2 ) +
x3 2

11 dx1
11 ( x1 , x2 ) +
x1 2

21 dx2
x2 2

Dimensions:
dx1 . dx2 . dx3

Sum of surface forces in x1 direction:

dx
dx
= 11 + 11 1 11 + 11 1 dx2 dx3
x1 2
x1 2

21 dx2
21 dx2
+ 21 +
21 +
dx1dx3
x2 2
x2 2

31 dx3
31 dx3
+ 31 +
31 +
dx1dx2
x3 2
x3 2

11 21 31
=
+
+
dx1dx2 dx3
x2
x3
x1
=

ji
x j

dV

Defining i component of surface force per unit volume

to be FVi

In general :

ij =
F =
x j

i
V

Force = divergence of stress tensor

For body forces we use gravity = g =

gi
~

Dui

= FV + g
Dt
~

ij
Dui

= g i +
Dt
x j

Note that usually

g = - g e3

Cauchys equation
of motion

Important Note: This can also be derived from the Integral

From of Newtons 2nd Law for a Material
Volume VM

But
and

D
ui dV = g i dV + ij dA j

VM
A
Dt VM
Dui
D
ui dV =
dV

V
V
M
Dt M
Dt
ij
A ij dAj =
VM x j dV [Gauss' Theorem]
Dui
ij

gi
dV = 0
VM
x j
Dt
ij
Dui

=gi +
Dt
x j

Constitutive relation for a Newtonian fluid

Equation that linearly relates the stress to the rate of
strain in a Newtonian Fluid Medium
(i) Static Fluid: - By definition cannot support a shear stress
- still feels thermodynamic pressure
(in compression)

ij = pij
(ii) Moving Fluid: - develops additional components of stress
(due to viscosity)

ij = pij + ij

Hypothesis

Note difference from Kundu !

Deviatoric stress tensor [Viscous stress tensor]

ij =

Assume

ij = K ijmn emn

K ijmn = 4th order tensor (81 components!) that depend

on thermodynamic state of medium

If medium is isotropic and stress tensor is symmetric

only 2 non-zero elements of K

which gives

ij = 2e ij + e mm ij
or

See derivation of in Kundu, p 100

2
ij = ( p + u ) ij + 2eij
3

Special cases
(i) Incompressible u = 0

ij = p ij + 2 eij
(ii) Static eij = 0

ij = p ij

In summary

ij
Dui
=
gi +
(i )
x j
Dt

2
(ii ) ij = ( p + u ) ij + 2 eij
3

Cauchy's equation
Constitutive relation for
a compressible,
Newtonian fluid.

Navier-Stokes equation
The general form of the Navier-Stokes equation is given by substitution
of the constitutive equation for a Newtonian fluid into the Cauchy
equation of motion:

Dui

= g i +
Dt
xi

p + 3 ekk ij + 2 eij

Incompressible form (ekk=0):

Dui

p ij + 2eij

=gi +
x j
Dt
p

2eij
=
gi
+
xi x j

Assuming

f ( x, y , z , t )

eij
Dui
p

=
+ gi + 2
xi
x j
Dt
1 u u j
i +
2 x j xi
2u j
2ui
p
=
+ g i +
+
xi
x j x j
xi x j
p

=
+ gi + 2
xi
x j

p
=
+ gi + 2ui
xi

where

2
2
2
2

ui
2
i
i
i
+
+
ui =
=
2
2
2
x j x j x1
x2
x3

Or in vector notation

Du
~

Dt

Inertia

Pressure
gradient

If Inviscid

= p + g + 2 u

Du
~

Dt

= p + g
~

Gravity
Divergence of
(buoyancy) viscous stress
(friction)

Euler Equation

Equation of Motion
Viscid Flow (Navier-Stokes Equation)

+
+
+
= 0 .. Continuity eqaution

2
2
2
+ + +
= +
+ 2+ 2

2
2
2
+ + +
= +
+ 2+ 2

2
2
2
+ + +
= +
+ 2+ 2

Independent variable: x, y, z, t
Dependent variables: u, v, w velocity in x, y, z
, P density, pressure
. viscosity
42

Equation of Motion
inviscid Flow (Euler Equation)

+
+
+
=0
=0

2
2
2
+ + +
= +
+ 2+ 2

2
2
2
+ + +
= +
+ 2+ 2

2
2
2
+ + +
= +
+ 2+ 2

Independent variable: x, y, z, t
Dependent variables: u, v, w velocity in x, y, z
, P density, pressure
. viscosity
43

=0
=0

Types of fluid Flow

1. Real and Ideal Flow:
If the fluid is considered frictionless with zero viscosity it is called
ideal.
In real fluids the viscosity is considered and shear stresses occur
causing conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy

Ideal

44

Friction = 0
Ideal Flow ( =0)
Energy loss =0

Real
Friction = o
Real Flow ( 0)
Energy loss = 0

2. Steady and Unsteady Flow

Steady flow occurs when conditions of a point in a flow
field dont change with respect to time ( v, p,
H..changes w.r.t. time
( )
= 0 steady
(t )
( )
0 unsteady
(t )
H=constant

H constant

V=constant

Steady Flow with respect to time

Velocity is constant at certain position w.r.t.
time
45

V constant

Unsteady Flow with respect to time

Velocity changes at certain position
w.r.t. time

3. Uniform and Non uniform Flow

Y

Uniform Flow means that the

velocity is constant at certain
time in different positions
(doesnt depend on any dimension
x or y or z)
( )
=0
(x )
( )
0
(x )
46

Non- uniform Flow means velocity

changes at certain time in different
positions ( depends on dimension
x or y or z)
uniform

Non-uniform

4. Flow dimensionality
Generally, flow is 3-dimensional
Fluid properties vary in three directions
The most complete description is given by three dimensional analysis

Under some conditions, flow field can be reduced to 2-d or 1-d

The relative variation of the fluid properties with the directions may

vary

47

Flow dimensionality; (a) 1-D flow between horizontal plates, (b) 2-D flow in a 3-D
box, (c) 3-D flow in a 3-D box. (source: Lecture in Elementary Fluid Mechanics J. M. McDonough)

4. Flow Dimensionality (cont.)

A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small
relative to the variation in other directions and can be ignored.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V =V(r, z) and thus the flow is
two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when
the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V =V(r).
48

5. Laminar and Turbulent Flow:

In Laminar Flow:
Fluid flows in separate layers
No mass mixing between fluid layers
Friction mainly between fluid layers
Reynolds Number (RN ) < 2000
Vmax.= 2Vmean

Vmean
49

Vmax

In Turbulent Flow:
No separate layers
Continuous mass mixing
Friction mainly between fluid and pipe
walls
Reynolds Number (RN ) > 4000
Vmax.= 1.2 Vmean

Vmean
Vmax

5. Laminar and Turbulent Flow (cont.):

50

6.Rotational and irrotational flows

A rotational flow is one in which fluid elements moving in the flow

field will undergo rotation. The rotation is given by the angular

velocity of any two mutually perpendicular line elements of the
element Mathematically, this is given by curl u 0.
r

51

rotational flow

Irrotational flow

52

Types of motion or deformation of fluid

element
Linear translation

Rotational translation
Linear deformation

angular deformation

53

Plane flow

A flow is said to be plane or two-dimensional if it is everywhere orthogonal to one

direction and independent of translations along such direction.
In a plane flow it is therefore possible to choose a system of Cartesian coordinates (x1, x2,
x3) so that u has the form u = (u1, u2, 0), and u1 and u2 do not depend on x3.

Axisymmetric flow

A flow is said to be axisymmetric if, chosen a proper system of cylindrical coordinates (z, r
, ) the velocity u = (uz , ur , u') is independent of the azimuthal coordinate , and u' =
0.

54