CDS Ii

Control System Design-II
Dr. Abdul Qayyum Khan

Department of Electrical Engineering
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences
P.O. Nilore Islamabad Pakistan
url: www.pieas.edu.pk/aqayyum
Email: aqkhan@pieas.edu.pk
Solving TimeTime-Invariant state equationequation- A review

Consider
x& = Ax + Bu,
(1)
x ( t ) = ???
Let us consider a homogenous state equation

x& = ax
(2)
Let
x ( t ) = b 0 + b1 t + b 2 t 2 + L + b k t k + L
(3)
x& ( t ) = b 1 + 2b 2 t + kb k t k 1 + L
(4)
subsitituting (3) and (4) into (2)

b 1 + 2b 2 t + kb k t k 1 + L = a (b 0 + b 1 t + b 2 t 2 + L + b k t k + L )
we have
b 1 = ab 0
1 2
a b 0 , Similarly
2
1
1
1 k
b 3 = a 3 b 0 = a 3 b 0 , LL b k =
a b0
6
3
k
2b 2 = ab 1 = a 2 b 0 b 2 =
Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan
(5)
As
1
x ( t ) = 1 + at + at 2 + L b 0
2
At t = 0, equation (3) im plies

b 0 = x ( 0 ) , therefore
1
x ( t ) = 1 + at + a 2 t 2 + L x ( 0 ) = e at x ( 0 )
2
N ow consider
x& = Ax
(6)
Analogy w ith scalar, w e have
x ( t ) = b 0 + b1 t + b 2 t 2 + L + b k t k + L
(7)
x& ( t ) = b 1 + 2b 2 t + kb k t k 1 + L
(8)
proceeding in sim ilar fashion, w e
1
x ( t ) = 1 + At + A 2 t 2 + L x ( 0 ) = e At x ( 0 ) = (t)x ( 0 )
2
w here ( t ) is state transition m atrix.

3
(9)
At
Referring to equation (9), the term e is of particular
interest.
It is referred to as matrix exponential and analogously, it can be
represented as
At
Ak t k
=
k = 0 k!
This matrix exponential for an
n n converges absolutely for
all finite time.

Some important properties
d At
e = Ae At
dx
e( A + B) t = e At e Bt
if AB = BA
e(
if AB BA
A + B) t
e At eBt
e At e At = I
Laplace Transform Approach

C onsider equation (6) and taking L aplace T ransform
sX (s) - x (0) = A X ( s ) X ( s ) = ( sI A )
x (0)
1
x ( t ) = L 1 ( sI A ) x ( 0 ) x ( t ) = e A t x ( 0 )
or
x ( t ) = ( t ) x (0 )
w here
( t ) : n n m atrix and is the unique solution
: S tate transition m atr ix. It has all the inform ation about
the free m otion of the system define by x& = A x
(0 ) = I
A lso note
5
-1 ( t ) = e -A t = ( t )
Case-I: If 1,2,Ln be distinct eigenvalues of A, then ( t )
will contain exponentials e t ,e t ,Le t

Case-II: If the matrix A is diagonal with 1,2,Ln, then
1
e1t
(t) =
M
0
e2 t
O
0
L 0
O M
n t
L e
L
Case-III: if there is multiplicity of eigenvalues 1,1, 1,2,Ln
, then ( t ) will contain terms like te t ,t2e t in addition to

1
e1t , e2 t ,L en t
Properties of ( t )
As
( t ) = e At
( 0 ) = e A(0) = I
( t ) = e = (e
( t1 + t 2 ) = e
( t ) = ( nt )
( t 2 t1 ) ( t1 t 0 ) = ( t 2 t 0 )
At
An Example
At 1
A ( t1 + t 2 )
= ( t )
=e
A ( t1 ) A ( t 2 )
or 1 ( t ) = ( t )
= ( t1 ) ( t 2 )
0
For x& = Ax, where A=
2
Obtain ( t ) and -1 ( t )
Solution : As
Note that
e At = ( t ) = L-1
s
sI A =
2
( sI A )
1
s + 3
s + 3
( sI A ) =
( s + 1)( s + 2 ) 2
Using partial fraction expansion
1
1
3
1
s
2
1
s + 3 1
1
s+2
-1
-1 s + 1
(t) = L
=
L
2 s
+
+
s
1
s
2
(
)(
)

2 2
s + 1 s + 2
2e -t e 2 t
= -t
2 t
2e 2e
8
e -t e 2 t
,
-2t
t
2e e
2e t e 2 t
(t ) = t
2t
2e 2e
1
1
s + 1 s + 2
2
1
s + 2 s + 1
et e2t
2e 2t e t
Solution to Homogenous State equations

Consider
x& = Ax + Bu (1)
Now
x& Ax = Bu
x n 1
n 1
u
nn
A
B np
Convolution integral
( multiply by e
e At ( x& Ax ) = e At Bu
At
both side )
Integrating both sides

t
e ( x& Ax )d = e
A
At
0
At
x ( t ) x (0) = e
0
d A
e x ( ) d = e A Bu ( )d
Bu ( )d
d
0
0
Bu ( )d x ( t ) = e x ( 0 ) + e
At
0
t
x ( t ) = ( t ) x ( 0 ) + ( t ) Bu ( )d (2)
9
0
A (t )
Bu ( )d
Laplace Transform Approach

Consider
x& = Ax + Bu
The Laplace transform of the above system is
sX ( s ) x ( 0 ) = AX ( s ) + BU ( s ) ( sI A ) X ( s ) = x ( 0 ) + BU ( s )
X ( s ) = ( sI A )
( x ( 0 ) + BU ( s ) )
t
x ( t ) = e x (0) + e
At
A ( t )
Bu ( ) d
For initial time t 0 = t i 0, then

x (t) = e
A ( t ti )
x (0) + e
A ( t )
ti
10
Bu ( ) d
An Example
Consider
x& = Ax + Bu,
where
0 1
0
0
0
A=
,
B
,
x
0
=
,
u
t
step
I/P=
=
=
( ) ()
1
-2
-3
0

1
Find x ( t ) .
Solution :
As
2e -t e 2 t
( t ) = -t
2 t
2e 2e
e -t e 2t
2e -2t e t
x ( t ) = e A ( t ) Bu ( ) d
0
1 t 1 2 t
e + e
x (t) = 2
2
t
2t
e e
11
since x ( 0 ) = 0,
for t<0
for t 0
Computation of
At
e =?: Some Further results
Laplace Transform method:
( t ) = e = L
At
-1
{(sI A) }
1
Discussed in
Previous slides
Method of Diagonalization of A:
if D = P 1 A P th en
e At = P e Dt P 1
Caley-Hamilton Theorem and minimal polynomial theorem
Minimal polynomials of A involves distinct roots
Minimal polynomials of A involves repeated roots
12
Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Very useful theorem in linear algebra
after the names of two mathematicians: Arthur Cayley and
William Hamilton
It states, Every square matrix over commutative ring (Real or
complex) satisfies its own characteristic equation
For example if A is an n n square matrix with
characteristics polynomial
( ) = n + a1 n 1 + L + a n 1 + a n = 0 ---------- (1)
Then
( A ) = A n + a1A n 1 + L + a n 1A + a n I = 0 -------- (2)
13
While the CH-Theorem shows that ( ) = 0 , there may be a
polynomial ( ) having lower degree than ( ) , for which

( A ) = 0 . The monic polynomial of lowest degree for which
( A) = 0 is referred to as minimal polynomial of A.
The minimal polynomial plays important role in the
computation of polynomials of nn matrix.

CH-Theorem together with minimal polynomials helps in the
computation of function of matrix, e.g. exp(At), Cos(At) etc.
14
Computation of
( A ) = e At
Case-1: Minimal polynomials of A involves only
distinct roots
Let us assume that the minimal polynomial of A is m. Then ( A )
can be obtained by solving the following determinant equation

1
1
M
Sylvesters interpolation
formula
1
2
M
1 m m 1
1
A
12
22
M
L 1m 1
L 2 m 1
M
M
m m 1 M m m 1
A2
L A m 1
e1t
e2 t
M =0
------------ (3)
em t
e At
Expanding this determinant equation about the last column, we
obtain
e At = 0 ( t ) I + 1 ( t ) A + 2 ( t ) A 2 + L + m 1 ( t ) A m 1 ----- (4)
15
and
e1t = 0 ( t ) + 1 ( t ) 1 + 2 ( t ) 12 + L + m 1 ( t ) 1m 1
e2 t = 0 ( t ) + 1 ( t ) 2 + 2 ( t ) 2 2 + L + m 1 ( t ) 2 m 1
M
------ (5)
em t = 0 ( t ) + 1 ( t ) m + 2 ( t ) m 2 + L + m 1 ( t ) m m 1
's can be solved using the equations (5). Then e A t can be

obtained by substituting the computed 's
If A is an nn matrix and has distinct eigenvalues, then the
number of the numbers of k ( t ) to be determined is m=n
If A has multiple eigenvalues, but its minimal has only simple
roots then m < n.
16
An Example
Find e At
0 1
A=
0 2
Solution :
The eigenvalues are 1 = 0 , 2 = 2 .From the theory just discussed, we have
1
1 2
I A
e 1t
e 2 t = 0
e At
substituting 1 = 0 , 2 = 2 in the above determinant

1 0
1
1 2 e 2t = 0
I
e At
Expanding the determinant, we obtain

2e At + A + 2I Ae 2 t = 0 e At =
e At
17
1
=
1
1 e 2 t )
(
e 2t
1
A + 2I Ae 2 t )
(
2
Alternative :
As
e At = 0 (t )I + 1 (t ) A ,
where
0 (t ) + 1 (t )1 = e 1t
0 (t ) + 1 (t ) 2 = e 2 t
Since 1 = 0 , 2 = 2 ; Then
0 (t ) = 1
0 (t ) 2 1 (t ) = e 2 t 1 (t ) =
1
1 e 2t )
(
2
Therefore
e At
18
1
1
2t
= I + (1 e ) A =
2
0
1
2t
1 e )
(
2t
e
Computation of
( A ) = e At
Case-2: Minimal polynomials of A involves multiple
roots
Let us assume that the minimal polynomial of A involves three
equal roots ( 1 = 2 = 3 ) and the remaining ( 4 , 5 ,Lm ) are

distinct. Then using Sylvester's criterion, ( A ) can be obtained
as
m 3
1
21
2
( m 1) 1m 2
1
M
12
M
L
L
1m 1
M
e1t
M
1 m
1 A
m2
A2
m3
A3
L
L
m m 1
A m 1
em t
e At
1
M
2
1
3
1
t 2 1t
e
2
te1t
31
19
( m 1)( m 2 )
=0
(6)
Equation (6) can be expanded in similar fashion as before

e At = 0 ( t ) I + 1 ( t ) A + 2 ( t ) A 2 + L + m 1 ( t ) A m 1
(7)
and
( m 1)( m 2 )
t 2 1t
e = 2 ( t ) + 3 ( t ) 1 + L +
m 1 ( t ) 1m 3
2
2
te1t = 1 ( t ) + 2 2 ( t ) 1 + 3 3 ( t ) 12 + L + m 1 ( t ) 1m 1
e1t = 1 ( t ) + 2 ( t ) 1 + 3 ( t ) 12 + L + m 1 ( t ) 1m 1
e2 t = 1 ( t ) + 2 ( t ) 2 + 3 ( t ) 2 2 + L + m 1 ( t ) 2 m 1
M
em t = 0 ( t ) + 1 ( t ) m + 2 ( t ) m 2 + L + m 1 ( t ) m m 1
Extend the above formulation to other cases; e.g; two or

more sets of multiple roots. Try at least two examples
20
Example: Find e At
2 1 4
A = 0 2 0
0 3 1
Solution :
The eigenvalues are 1 = 2 = 2 , 3 = 1 .From the theory just discussed, we have
e At = 0 (t )I + 1 (t ) A + 2 (t ) A 2 and
te 1t = 1 (t ) + 2 2 (t )1 te 2 t = 1 (t ) + 4 2 (t )
e 2t = 0 (t ) + 1 (t )2 + 2 (t )2 2 e 2 t = 0 (t ) + 21 (t ) + 4 2 (t )
e 3t = 0 (t ) + 1 (t )3 + 2 (t )3 2 e t = 0 (t ) + 1 (t ) + 2 (t )
Solving the above set of equations, we have
0 (t ) = 4e t 3e 2 t + 2te 2 t ,
1 (t ) = 4e t + 4e 2 t 3te 2 t
2 (t ) = e t e 2 t + 3te 2 t
Finally
e At
21
e 2t
2
= 0 (t )I + 1 (t ) A + 2 (t ) A = 0
0
12e t 12e 2 t + 13te 2 t

e 2t
3e t + 3e 2 t
4e t + 4e 2 t
Controllability and Observability

Consider a dynam ical system described by
x ( t ) = A ( t ) x ( t ) + B ( t ) u ( t ),
x (t 0 ) = x 0
y (t ) = C (t ) x (t )
where
x (t ) n : State, x ( t 0 ) n : State at initial tim e t 0 , u ( t ) p : Control input,
y ( t ) m : output/m easurem ent vector. The solution x ( t ) is g iven as
t
x ( t ) = ( t,t 0 ) x ( t 0 ) + ( t, )B ( ) u ( ) d
t0
where (t,t 0 ) is the transition m atrix and it is the solution of

(t,t 0 ) =A ( t ) ( t,t 0 ), ( t 0 ,t 0 ) =In
In this course, we shall study LTI system s of the following form
x ( t ) = Ax ( t ) + Bu (t ),
x (t 0 ) = x 0
y ( t ) = Cx ( t )
The transition m atrix is
(t, t 0 ) =e
22
A ( t-t 0 )
A continuous time LTI system is said to be

reachable at time t 0 if it is possible by means of
any unconstrained control input vector to transfer

the system from initial state to any other state in a
finite interval of time.
A continuous time LTI system is said to be
controllable (to the zero state) at time t 0 if it is
possible by means of any unconstrained control
input vector to transfer the system from initial
state x (t 0 ) to origin.
State Controllability
Output Controllability
23
A system is said to controllable at time t 0 if it is possible by means of

an unconstrained control vector to transfer from any initial state x (t 0 )
toControl
any other
statebyinDr.aA.Q.
finite
System Design-II
Khan interval of time
T h e o r e m : A n e c e s s a r y a n d s u ffic ie n t c o n d itio n s
fo r s y s te m r e a c h a b ility [c o n tr o lla b ility ] a t tim e is
th a t W ( ,t ) is p o s itiv e d e fin ite fo r s o m e t
w h e r e W (.,.) is a n n n G r a m m ia n m a tr ix d e fin e d b y
t
W ( , t ) =
( , )B ( ) B T ( ) T (t, ) d
Uniform Reachability/Uniform Controllability
Strong notion
It refers to the fact that the property is independent of initial
time.
24
Theorem: For LTI systems given in before, the pair (A,B) is

said to be completely state controllable if and only if
rank B AB A n1B = n
Pr oof : The solution is
t
x ( t) = (t) x (0) + (t,)B () u () d, t 0 = 0

0
Apply the definition of state controllability,

i.e., x ( t1 ) = 0, therefore
t1
0= (t1 ) x (0) + ( t1 )B () u () d
0
t1
x (0) = ()B () u () d
0
u sin g () = e At = a0 ()I + a1 () A + a2 () A 2 + + +an1 () A n1

n1
25
= ak () A k
Control System Design-II by

k =Dr.
0 A.Q. Khan
Now
t1 n1
x (0) =
t1
n1
a () A B ()u() d = A B a ()u() d
k
0 k =0
k =0
t1
Let k = ak ()u () d
Controllability matrix
1

n1
2
k
n
1
x (0) = A Bk = B AB A B =
k =0
----- (1)
For system to be completely state controllable, equation
must holds. This requires that matrix M must have n linearly

independent row/column vectors.
Rank (M)= n
For u , the dim of M is nnp. The Rank (M) should be n
for CSS.
p
26
Example-I
x 1 1 1 x1 1
=
+ u

x 2 0 1 x 2 0
1 1
Rank (M) = 1 2
M = [B AB ] =
0 0
Hence the system is not completely state controllable
Example-II
x 1 1 1 x1 0
=
+ u

x 2 0 1 x 2 1
0 1
Rank (M) = 2
M = [B AB ] =
1 1
The system is completely state controllable

27
Controllability conditions in s-plane

Necessary and sufficient conditions: No cancellation
of poles and zeros

The system losses its controllability during
cancellation of poles and zeros
An Example
X (s)
(s + 2.5)
=
U(s) (s + 2.5)(s 1)
This system is not CSC.

Check it in state space??
28
An Example
x&1 = 3x1 + x2 + u
x&2 = 2 x1 + 1.5 x2 + 4u
Controllability ????
29
A n E x a m p le
x& 1 = 3 x 1 + x 2 + u
x& 2 = 2 x 1 + 1 .5 x 2 + 4 u
y = x1
C o n tro lla b ility ? ? ? ?
S o lu tio n :
A p p a ra n tly Y E S
L e t u s p ro c e e d a s fo llo w s
C h e c k th e c o n tro lla b iliy m a trix . H e re
3
A =
2
M = [B
30
1
1
,B =
1 .5
4
1 1
AB ] =
, R ank (M
4 4
)=1
An Exam ple
x&1 = 3 x1 + x 2 + u
x& 2 = 2 x1 + 1.5 x 2 + 4 u
C ontrollability ????
Apparantly Y ES
Solution:
Let us proceed as follow s
C heck the controllabiliy m atrix. H ere
Interesting
3 1
1
A=
,B =
2 1.5
4
1 1
, R ank ( M ) = 1
M = [ B AB ] =
4 4
31
F ro m th e s ta te -s p a c e m o d e l, w e h a v e
&&
x 1 + 1 . 5 x& 1 2 . 5 x 1 = u& + 2 . 5 u L
(s
Y
U
) (s ) = (s
+ 1 .5 s 2 .5 Y
(s )
(s )
(s
(s
2
+ 2 .5
+ 1 .5 s 2 .5
+ 2 . 5 )U
(s
(s
(s )
+ 2 .5
+ 2 .5
)(s
1)
Remarks
The system can not be controllable if it is not reducible to controllable
canonical form
B should not be in the eigen-space of A. Alternatively
B should not be in the null space of A
Conclusion
Actuator position is very important
32
A n o th e r E x a m p l e
x& 1 = x 1 + x 2 + 4 u 1 + 2 u 2
x& 2 = x 2
x& 3 = 2 x 3 + 3 u 1
y = x1
C o n tro lla b ility ? ? ? ?
33
Output Controllability
This can also be defined in the manner similar to state
controllability.
The system is said to be completely output controllable if it is
possible to construct an unconstrained control vector u(t)
that will transfer the output y(t) to origin from any initial
condition.
Let us consider
x (t) = Ax (t) + Bu (t),
x (t 0 ) = x0
y (t) = Cx (t)
The output controllability matrix
OM = CB CAB CA n1B
should have a rank m

34
Stabilizability
For partially controllable systems, if the controllable modes
are stable and the unstable modes are controllable, the

system is said to be stabilizable.
Remember: Controllability for continuous-time LTI system

implies Reachability. However for discrete-time LTI system this
does not hold.
35
Observability and Reconstructability

Definition: The system is said to be observable, if every state x(t0) can
be determined from the observation y(t) over finite interval of time

t0t t1.
In completely observable system, every transition in state
affects output (or every element of the output vector in case
of multiple output systems)
The difficulty, in practice, arise with the use of state feedback
control when all the system states are not available for
feedback.
The observability concept is useful in solving the problem of
reconstructing the un-measurable states of the system from
the measurable states in shortest possible length of time.
36
Consider
x (t) = Ax (t),
x (t 0 ) = x 0
y (t) = Cx (t)
Definition: Let y(t;t0,x,u) be the output of the above system to the
initial state x0.The present state x0 is unobservable if the (future)

output y(t;t0,x,0)=0 for all t t0
Definition: The present state x0 is unconstructible if the (past) output
y ( ; ,x, 0) = 0
The LTI system shown above or the pair (A,C) is

completely observable if and only if it is completely state
reconstructable
37
Complete Observability and Reconstructability

Consider
x (t) = Ax (t),
x (t 0 ) = x 0
y (t) = Cx (t)
The above system (the pair (C,A)) is said to be observable if

and only if the following observability matrix is full rank
OM = C AC
38
n1
(A )
Consider the system describe before, the output is

y (t ) = Ce At x (0 )
Recall that e
At
n 1
(t ) A k , therefore
k =0
n 1
y (t ) = C k (t ) A k x (0 ) = 0 (t )Cx (0 ) + 1 (t )CAx (0 ) + + n 1 (t )CA n 1x (0 )

k =0
CA
= 0 (t ) 1 (t ) n 1 (t ) = (OM )

n 1
CA
OM nmn = Observability matrix
For Complete observability, the observability matrix s hould be Full Rank .
Sometimes in literature

n 1
OM = C A C ( A ) C
is used as observability matrix

39
An Example:
x = Ax + Bu,
y = Cx where
1
0
1
, B = ,C = [1 0 ]
A=
2 1
1
Here
1 1
Rank (OM ) = 2
OM = C A C =
0 1
Hence the system is completely
completely state
state observable
observable
Now Find the obserbabiliy for the following ???

0
0
1
0

x = 0
0
1 x + 0 u,
y = [ 4 5 1] x

6 11 6
1

40
Analogous to Controllability, the necessary and sufficient
condition for complete observability is that no cancellation

occur in the transfer function or transfer matrix.
If there is some cancellation of Poles/Zeros, the
observability will be lost.
An Example
0
0
1
0

x = 0
0
1 x + 0 u

6 11 6
1

y = [ 4 5 1] x
Rank of the observability matrix

2
= Rank (OM ) = C A C ( A ) C = 2
41
Let us see what happens to Poles and zeros cancellation.
Consider the output equation

y = 4 x1 + 5 x1 + x1
Y (s )
Y (s ) = (4 + 5s + s ) X1 (s ) =
= (s + 1)(s + 4)
X1 (s )
2
X1 (s )
Also Computing
from state equations, we have
U (s )
X1 (s )
1
1
= 3
=
U (s ) s + 6s 2 + 11s + 6 (s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)
Y (s ) Y (s ) X1 (s )
(s + 1)(s + 4)
=
=
U (s ) X1 (s ) U (s ) (s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)
(s + 4)
=
(s + 2)(s + 3)
42
Poles and Zero Cancellation

occurs
Let us see what happens to Poles and zeros cancellation.
Consider the output equation

y = 4 x1 + 5 x1 + x1
Y (s )
Y (s ) = (4 + 5s + s ) X1 (s ) =
= (s + 1)(s + 4)
X1 (s )
2
X1 (s )
Also Computing
from state equations, we have
U (s )
X1 (s )
1
1
= 3
=
U (s ) s + 6s 2 + 11s + 6 (s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)
Y (s ) Y (s ) X1 (s )
(s + 1)(s + 4)
=
=
U (s ) X1 (s ) U (s ) (s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)
(s + 4)
=
(s + 2)(s + 3)
43
Poles and Zero Cancellation

occurs
A CSC system may not necessarily be CSO and vice versa

Illusrativde Example
1
0
0
x& =
x + u
0.4 1.3
1
y = [ 0.8 1] x
1
0
M =
; Rank ( M ) = 2 CSC
1 1.3
0.8 0.4
OM =
; Rank ( OM ) = 1 NOT CSO
1 0.5
Show if there is Poles Zero Cancellation or not??????
44
T ry th is o n e
2
x& = 0
0
y = [1
45
0
2
0 x
3
1
1 1] x
0
Duality properties
Symmetry properties exists
Observability (Reconstructability)
Controllability (Reachability)
The Linear time-invariant system
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
is the dual of the system (and vice versa)
z = A1z + B1v
y * = C1x*
where A1 = AT ,B1 = CT ,C1 = BT
46
The principle of duality is useful in that it allows the state

reconstruction problem can be casted as dual control problem and
vice versa.
Controllability and Observability indices

Controllability index
Consider the controlability matrix
M = B AB A n1B
If there exists a least integer q such that
Rank( B AB
AB A q1B ) = n
1 q n
Then this least integer refferred to as is called controlability index
47
Controllability and Observability indices

Observability index
Consider the observability matrix
*
* *
*
* n1
OM = C C A C ( A )
If there exists a least integer v, such that

*
*
* *
*
* n1
Rank( C C A C ( A ) ) = n
1 v n
Then this least integer refferred to as is called observability index

*
Very powerful concept

Quite often used in minimum order observer design
48

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Control System Design-II

Dr. Abdul Qayyum Khan

Solving TimeTime-Invariant state equationequation- A review

Let us consider a homogenous state equation

subsitituting (3) and (4) into (2)

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

At t = 0, equation (3) im plies

proceeding in sim ilar fashion, w e

w here ( t ) is state transition m atrix.

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Referring to equation (9), the term e is of particular

This matrix exponential for an

n n converges absolutely for

all finite time.

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Laplace Transform Approach

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Case-I: If 1,2,Ln be distinct eigenvalues of A, then ( t )

will contain exponentials e t ,e t ,Le t

Case-III: if there is multiplicity of eigenvalues 1,1, 1,2,Ln

, then ( t ) will contain terms like te t ,t2e t in addition to

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Solution to Homogenous State equations

Integrating both sides

Laplace Transform Approach

For initial time t 0 = t i 0, then

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

e =?: Some Further results

Laplace Transform method:

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

While the CH-Theorem shows that ( ) = 0 , there may be a

polynomial ( ) having lower degree than ( ) , for which

computation of polynomials of nn matrix.

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Case-1: Minimal polynomials of A involves only

can be obtained by solving the following determinant equation

Expanding this determinant equation about the last column, we

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

's can be solved using the equations (5). Then e A t can be

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

substituting 1 = 0 , 2 = 2 in the above determinant

Expanding the determinant, we obtain

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Case-2: Minimal polynomials of A involves multiple

equal roots ( 1 = 2 = 3 ) and the remaining ( 4 , 5 ,Lm ) are

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Equation (6) can be expanded in similar fashion as before

Extend the above formulation to other cases; e.g; two or

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

12e t 12e 2 t + 13te 2 t

Controllability and Observability

where (t,t 0 ) is the transition m atrix and it is the solution of

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

A continuous time LTI system is said to be

any unconstrained control input vector to transfer

A system is said to controllable at time t 0 if it is possible by means of

Uniform Reachability/Uniform Controllability