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Tibet vs. China
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Policy Studies 7
The Tibet-China Conflict:
History and Polemics
Elliot Sperling
East-West Center
Washington
Policy Studies
A Publication of the East-West Center Washington
Editor: Dr. Muthiah Alagappa
The aim of Policy Studies is to present scholarly analysis of key contemporary domestic
and international political, economic, and strategic issues affecting Asia in a policy rel-
evant manner. Written for the policy community, academics, journalists, and the
informed public, the peer-reviewed publications in this series will provide new policy
insights and perspectives based on extensive fieldwork and rigorous scholarship.
Each publication in the series presents a 15,000 to 25,000 investigation of a single
topic. Often publications in this series will appear in conjunction with East-West
Center research projects; stand-alone investigations of pertinent issues will also appear
in the series.
Submissions
Submissions may take the form of a proposal or completed manuscript.
Proposal. A three to five page proposal should indicate the issue, problem, or puzzle to
be analyzed, its policy significance, the novel perspective to be provided, and date by
which the manuscript will be ready. The editor and two relevant experts will review
proposals to determine their suitability for the series. The manuscript when completed
will be peer-reviewed in line with the double blind process.
Complete Manuscript. Submission of complete manuscript should be accompanied by a
two page abstract that sets out the issue, problem, or puzzle analyzed, its policy signifi-
cance, and the novel perspective provided by the paper. The editor and two relevant
experts will review the abstract. If considered suitable for the series, the manuscript will
be peer reviewed in line with the double blind process.
Submissions must be original and not published elsewhere. The East-West Center
Washington will have copyright over material published in the series.
A CV indicating relevant qualifications and publications should accompany submissions.
Notes to Contributors
Manuscripts should be typed and double-spaced. Citations should be inserted in the
text with notes double-spaced at the end. The manuscript should be accompanied by a
completed bibliography. All artwork should be camera ready. Authors should refrain
from identifying themselves in their proposals and manuscripts and should follow the
Policy Studies stylesheet, available from the series’ editorial office. Submissions should
be sent to:
Editor, Policy Studies
East-West Center Washington
1819 L Street NW, Suite 200
Washington, D.C. 20036
Submissions can also be forwarded by Email to
Publications@EastWestCenterWashington.org
6JG6KDGV%JKPC%QPHNKEV
*KUVQT[CPF2QNGOKEU
0OLICY 3TUDIES
6JG6KDGV%JKPC
%QPHNKEV
*KUVQT[CPF2QNGOKEU
%LLIOT 3PERLING
#OPYRIGHT Ú BY THE %AST
7EST #ENTER 7ASHINGTON
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT (ISTORY AND 0OLEMICS
BY %LLIOT 3PERLING
)3". ONLINE VERSION
)33. ONLINE VERSION
/NLINE VERSION AVAILABLE AT
HTTPWWWEASTWESTCENTERWASHINGTONORG0UBLICATIONSPUBLICATIONSHTM
%AST
7EST #ENTER 7ASHINGTON
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%MAIL 0UBLICATIONS %AST7EST#ENTER7ASHINGTONORG
7EBSITE HTTPWWWEASTWESTCENTERWASHINGTONORG
4HE 0OLICY 3TUDIES SERIES CONTRIBUTES TO THE #ENTERS ROLE AS A FORUM FOR
DISCUSSION OF KEY CONTEMPORARY DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL
ECONOMIC AND STRATEGIC ISSUES AFFECTING !SIA 4HE VIEWS EXPRESSED ARE
THOSE OF THE AUTHOR AND NOT NECESSARILY OF THE #ENTER
4HIS PUBLICATION IS A PRODUCT OF THE %AST
7EST #ENTER 7ASHINGTONS
0ROJECT ON )NTERNAL #ONmICTS &OR DETAILS SEE PAGES
4HE PROJECT AND THIS PUBLICATION ARE SUPPORTED BY A GENEROUS CONTRIBUTION
FROM THE #ARNEGIE #ORPORATION OF .EW 9ORK
%QPVGPVU
,IST OF !CRONYMS VII
%XECUTIVE 3UMMARY IX
)NTRODUCTION
4HE 1UESTION OF 4IBETS (ISTORICAL 3TATUS
%VOLUTION OF THE #HINESE 0OSITION
0REVAILING #HINESE 6IEW OF 4IBETS (ISTORICAL 3TATUS
%VOLUTION OF THE 4IBETAN 0OSITION
0REVAILING 4IBETAN 6IEW OF 4IBETS (ISTORICAL 3TATUS
!SSERTIONS AND THE (ISTORICAL 2ECORD
#ONCLUSION
%NDNOTES
"IBLIOGRAPHY
0ROJECT )NFORMATION 4HE $YNAMICS AND -ANAGEMENT OF
)NTERNAL #ONmICTS IN !SIA
s 0ROJECT 0URPOSE AND /UTLINE
s 0ROJECT 0ARTICIPANTS ,IST
s "ACKGROUND OF THE 4IBET CONmICT
s -AP OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU
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'ZGEWVKXG5WOOCT[
4HIS PAPER IS A GUIDE TO THE HISTORICAL ARGUMENTS MADE BY THE PRIMARY
PARTIES TO THE 4IBET
#HINA CONmICT 'IVEN THE POLARIZATION THAT HAS
CHARACTERIZED THIS ISSUE FOR DECADES IT IS SURPRISING THAT LITTLE HAS BEEN DONE
TO ANALYZE OR AT LEAST DISENTANGLE THE STRANDS OF HISTORICAL ARGUMENTATION
THAT THE PARTIES HAVE BEEN USING 4HIS PAPER ATTEMPTS TO DO THIS BY RELYING
AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE ON THE KEY ASSERTIONS AS THEY HAVE BEEN FRAMED IN
#HINESE AND 4IBETAN SOURCES #HINESE
AND 4IBETAN
LANGUAGE MATERIALS
DEALING WITH THE HISTORICAL STATUS OF 4IBET ARE OFTEN MORE DETAILED AND BETTER
DOCUMENTED AND HEW MORE CLOSELY THEN %NGLISH
LANGUAGE MATERIALS DO TO
THE THINKING OF THE PEOPLE MOST DIRECTLY CONCERNED WITH AND AFFECTED BY
THE 4IBET
#HINA CONmICT
4HE STATUS OF 4IBET IS AT THE CORE OF THE DISPUTE AS IT HAS BEEN FOR ALL
PARTIES DRAWN INTO IT OVER THE PAST CENTURY #HINA MAINTAINS THAT 4IBET IS AN
INALIENABLE PART OF #HINA 4IBETANS MAINTAIN THAT 4IBET HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN
AN INDEPENDENT COUNTRY )N REALITY THE CONmICT OVER 4IBETS STATUS HAS BEEN A
CONmICT OVER HISTORY 7HEN #HINESE WRITERS AND POLITICAL lGURES ASSERT THAT
4IBET IS A PART OF #HINA THEY DO SO NOT ON THE BASIS OF #HINESE RULE BEING
GOOD RULE ALTHOUGH THEY DO NOT HESITATE TO MAKE THAT ASSERTION EITHER BUT
ON THE BASIS OF HISTORY !S ONE OF #HINAS MORE WELL
KNOWN SPOKESMEN ONCE
PUT IT h@)S 4IBET AFTER ALL A PART OF #HINA (ISTORY SAYS IT ISv
4HE FUNDAMENTAL PLACE OF HISTORY IN THE 4IBET ISSUE IS NOT SOMETHING
IMPOSED BY OUTSIDE PARTIES %VEN THOUGH THE $ALAI ,AMA AND HIS
X %LLIOT 3PERLING
GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILE APPEAR QUITE AT EASE WITH ACCEPTING 4IBET AS A PART OF
#HINA THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA 02# HAS POINTEDLY ACCUSED THE
$ALAI ,AMA OF DUPLICITY STATING THAT HIS UNWILLINGNESS TO RECOGNIZE 4IBET AS
HAVING BEEN AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA FOR CENTURIES RENDERS HIS ACQUIESCENCE
UNACCEPTABLE 4HE CENTRALITY OF HISTORY IN THE QUESTION OF 4IBETS STATUS
COULD NOT BE CLEARER
4HIS PAPER LOOKS AT THE EVOLUTION OF BOTH #HINESE AND 4IBETAN
POSITIONS THEN AT THE PREVAILING VIEWS CURRENTLY HELD BY ADVOCATES ON
EITHER SIDE OF THE ISSUE AND lNALLY AT HOW THE MAJOR ASSERTIONS MADE ABOUT
4IBETS HISTORICAL STATUS STAND UP AGAINST THE HISTORICAL RECORD AS REmECTED IN
RELEVANT PRIMARY
SOURCE MATERIALS IN #HINESE AND 4IBETAN #ONTEMPORARY
SECONDARY LITERATURE ON THE 4IBET ISSUE HAS UNTIL NOW NOT BEEN BASED ON THIS
SORT OF APPROACH
4HIS PAPER PROVIDES NEW DETAILS AND NEW INSIGHTS FOR THOSE CONCERNED
WITH THE BASIC HISTORICAL ARGUMENTS THAT UNDERLIE THE CRUCIAL ISSUE OF 4IBETS
STATUS )T WILL SHOW THAT POSITIONS ON THE 4IBET ISSUE SAID TO BE REmECTIVE OF
CENTURIES OF POPULAR CONSENSUS ARE ACTUALLY VERY RECENT CONSTRUCTIONS OFTEN
AT VARIANCE WITH THE HISTORY ON WHICH THEY CLAIM TO BE BASED )N SOME AREAS
CRITICAL ASPECTS OF HISTORY HAVE BEEN MISCONSTRUED BY BOTH SIDES
4HUS #HINAS CONTENTION THAT 4IBET HAS BEEN AN hINTEGRALv PART OF
#HINA SINCE THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY TOOK SHAPE ONLY IN THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY -OREOVER AS LATE AS THE S #HINESE WRITERS WERE ACCUSTOMED
TO DESCRIBING 4IBETS PLACE IN THE WORLD OF IMPERIAL #HINA AS THAT OF A
SUBORDINATE VASSAL STATE NOT AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA AS CURRENT #HINESE
MATERIALS PUT IT )NDEED FOR QUITE SOME TIME AFTER 4IBET WAS INCORPORATED
INTO THE 02# #HINESE NARRATIVES OF THAT PROCESS WERE OFTEN VAGUE AND BESET
BY CONTRADICTORY CHRONOLOGIES
3IMILARLY THE 4IBETAN CONCEPT OF A hPRIEST
PATRONv RELIGIOUS RELATIONSHIP
GOVERNING 3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONS TO THE EXCLUSION OF CONCRETE POLITICAL
SUBORDINATION IS ITSELF A RATHER RECENT CONSTRUCTION !MPLE EVIDENCE SHOWS
THAT 4IBETAN RELIGIOUS lGURES ENTERTAINED RELIGIOUS AND SPIRITUAL RELATIONSHIPS
WITH EMPERORS OF SEVERAL DYNASTIES SOMETIMES UNDER CONDITIONS IN WHICH
4IBET WAS POLITICALLY SUBORDINATE TO THE DYNASTY IN QUESTION AND AT OTHER
TIMES UNDER CONDITIONS IN WHICH 4IBET WAS INDEPENDENT 4HE PRIEST
PATRON
RELATIONSHIP WAS SIMPLY NOT A BAROMETER OF 4IBETS STATUS IN SPITE OF CURRENT
4IBETAN USE OF IT AS SUCH
)N ADDITION ONE OF THE MAJOR CONTENTIONS OF THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILETHAT 4IBET WAS INVADED IN IS A COMPLEX AND AMBIGUOUS
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT XI
ISSUE 4HE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT SIGNALED IT WAS UNDER ATTACK ONLY IN
WHEN 02# FORCES CROSSED INTO THE TERRITORIES UNDER THE JURISDICTION OF
THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT 4IBETAN AREAS OUTSIDE THE $ALAI ,AMAS
JURISDICTION HAD ALREADY BEEN INCORPORATED INTO THE 02# 4HE INSISTENCE
IN RECENT DECADES ON AS THE DATE OF 4IBETS INVASION IS AN ATTEMPT TO
DElNE THESE TERRITORIES AS PART OF 4IBET #OMPLEXITY IS ADDED TO THE ISSUE BY
THE FACT THAT THESE TERRITORIES HAVE BEEN SIGNIlCANT IN 4IBETS CONmICT WITH
#HINA 4HEIR CULTURAL PLACE IN THE 4IBETAN WORLD IS IMPORTANT THE PRESENT
$ALAI ,AMA COMES FROM THIS PART OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU
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&OR MORE THAN YEARS THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT OF #HINA HAS CONTINUOUSLY
EXERCISED SOVEREIGNTY OVER 4IBET AND 4IBET HAS NEVER BEEN AN INDEPENDENT STATE
02# OFlCIAL 7HITE 0APER
!T THE TIME OF ITS INVASION BY TROOPS OF THE 0EOPLES ,IBERATION !RMY OF #HINA
IN 4IBET WAS AN INDEPENDENT STATE IN FACT AND LAW 4HE MILITARY INVASION
CONSTITUTED AN AGGRESSION ON A SOVEREIGN STATE AND A VIOLATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
4IBETAN 'OVERNMENT IN %XILE
4HIS PAPER IS INTENDED AS SOMETHING OF A "AEDEKER FOR THOSE ATTEMPTING TO
CROSS THE CONTESTED TERRAIN OF HISTORICAL ARGUMENTS MUSTERED BY THE PRIMARY
PARTIES TO THE 4IBET
#HINA CONmICT )T HAS LONG BEEN A COMMON ASSUMPTION
THAT THE POSITIONS OF BOTH PARTIES ON THE HISTORICAL STATUS OF 4IBET ARE HIGHLY
POLARIZED 3UCH AN ASSUMPTION IS UNDERSTANDABLE GIVEN THAT HISTORICAL
EVIDENCE IS COMMONLY AT THE CORE OF MOST ASSERTIONS ABOUT THE JUSTICE OR
INJUSTICE OF 4IBETS CONTEMPORARY STATUS 9ET LITTLE HAS BEEN DONE TO ANALYZE
OR AT LEAST DISENTANGLE THE STRANDS OF HISTORICAL ARGUMENTATION THAT THE
PARTIES HAVE USED FOR WELL OVER HALF A CENTURY NOW )N ATTEMPTING TO DO JUST
THAT THIS PAPER EXAMINES SOME OF THE MAJOR ASSERTIONS MADE BY 4IBETAN AND
#HINESE WRITERS IN SUPPORT OF THE PROPOSITIONS THAT 4IBET WAS HISTORICALLY
A PART OF #HINA OR HISTORICALLY INDEPENDENT OF #HINA )T IS HOPED THAT THIS
%LLIOT 3PERLING
STUDY WILL BE USEFUL TO THOSE TRYING TO UNDERSTAND THE CONmICTING VIEWS THAT
LIE AT THE HEART OF THE IMPASSE OVER 4IBET
4O THAT END MANY OF THE KEY ASSERTIONS ON THE ISSUE ARE PRESENTED IN
THE FOLLOWING PAGES AS THEY ARE FRAMED IN #HINESE AND 4IBETAN 5SING THOSE
ORIGINAL FORMULATIONS IS IMPORTANT IN LARGE MEASURE BECAUSE #HINESE
AND
4IBETAN
LANGUAGE MATERIALS ON THE ISSUE ARE OFTEN MORE DETAILED AND BETTER
DOCUMENTED AND HEW MORE CLOSELY THAN %NGLISH
LANGUAGE MATERIALS DO TO
THE THINKING OF THE PEOPLE MOST DIRECTLY CONCERNED WITH AND AFFECTED BY
THE 4IBET
#HINA CONmICT 4HE RESEARCH UNDERLYING THIS PAPER IS NOT LIMITED
TO 4IBETAN
AND #HINESE
LANGUAGE MATERIALS HOWEVER %NGLISH
LANGUAGE
MATERIALS ARE ALSO USED ALBEIT WITH THE CAVEAT THAT %NGLISH
LANGUAGE
MATERIALS EMANATING FROM THE #HINESE AND 4IBETAN SIDES ARE OFTEN MORE
SOLIDLY POLEMICAL AND AIMED AT SWAYING THIRD PARTIES RATHER THAN AT MAKING
THE CASE THAT 4IBETANS AND #HINESE MAKE TO THEMSELVES (AVING SAID THIS
THOUGH IT MUST ALSO BE ACKNOWLEDGED THAT MATERIALS PRODUCED BY THE
4IBETAN EXILE COMMUNITY ARE OFTEN DISPROPORTIONATELY IN %NGLISH A RESULT
OF THE VERY CIRCUMSTANCE OF EXILE IN )NDIA
4HIS PAPER LOOKS lRST AT THE EVOLUTION OF BOTH #HINESE AND 4IBETAN
POSITIONS THEN EXAMINES THE PREVAILING VIEWS CURRENTLY HELD BY ADVOCATES
ON THE TWO SIDES OF THE ISSUE AND CONCLUDES BY EXAMINING MAJOR ASSERTIONS
MADE ABOUT 4IBETS HISTORICAL STATUS AGAINST THE
POSITIONS SAID TO BE HISTORICAL RECORD AS REmECTED IN RELEVANT PRIMARY
REmECTIVE OF CENTURIES OF SOURCE MATERIALS "Y AND LARGE THIS HAS NOT BEEN
DONE IN THE EXISTING SECONDARY LITERATURE ON 4IBET
POPULAR CONSENSUS ON THE CERTAINLY NOT BY DIRECT REFERENCE TO #HINESE
AND
4IBET ISSUE ARE ACTUALLY 4IBETAN
LANGUAGE SOURCES )T WILL COME AS NO
SHOCK TO THOSE INTERESTED IN ISSUES OF NATIONALISM
VERY RECENT CONSTRUCTIONS AND IDENTITY TO lND AS THIS PAPER SHOWS THAT
POSITIONS SAID TO BE REmECTIVE OF CENTURIES OF
POPULAR CONSENSUS ON THE 4IBET ISSUE ARE ACTUALLY VERY RECENT CONSTRUCTIONS
OFTEN AT VARIANCE WITH THE VERY HISTORY ON WHICH THEY CLAIM TO BE BASED
/THER READERS HOWEVER MAY BE SURPRISED TO lND CRITICAL ASPECTS OF HISTORY
BROADLY MISCONSTRUED BY BOTH SIDES
!MONG OTHER THINGS WE WILL OBSERVE THAT #HINAS CONTENTION THAT 4IBET
HAS BEEN AN hINTEGRALv PART OF #HINA SINCE THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY TOOK
SHAPE ONLY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 3IMILARLY WE WILL SEE THAT THE 4IBETAN
CONCEPT OF A hPRIEST
PATRONv RELATIONSHIP GOVERNING 3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONS
TO THE EXCLUSION OF CONCRETE POLITICAL SUBORDINATION IS LIKEWISE A RATHER
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
RECENT CONSTRUCTION ONE BELIED BY THE ACTUAL BONDS THAT EXISTED BETWEEN
4IBET AND SEVERAL IMPERIAL DYNASTIES
4HE 1UESTION OF 4IBETS (ISTORICAL 3TATUS
4HE STATUS OF 4IBET HAS BEEN A SUBJECT OF CONTENTION AND POLEMICS IN
ONE FORM OR ANOTHER FOR WELL OVER A CENTURY AND NOT SIMPLY FOR #HINESE
AND 4IBETANS 4HE "RITISH RULERS OF )NDIA IN THE LATE NINETEENTH AND EARLY
TWENTIETH CENTURIES FELT A STRATEGIC NEED TO DEAL WITH THE ISSUE AND OBSERVING
THE IMPOTENCE OF THE DECLINING 1ING DYNASTY n IN 4IBET
CONCLUDED THAT ITS AUTHORITY THERE WAS WHOLLY WITHOUT SUBSTANCE %ARLY IN
,ORD #URZON THEN VICEROY OF )NDIA CHARACTERIZED 4IBETAN REFUSALS
TO DEAL DIRECTLY WITH HIS GOVERNMENT OUT OF DEFERENCE TO 1ING AUTHORITY AS
PART OF A hSOLEMN FARCEv (IS VERDICT CAME TO BE AN OFT
REPEATED PART OF THE
SUBSEQUENT %NGLISH
LANGUAGE LITERATURE ON 4IBETS HISTORY AND STATUS
7E REGARD THE SO
CALLED SUZERAINTY OF #HINA OVER 4IBET AS A
CONSTITUTIONAL lCTIONA POLITICAL AFFECTATION WHICH HAS ONLY BEEN
MAINTAINED BECAUSE OF ITS CONVENIENCE TO BOTH PARTIES x !S A MATTER
OF FACT THE TWO #HINESE !MBANS AT ,HASA ARE THERE NOT AS 6ICEROYS BUT
AS !MBASSADORS AND THE ENTIRE #HINESE SOLDIERY BY WHOM THIS lGMENT
OF #HINESE SUZERAINTY IS SUSTAINED IN 4IBET CONSISTS OF LESS THAN ILL
ARMED MEN
4HE STATUS OF 4IBET HAS BEEN AT THE CORE OF THE 4IBET ISSUE FOR ALL
PARTIES DRAWN INTO IT OVER THE PAST CENTURY 2EGARDLESS OF THIRD
PARTY
PRONOUNCEMENTS HOWEVER THE CORE OF THE CONmICT HAS BEEN THE POSITIONS
HELD BY 4IBET AND #HINA 4HE HEART OF #HINAS POSITION HAS REMAINED
ESSENTIALLY STEADY 4IBET IS AN INALIENABLE PART OF #HINA !T THE SAME
TIME 4IBETS GOVERNMENTWITH LESS THAN TOTAL CONSISTENCYHAS LARGELY
MAINTAINED THAT 4IBET HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN AN INDEPENDENT COUNTRY
)N REALITY THE CONmICT OVER 4IBETS STATUS HAS BEEN A CONmICT OVER HISTORY
4HIS IS NOT TO SAY THAT THE ENTIRE 4IBET ISSUE IS REDUCABLE TO A HISTORICAL
DISPUTE 1UESTIONS OF DEMOGRAPHY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CULTURAL AND
HUMAN RIGHTS ETC ARE IMPORTANT PARTS OF THE 4IBET ISSUE 7HEN #HINESE
WRITERS AND POLITICAL lGURES ASSERT THAT 4IBET IS A PART OF #HINA HOWEVER
THEY DO SO NOT ON THE BASIS OF #HINESE RULE BEING GOOD RULE ALTHOUGH THEY
DO NOT HESITATE TO MAKE THAT ASSERTION BUT ON THE BASIS OF HISTORY /NE
OF #HINAS MORE WELL
KNOWN SPOKESMEN OF PREVIOUS DECADES FORMULATED
THE MATTER SUCCINCTLY h@)S 4IBET AFTER ALL A PART OF #HINA (ISTORY SAYS
%LLIOT 3PERLING
IT ISv %VEN MORE MANIFESTLY A VOLUME PUBLISHED IN BY THE 4IBETAN
!CADEMY OF 3OCIAL 3CIENCES AND BEARING A TITLE THAT TRANSLATES AS h4IBET )S
AN )NSEPARABLE 0ART OF #HINAv DIRECTLY IDENTIlED THE BASIC ARGUMENT ABOUT
4IBETS STATUS WITH THE HISTORICAL RECORD THE
PAGE TOME CONSISTS OF
ALMOST NOTHING BUT ANNOTATED EXTRACTS FROM #HINESE HISTORICAL SOURCES AND
DOCUMENTS 4HE CLEAR FOUNDATION FOR #HINESE ASSERTIONS OF 4IBETS STATUS AS
A PART OF #HINA IS THE HISTORICAL RECORD 4IBETANS WHO ADVOCATE THE JUSTICE OF
4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE DO SO ALSO ON THE BASIS OF HISTORY ALTHOUGH THEY ALSO
ADDUCE A VARIETY OF OTHER FACTORS THAT DIVIDE 4IBETANS AND #HINESE SUCH AS
LANGUAGE CULTURE AND RELIGION
4HUS HISTORY MUST OF NECESSITY BE THE FOCUS OF THIS PAPER )T IS THE MOST
SIGNIlCANT BATTLEGROUND OVER WHICH THOSE POSITIONS THAT ARE CONVENIENTLY
DESCRIBED AS h#HINESEv AND h4IBETANv CLASH 4HE CENTRALITY OF HISTORY HAS
NOT PRECLUDED OTHER ELEMENTS FROM BEING BROUGHT INTO THE DISCUSSION BUT
THE CONmICT OVER 4IBET INASMUCH AS IT IS A QUESTION OF RESOLVING A DISPUTE
BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT OF THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA 02# AND
4IBETANS WHO CONTEST ITS CLAIM TO 4IBET IS A CONmICT OVER LEGITIMACY !ND
THE PRIMARY WITNESS THE PARTIES ON BOTH SIDES CALL ON TO SUPPORT THEIR CLAIMS
OF LEGITIMACY IS HISTORY
#HINESE WRITERS HAVE OFTEN PRESENTED THE ISSUE AS ONE FOR WHICH THE
CORRECT INTERPRETATION IS FROM THE HISTORICAL STANDPOINT SELF
EVIDENT 4HE
FOLLOWING STATEMENT IS ONE OF MANY ITERATIONS OF A UBIQUITOUS ELEMENT
IN MANY #HINESE POLEMICS AND STATEMENTS ABOUT 4IBET h!S IS KNOWN TO
ALL 4IBET HAS SINCE THE TH CENTURY BEEN AN INALIENABLE PART OF #HINAS
TERRITORYv "UT SUCH RHETORIC MASKS THE FACT THAT THE DIFFERING PRESENT
DAY POSITIONS ON 4IBETS STATUS BASED THOUGH THEY ARE ON INTERPRETATIONS
OF HISTORY LACK ROOTS GOING BACK TO THE HISTORICAL EVENTS AND PERIODS
SUMMONED AS PROOF 4HE CURRENTLY RECOGNIZED POSITIONS ASSERTING #HINESE
SOVEREIGNTY ON ONE SIDE AND 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE ON THE OTHER HAVE IN
THEIR SEPARATE WAYS COALESCED IN THEIR PRESENT FORMS ONLY IN THE SECOND HALF
OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
%FFECTIVELY THE RHETORICAL TWIST hAS IS KNOWN TO ALL xv SEEKS TO CUT SHORT
ANY SERIOUS EXAMINATION OF A SUBJECT THAT WARRANTS SUSTAINED DISCUSSION AND
ENGAGEMENT 4O REITERATE THE CORE OF THE 4IBET ISSUE IS THE QUESTION OF 4IBETS
HISTORICAL STATUS ONES UNDERSTANDING OF THAT HISTORY OBVIOUSLY COLORS IF
NOT WHOLLY DECIDES ONES VIEW OF THE LEGITIMACY OF 4IBETS INCORPORATION
INTO THE 02# !ND SO DISCUSSIONS OF THE 4IBET ISSUE TURN BACK TO THE UR
QUESTION 7AS 4IBET HISTORICALLY A PART OF #HINA
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
!S SHOULD BECOME CLEAR IN THE PAGES THAT FOLLOW AN EXAMINATION OF
THE HISTORY BEARING ON THAT QUESTION FORCES ONE TO ENGAGE WITH CERTAIN
CULTURAL AND POLITICAL FACTORS AS WELL #ERTAINLY IF ALL THAT WERE NEEDED TO
RESOLVE MATTERS WERE AN UNBIASED EXAMINATION OF THE HISTORICAL RECORD
THE ISSUE WOULD LONG SINCE HAVE BEEN RESOLVED TO THE SATISFACTION OF ALL
"UT ALAS SUCH IS NOT THE CASE FOR THE QUESTION OF 4IBET DOES NOT STAND IN
ISOLATION )NDEED TO QUESTION THE LEGITIMACY OF 4IBETS INCORPORATION INTO
THE 02# IS TO QUESTION THE LEGITIMACY OF THE IDEA
OF THE #HINESE STATE AS CONSTRUCTED BY THE #HINESE 4IBETS HISTORY HAS
#OMMUNIST 0ARTY IT IS TO RAISE QUESTIONS AGAINST
THE CULTURAL AND POLITICAL NATIONALISM THAT HAS
BECOME A FUNDAMENTAL
BEEN FOSTERED WITHIN THE 02# AND THAT HAS TAKEN AND EXISTENTIAL ISSUE
ROOT BOTH INSIDE AND OUTSIDE OFlCIAL PARTY AND
GOVERNMENTAL CIRCLES 4HESE ARE NO SMALL MATTERS
ONE THAT HAS SIGNIlCANT
4HE SERIOUS IMPLICATIONS COUCHED IN ANY DOUBTS BEARING ON THE MODERN
ABOUT THE HISTORICAL VALIDITY OF 4IBETS PLACE IN
THE 02# ARE A PRIMARY CAUSE FOR THE VOCIFEROUS
IDENTITY OF #HINA
REACTIONS FROM #HINESE WRITERS TO SUCH QUESTIONS
4IBETS HISTORY HAS BECOME A FUNDAMENTAL AND EXISTENTIAL ISSUE ONE THAT HAS
SIGNIlCANT BEARING ON THE MODERN IDENTITY OF #HINA
4HIS PAPER WILL EXAMINE POSITIONS ADOPTED ON THE DIFFERENT SIDES OF
THE DIVIDE OVER 4IBET )T WILL SET OUT SOME OF THE BASIC ARGUMENTS MADE BY
#HINESE WRITERS AND POLEMICISTS IN OFlCIAL AND SEMI
OFlCIAL PUBLICATIONS
)T WILL EXAMINE WHAT A VARIETY OF 4IBETAN AND PRO
4IBETAN WRITERS AND
lGURES POSIT AS THE HISTORICAL CASE FOR 4IBET !DDITIONALLY IT WILL DISCUSS
SOME ELEMENTS OF THE HISTORICAL RECORD APART FROM THE ARGUMENTS ADVANCED
BY ADVOCATES OF ONE OR THE OTHER SIDE &INALLY IT WILL EXPLORE THE SIGNIlCANCE
AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE DEBATE WITHIN A LARGER CONTEXT
4HE %VOLUTION OF THE #HINESE 0OSITION
!S STATED ABOVE THE PRIMARY BATTLEGROUND FOR THE ARGUMENT OVER 4IBETS
STATUS IS HISTORY AND THAT HISTORY IS OFTEN PRESENTED FROM THE #HINESE
PERSPECTIVE AS SELF
EVIDENTLY SUPPORTIVE OF #HINESE ASSERTIONS !RGUMENTS
HAVE BEEN MADE FOR AT LEAST A CENTURY ABOUT 4IBETS STATUS AS A PART OF #HINA
!LTHOUGH BRIEF ASSERTIONS OF THE RIGHTNESS OF 4IBETS PLACE WITHIN #HINA
CAN BE TRACED BACK THIS FAR HOWEVER A RELATIVELY INTENSE DOCUMENTARY
CASE HAS BEEN PRESENTED BY #HINA ONLY OVER THE LAST TWO DECADES WITH
THE PUBLICATION OF SEVERAL COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS MEANT TO BUTTRESS AND
%LLIOTT 3PERLING
CLEARLY PROVE THE POINT
)N THE TWILIGHT OF IMPERIAL DYNASTIC RULE IN #HINA THE SUBJECTION OF
4IBET TO THE 1ING DYNASTY WAS STILL RECOGNIZED BY ALL PARTIES IN FORM IF
NOT IN SUBSTANCE 4HE ACTUAL NATURE OF 4IBETS TIE TO THE 1ING HOWEVER
WAS SUBJECT TO DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS AND AS MIGHT BE EXPECTED THIS
IMPRECISION MADE 4IBET A CONTINUING ISSUE IN 1ING RELATIONS WITH "RITAIN
AND 2USSIA "RITISH OFlCIALS AND WRITERS TENDED TO REFER CONSISTENTLY TO 1ING
DOMINANCE AS A FORM OF hSUZERAINTY v A TERM WHOSE VAGUENESS CAME TO
BEDEVIL LATER INTERPRETATIONS OF 3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONS -OREOVER #URZONS
DISMISSAL OF 1ING AUTHORITY WAS HARDLY A DETACHED DISPASSIONATE JUDGMENT
IT WAS SET AGAINST THE CONTEXT OF "RITISH )NDIAS NEED TO SECURE )NDIAS
FRONTIERS AND ELIMINATE ANY POSSIBILITY OF THREATS OR CONCERNS EMANATING
FROM 4IBET )N EFFECT THIS REQUIRED PLACING 4IBET AT LEAST WITHIN THE ORBIT OF
"RITISH INmUENCE 4HE FEARS OF #URZON AND OTHERS WERE PREDICATED ON THE
POSSIBLE THREAT TO )NDIA THAT MIGHT EXTEND FROM 2USSIA WITH ITS #ENTRAL
!SIAN INTERESTS A THREAT FROM THE 1ING WAS HARDLY IMAGINABLE !ND SO IN
SEEKING TO BLOCK 2USSIAN DESIGNS IN )NNER !SIA "RITAIN BECAME PARTY TO
SEVERAL AGREEMENTS AND TREATIES THAT ACKNOWLEDGED 4IBETS SUBORDINATION TO
#HINA 0RESENT
DAY #HINESE TREATMENTS OF AND STATEMENTS ON THE STATUS OF
4IBET DO NOT GIVE ANY PRIMARY WEIGHT TO THESE AGREEMENTS GIVEN THAT THEY
ARE IN THE EYES OF MODERN #HINESE THE PRODUCTS OF AN ERA IN WHICH #HINA
WAS REDUCED TO A SEMI
COLONY BY IMPERIALIST AGGRESSION
4IBETS HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIP TO #HINA WAS CAST IN ITS PRESENT
FORMULATION ONLY AFTER THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA HAD BEEN ESTABLISHED
"UT THE 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA HAD ALSO DEALT WITH THE ISSUE DURING THE TIME
THAT IT HELD SWAY ON THE #HINESE MAINLAND n )N FACT WHEN
NEGOTIATIONS TO RESOLVE THE 4IBET ISSUE WERE ATTEMPTED IN 3IMLA IN n
THE #HINESE DELEGATION CAME WITH A CLEAR STATEMENT OF WHAT IT HELD
TO BE THE HISTORICAL STATUS OF 4IBET !CCORDINGLY THE #HINESE DELEGATION
SUBMITTED TO THE CONFERENCE ON /CTOBER ITS POSITION THAT 4IBET
HAD BEEN INCORPORATED INTO THE -ONGOL %MPIRE IN AND REMAINED IN
THIS RELATIONSHIP IE THAT OF AN IMPERIAL DOMINION TO #HINA DURING THE
-ING PERIOD n 3IGNIlCANTLY THE #HINESE STATEMENT ELABORATES
ON THE AFTERMATH OF THE 'URKHA INVASION OF 4IBET WHICH RESULTED IN THE
4IBETO
.EPALESE 7AR OF n
SO POWERLESS AND HELPLESS WERE THE 4IBETANS THAT THEY AGAIN WENT TO
#HINA FOR ASSISTANCE 4O THEIR SUPPLICATION #HINA RESPONDED AT ONCE
BY SENDING OVER SOLDIERS TO 4IBET AND ACCORDINGLY THE 'URKHAS
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
WERE DRIVEN OUT OF THE COUNTRY 4IBET WAS THEN DElNITELY PLACED UNDER
THE SOVEREIGNTY OF #HINA
$URING THE 2EPUBLICAN ERA THIS BASIC HISTORICAL CLAIM WAS MAINTAINED
ALBEIT WITH SOME SIGNIlCANT VARIATION !S WILL BE DISCUSSED LATER WHILE
2EPUBLICAN
ERA WRITERS MAINTAINED #HINAS CLAIM TO SOVEREIGN RIGHTS OVER
4IBET THEY TENDED TO VIEW 4IBET AS HAVING BEEN A VASSAL STATE OF THE 1ING
RATHER THAN AS THE PRESENT
DAY #HINESE POSITION HAS IT AN INTEGRAL PART
OF #HINA -ORE POTENTLY 2EPUBLICAN PRONOUNCEMENTS ABOUT THE PLACE OF
4IBET WITHIN THE #HINESE NATION STRESSED AN ESSENTIAL LINK BETWEEN 4IBETANS
AND #HINA WITH THE 4IBETANS CONSTITUTING A VITAL PART OF THE #HINESE
PEOPLE 0RESENTED AS A TRUISM THIS PROPOSITION WAS NOT BACKED UP BY ANY
SORT OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL OR BIOLOGICAL ARGUMENTATION )TS DERIVATION FROM THE
WRITINGS OF 3UN 9AT
SEN SUFlCED TO LEGITIMATE IT
4HE FACT IS SUCH POSITIONING DID NOT ADD MUCH TO THE ISSUE OR THE
SITUATION BECAUSE 4IBETS DE FACTO STATUS EFFECTIVELY INDEPENDENT SIMPLY
COULD NOT BE CHALLENGED IN ANY PRACTICAL WAY )NSTABILITY AND WAR IN #HINA
LEFT THE 2EPUBLICAN GOVERNMENTS INCAPABLE OF ASSERTING THEIR RULE OVER 4IBET
WHILE "RITAIN THE ONLY OTHER OUTSIDE POWER WITH CONSIDERABLE INTEREST IN
THE QUESTION WAS CONTENT TO LEAVE THINGS IN LIMBO WITH 4IBET VOID OF ANY
THREATENING FORCES "RITAIN CONTINUED TO PAY LIP SERVICE TO THE NOTION OF
#HINA HAVING RIGHTS TO A SORT OF IMPOTENT hSUZERAINTYv OVER 4IBET BUT THE
VERY VAGUENESS OF THAT TERM ALLOWED FOR IT TO BE LEFT UNDElNED UNSPECIlED
AND ULTIMATELY EASILY IGNORED
4HE MIGHT OF THE ARMED FORCES OF THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA WHICH
HAD WEATHERED YEARS OF WAR CHANGED EVERYTHING 7ITH THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC #HINA HAD A GOVERNMENT THAT FOR THE lRST TIME
SINCE THE COLLAPSE OF THE 1ING MARSHALED BOTH
THE CAPABILITY AND THE DETERMINATION TO ASSERT 4IBETS INCLUSION WITHIN
ITS DOMINATION OVER 4IBET &OR THE LEADERSHIP OF
THE #HINESE STATE WAS
THE 02#PARTICULARLY ITS INTELLECTUAL CADRETHE
VAGARIES OF RANDOM CONQUESTS AND SUBMISSIONS NOW SOMETHING TO BE
IN THE PAST NO LONGER SUFlCED IN MAKING SENSE
ASSERTED PROVEN AND
OF HISTORY IN THE ENVIRONMENT OF DIALECTICAL
MATERIALISTIC HISTORIOGRAPHY 4IBETS INCLUSION JUSTIlED SCIENTIlCALLY
WITHIN THE #HINESE STATE WAS NOW SOMETHING TO
BE ASSERTED PROVEN AND JUSTIlED SCIENTIlCALLY 4HE IDEOLOGICAL IMPERATIVE
OBLIGED THE 02# TO DEAL MORE SPECIlCALLY WITH THE NATURE OF 4IBETS
HISTORICAL INCLUSION WITHIN THE #HINESE STATE /UT OF THIS MILIEU EVENTUALLY
%LLIOT 3PERLING
EVOLVED THE INTERPRETATION THAT HAS BEEN IN PLACE FOR SEVERAL DECADES NOW
THE AFlRMATION THAT 4IBET BECAME AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA DURING THE
PERIOD OF THE -ONGOL %MPIRE WHEN THE -ONGOL RULERS OF #HINA UNITED
4IBET AND #HINA
#HINAS CURRENTLY CONSTRUCTED CASE HAS EVOLVED PARTLY IN RESPONSE TO
SPORADIC NECESSITY IT DID NOT APPEAR IN ITS PRESENT FORM UNTIL SOME TIME
AFTER THE FOUNDING OF THE 02# /NLY SOME YEARS LATER WHEN INTERNATIONAL
ATTENTION WAS FOCUSED ON THE 4IBET QUESTION DID THE #HINESE POSITION
BECOME MORE RElNED /FlCIAL PRONOUNCEMENTS AT THE TIME OF 4IBETS
INCORPORATION INTO THE 02# IN NOTED THAT 4IBET HAD BEEN A PART
OF #HINA FOR CENTURIES BUT WERE OTHERWISE UNSPECIlC ABOUT THE DETAILS
/VER THE COURSE OF THE S HOWEVER MORE EMPHASIS WAS PLACED ON
CONSTRUCTING A CLEARER HISTORICAL NARRATIVE
4HE INHERITED OPINIONS THAT #HINESE COMMENTATORS OF THE 2EPUBLICAN
PERIOD BEQUEATHED TO THE NEW 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC HELD THAT 4IBETS PLACE
WITHIN #HINAS BORDERS HAD BEEN SOLIDIlED DURING THE 1ING 4HE BASIS FOR
SUCH JUDGMENTS WAS SOMETHING OF AN ANATHEMA TO THE NEW STATE HOWEVER
FOR THE COMMON CONSIDERED OPINION OF THESE WRITERS WAS THAT 4IBET DURING
THE 1ING HAD BECOME A VASSAL STATE OF THE EMPIRE )T GOES WITHOUT SAYING
THAT IMPERIAL POSSESSION AND DOMINATION COULD HARDLY BE ADDUCED TO
SUPPORT A TERRITORIAL CLAIM BY A STATE PREDICATING ITS LEGITIMACY ON 3CIENTIlC
3OCIALISM AND DEDICATED TO THE ANTI
IMPERIALIST STRUGGLE .EVERTHELESS THE
COLONIAL PARADIGM IS WHAT 2EPUBLICAN
ERA WRITERS WERE USING IN DESCRIBING
4IBETS PLACE IN THE #HINESE STATE INDEED THEIR LANGUAGE LEFT NO ROOM FOR
AMBIGUITY 4YPICALLY ONE READS
4HUS IN BOTH THE TH AND TH YEARS OF THE 1IANLONG PERIOD
AND THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN #HINA AND 4IBET WAS RADICALLY
REFORMED #HINAS SOVEREIGNTY OVER 4IBET WAS lRMLY ESTABLISHED AND
AFTERWARDS IMPLEMENTED IN PRACTICAL TERMS
&ROM THE TIME OF THE ABOVE
MENTIONED RADICAL REFORM 4IBET WAS
PURELY REDUCED TO A VASSAL STATE OF #HINAS 4O #HINA BELONGED NOT ONLY
SUZERAIN RIGHTS OVER 4IBET BUT SOVEREIGN RIGHTS AS WELL
!ND ALSO
&ROM THIS ;IE THE REFORMS OF = THE ACTIONS AND PROTOCOL
PERTAINING TO THE AMBAN STATIONED IN 4IBET BEGAN TO BE EQUAL IN STATUS
TO THOSE OF THE $ALAI AND 0ANCHEN AND THEY STARTED TO HAVE SPECIAL
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
POWERS IN RULING 4IBET &ROM THIS TIME ON 4IBET WAS lRMLY ESTABLISHED
AS #HINAS VASSAL
4HESE SORTS OF FORMULATIONS SIMPLY DID NOT STAND UP TO THE IDEOLOGICAL
REQUIREMENTS OF THE NEW REGIME WITH ITS AVOWEDLY ANTI
COLONIAL IDENTITY
4HUS ONE lNDS THE IMPERIAL ASSOCIATIONS JETTISONED IN COMMENTS ON 4IBET
COMING FROM THE NEW 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC )T APPEARS HOWEVER THAT THE
CONCLUSION THAT 4IBET HAD BECOME PART OF #HINA DURING THE 1ING WAS NOT
AT lRST PROBLEMATIC )N ONE OF #HINAS BETTER
KNOWN WRITERS ON 4IBET
(UANG &ENSHENG 咘གྷ⫴ PRESERVED THIS BASIC CHRONOLOGICAL ELEMENT IN HIS
ACCOUNT OF 4IBETS HISTORY
)N THE TH YEAR OF THE 1IANLONG PERIOD FOLLOWING THE DISPATCH
OF TROOPS TO PUT DOWN THE 'URKHA INCURSION INTO 4IBET AND THE
SUBSEQUENT MILITARY VICTORY THE SO
CALLED h2EGULATIONS FOR 2ESOLVING
4IBETAN -ATTERS v WERE PROMULGATED 4HEY ESTABLISHED THE EQUAL RANK
OF THE AMBAN WITH THE $ALAI AND 0ANCHEN AND HIS DIRECT AUTHORITY TO
CONTROL POLITICAL MILITARY RELIGIOUS lNANCIAL COMMUNICATIONS AND
TRANSPORTATION MATTERS 4IBET AT THAT POINT BECAME WHOLLY A PART OF
#HINAS TERRITORY
4HE INCORPORATION OF 4IBET INTO THE 02# IN WAS IN PART MADE
EASIER BY THE FACT THAT THE 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA HAD BEEN QUITE VOCAL WHEN
OPPORTUNITIES PRESENTED THEMSELVES IN ASSERTING THAT 4IBET WAS PART OF
#HINA !S A RESULT THE STATUS OF 4IBET WAS NOT AT ISSUE IN THE CONmICT
BETWEEN THE .ATIONALISTS AND THE #OMMUNISTS AND WAS NOT THEREFORE
AN ISSUE ON WHICH THE SUPPORTERS OF ONE SIDE OR THE OTHER NEEDED TO TAKE
STANDS )T WAS ONLY THE DEVELOPMENT OF 4IBETAN RESISTANCE AND THE OUTBREAK
OF OPEN REVOLT THAT BROUGHT THE QUESTION OF 4IBETS STATUS TO INTERNATIONAL
ATTENTION 0ARTICULARLY IN THE YEARS FOLLOWING THE 4IBETAN REVOLT AND
THE mIGHT OF THE $ALAI ,AMA CAST THE 4IBETAN SITUATION IN SUCH A WAY THAT
INTERNATIONAL SYMPATHY WITH 4IBETAN ASPIRATIONS FOR SELF
DETERMINATION
WERE BROADER THAN THEY HAVE BEEN SINCE #HIANG +AI
SHEK EVEN ISSUED
A PRONOUNCEMENT FROM 4AIWAN ON -ARCH SPECIlCALLY STATING
THAT AFTER THE ULTIMATE DEFEAT OF COMMUNISM ON THE #HINESE MAINLAND
THE 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA WOULD BE WILLING TO ALLOW THE 4IBETANS THE RIGHT OF
SELF
DETERMINATION SOMETHING THAT 2EPUBLICAN #HINA WOULD NEVER HAVE
CONCEDED WHILE IN POWER ON THE MAINLAND 4HAT RIGHT WAS RECOGNIZED BY
THE 5NITED .ATIONS 5. IN A RESOLUTION ON 4IBET IN PERHAPS THE
HIGH POINT OF INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT FOR 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE 4ODAY NO
%LLIOT 3PERLING
COUNTRY ADVOCATES THAT POSITION NOR DOES THE $ALAI ,AMA
4HE EVENTS OF IN WHICH THE 4IBET ISSUE WAS ACTIVELY DISCUSSED
AND CONSIDERED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ULTIMATELY RESULTING IN
ITS BEING TAKEN UP BY THE 'ENERAL !SSEMBLY OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS IN
THE FALL BROUGHT FORTH A MORE FORMAL AND FORCEFUL STATEMENT OF THE 02#S
POSITION )N -AY ONLY TWO MONTHS AFTER THE OUTBREAK OF lGHTING IN
,HASA AND AS A CLEAR COUNTERWEIGHT TO ALL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ATTENTION
THEN BEING ACCORDED THE 4IBET ISSUE THE #HINESE GOVERNMENT PRESENTED
ITS CASE ON 4IBET IN A WELL
KNOWN VOLUME #ONCERNING THE 1UESTION OF
4IBET 7ITHIN THAT VOLUME THE NARRATIVE OF 4IBETAN HISTORY APPROACHED
ITS CURRENT FORM #ONCERNING THE 1UESTION OF 4IBET STATES CLEARLY THAT h;T=HE
HISTORICAL RECORD PROVES THAT 4IBET DURING ITS LONG HISTORY HAS NEVER BEEN
AN INDEPENDENT COUNTRY BUT A PART OF #HINAv )NDEED WITHIN ITS PAGES
THE 4IBETAN IMPERIAL STATE OF THE SEVENTH TO THE NINTH CENTURIESONE OF
THE GREAT %URASIAN POWERS OF ITS TIMEIS EFFECTIVELY PRESENTED AS SUBJECT TO
#HINA AND A NUMBER OF ELEMENTS RELATING TO IMPERIAL 4IBETS RELATIONSHIP
WITH 4ANG #HINA ARE ADDUCED TO SUPPORT THIS POSITION )T IS IMPLIED QUITE
CLEARLY THAT 4IBETAN EMPERORS HAD TO HAVE THEIR TITLES CONlRMED BY 4ANG
#HINA IN ORDER TO BE LEGITIMATE RULERS THE 3INO
4IBETAN TREATY OF n
IS CITED IN ITS INSCRIBED FORM AS A MONUMENT TO THE UNITY BETWEEN 4IBET AND
#HINA AND THE 4IBETAN EMPEROR +HRI
GTSUG LDE
BTSAN IS POINTEDLY QUOTED
AS ASSERTING THAT 4IBET AND 4ANG #HINA CONSTITUTED ONE FAMILY 3TILL THE
BOOK ALSO STATES THAT FOLLOWING A LONG PERIOD OF FRAGMENTATION
;T=HE CHAOS IN 4IBET WAS BROUGHT TO AN END AND UNITY WAS ACHIEVED
WHEN -ONGKO %MPEROR (SIEN 4SUNG OF THE 9UAN DYNASTY SENT AN
ARMED FORCE TO 4IBET IN 4IBET WAS THEN INCORPORATED INTO THE
9UAN %MPIRE AND IT HAS BEEN A PART OF THE TERRITORY OF #HINA EVER
SINCE
)N ESSENCE THEN #HINAS RESPONSE TO INTERNATIONAL CONCERN OVER 4IBET
IN ELICITED A NEW lRM FORMULATION OF THE STAGES OF 3INO
4IBETAN
RELATIONS )N THE lRST STAGE FROM THE SEVENTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURIES
4IBET WAS SUBJECT TO #HINA )N THE SECOND FROM THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
ON 4IBET WAS AND CONTINUES TO BE A PART OF #HINA 4HIS BASIC NOTION THAT
4IBET BECAME AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA DURING THE 9UAN PERIOD n
HAS REMAINED A TENET OF #HINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY EVER SINCE !S NOW
STRUCTURED THE NARRATIVE HAS 4IBETANS AND #HINESE GROWING TOGETHER FROM
THE 4ANG PERIOD n ONWARD WITH 4IBET BECOMING AN INTEGRAL PART
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
OF #HINA DURING THE ERA OF -ONGOL RULEA STATUS IT HAS MAINTAINED UNTIL
THE PRESENT
4O SHORE UP THIS POSITION #HINA BEGAN PUBLISHING A GROWING
NUMBER OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES SUPPORTING IT FROM THE EARLY S ON
4HE DOCUMENTARY COLLECTIONS MENTIONED EARLIER HAVE BEEN PARTICULARLY
IMPORTANT IN POLEMICS FOR THEY HAVE HELPED PROVIDE A MUCH MORE
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF 4IBETS HISTORICAL PLACE WITHIN #HINA THAN ANYTHING
PREVIOUSLY PROPOSED BY THE 02#
4HE 0REVAILING #HINESE 6IEW OF 4IBETS (ISTORICAL 3TATUS
4HE CONTEMPORARY DESCRIPTION OF 4IBETS ASSIMILATION INTO #HINA AS AN
INTEGRAL PART OF THE COUNTRY IS NOW PART OF A FAIRLY COHERENT NARRATIVE
"RIEmY PUT THE 9UAN
ERA INCORPORATION OF 4IBET INTO #HINA WAS ATTENDED
BY THE CREATION OF SEVERAL STATE BUREAUS AND OFlCES UNDER THE 9UAN FOR THE
PURPOSE OF RULING 4IBET -OST PROMINENTLY ARE THE :ONGZHIYUAN ᜔ࠫೃ
LATER RENAMED THE 8UANZHENGYUAN ਙೃ WHICH DEALT WITH 4IBETAN AND
"UDDHIST AFFAIRS AS WELL AS THREE SUBORDINATE PACIlCATION OFlCES XUANWEI
SHISI ᐣࠌ THAT DEALT WITH THE MILITARY AND CIVIL ADMINISTRATION
OF 4IBETAN AREAS 4HE MOST IMPORTANT 4IBETAN lGURE MENTIONED IN THE
LITERATURE ON THE SUBJECT IS OF COURSE THE 3A
SKYA
PA CLERIC 0HAGS
PA IN
#HINESE "ASIBA Զ৸֣ n THE NEPHEW OF 3A
SKYA PANDITA
+UN
DGA RGYAL
MTSHAN n 0HAGS
PA SERVED AS PRECEPTOR TO THE
-ONGOL EMPEROR 1UBILAI 1AȖAN AND WAS AWARDED APPROPRIATE TITLES lRST
STATE PRECEPTOR GUOSHI ഏஃ AND THEN IMPERIAL PRECEPTOR DISHI ০ஃ 9UAN
SOURCES MENTION A NUMBER OF TITLES THAT WERE BESTOWED ON OTHER 4IBETANS
AND GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS INTO WHICH 4IBET WAS
DIVIDED AS PART OF 9UAN ADMINISTRATION SPECIlCALLY THE THREE LARGE DISTRICTS
CONSTITUTING THE GREATER AREA OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU TERMED CHOL
KHA
-ONG LGE AND THE OVERLAPPING THIRTEEN MYRIARCHIES #H WANHUFU
ᆄ֪ࢌ 4IB KHRI
SKOR /N CERTAIN OCCASIONS WHEN TROUBLE ERUPTED 9UAN
FORCES ENTERED 4IBET AND ACTED IN SUPPORT OF 9UAN
3A
SKYA INTERESTS !LL OF
THIS lGURES IN VARIOUS MODERN #HINESE ACCOUNTS OF 4IBET UNDER THE 9UAN
!S DESCRIBED IN THESE ACCOUNTS THE 9UAN
-ING TRANSITION HAD NO EFFECT
ON #HINAS SOVEREIGNTY OVER 4IBET 4HE NEW DYNASTY CONTINUED TO RULE 4IBET
MUCH AS THE 9UAN HAD WITH CERTAIN CRUCIAL CHANGES 4O BE SURE #HINESE
ACCOUNTS OFTEN EMPHASIZE THE LOOSER ADMINISTRATION EMPLOYED IN 4IBET AS
COMPARED TO THAT IN #HINA PROPER BUT 4IBET THEY SAY WAS UNAMBIGUOUSLY
RULED BY THE -ING COURT AS A PART OF #HINA 5NDER THE -ING A WIDER GROUP
%LLIOT 3PERLING
OF 4IBETAN CLERICS RECEIVED TITLES AND HONORS FROM THE COURT THESE TITLES ARE
PRESENTED AS YET ONE MORE SIGN OF -ING AUTHORITY OVER 4IBET 4HE -ING
GRANTED TITLES NOT ONLY TO CLERICS BUT ALSO TO A VARIETY OF IMPORTANT 4IBETAN
LAY lGURES AS WELL 4HE -ING TITLES DIFFERED SOMEWHAT FROM THOSE GRANTED
BY THE 9UAN THE TITLE IMPERIAL PRECEPTOR WAS NOT
THE 9UAN
-ING USED BUT A NUMBER OF 4IBETANS WERE ACCORDED
? ?
TRANSITION HAD NO EFFECT THE TITLE DHARMARAJA #H FAWANG ऄ ׆4IB CHOS
RGYAL BY THE COURT WHILE OTHERS RECEIVED LESSER
ON #HINAS SOVEREIGNTY TITLES 4HIS TACTIC ALLOWED THE -ING TO MAKE USE OF
OVER 4IBET 4IBETAN "UDDHISM IN ITS ADMINISTRATION OF 4IBET
MUCH AS THE 9UAN DID !T THE SAME TIME THERE
WAS ESPECIALLY DURING THE EARLY -ING AN IMPORTANT TRADE THAT BROUGHT
4IBETAN HORSES TO THE #HINESE INTERIOR IN EXCHANGE FOR TEA AND OTHER GOODS
4HE -ING ALSO IMPLEMENTED AND REGULATED A SYSTEM OF TRIBUTE THROUGH
WHICH THE COURT MAINTAINED LINKS WITH A VARIETY OF 4IBETAN lGURES
)N ADDITION TO THE TITLES PRESENTED BY THE -ING COURT TO VARIOUS 4IBETAN
lGURES #HINESE WRITERS ALSO TAKE NOTE OF CERTAIN OFlCES ESTABLISHED TO DEAL
WITH 4IBET AND 4IBETAN AFFAIRS 3OME #HINESE WRITERS POINT OUT THAT DURING
THE -ING DYNASTY A COMMANDERY WAS ESTABLISHED IN (EZHOU TO ADMINISTER
ALL OF 4IBET IT WAS LATER REORGANIZED INTO TWO OFlCES BUT CONTINUED TO BE
THE CENTER OF -ING ADMINISTRATIVE AUTHORITY OVER 4IBET 4HE INVITATION TO
THE IMPORTANT $GE
LUGS
PA LEADER 4SONG
KHA
PA "LO
BZANG GRAGS
PA TO VISIT
?
COURT AND THE SUBSEQUENT HONORS ACCORDED 3HAKYA YE
SHES THE DISCIPLE
WHO CAME TO COURT IN HIS STEAD ARE ALSO ADDUCED AS EVIDENCE OF 4IBETS PLACE
AS A PART OF #HINA DURING THE -ING PERIOD &OLLOWING FROM THIS #HINESE
WRITERS HAVE TAKEN PAINS TO POINT OUT THAT THE $ALAI ,AMAS BEGAN TO RECEIVE
#HINESE TITLES FROM THE -ING COURT
!S WITH THE 9UAN
-ING TRANSITION SO TOO THE -ING
1ING TRANSITION
IS PRESENTED AS AN EVENT THAT IN NO WAY DISTURBED 4IBETS POSITION AS A PART
OF #HINA 4HE lFTH $ALAI ,AMA QUICKLY ESTABLISHED LINKS WITH THE NEW
DYNASTY AND IN TURN HE WAS DULY RECOGNIZED BY THE 1ING IN MUCH THE SAME
WAY THAT 4IBETANS DURING THE -ING WERE CONFERRED WITH LEGITIMACY THROUGH
THE TITLES AND HONORS ACCORDED THEM BY THE COURT !S A RESULT #HINA ASSERTS
A lRM DEGREE OF CONTINUITY IN 4IBETS PLACE WITHIN THE #HINESE STATE )T HAS
BEEN CLAIMED THAT ONLY WHEN THE 1ING RECOGNIZED THE TITLE h$ALAI ,AMAv
DID THE BEARER ACQUIRE ANY LEGITIMATE POLITICAL AUTHORITY
4HE INTERNATIONAL POSITION AND ASPIRATIONS OF THE 1ING DYNASTY AND ITS
-ANCHU RULERS DIFFERED CONSIDERABLY FROM THOSE OF THE -ING !S ASPIRING
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
LORDS OF A VAST INNER !SIAN EMPIRE THE 1ING RULERS ACTIVELY EXPANDED THEIR
AUTHORITY AND ROLE IN THE REGION )NASMUCH AS #HINAS NARRATIVE OF 4IBETAN
HISTORY ASSERTS NO BREAK IN #HINESE SOVEREIGNTY FROM -ING TO 1ING THE
CHANGES IN 1ING RELATIONS AND DEALINGS WITH 4IBET ARE SEEN AS DEVELOPMENTS
WITHIN THAT SOVEREIGN RELATIONSHIP )NDEED THE ABILITY OF THE 1ING COURT
TO UNDERTAKE THE STEPS IT TOOK IN 4IBET ARE SIMPLY MANIFESTATIONS OF THAT
SOVEREIGNTY FROM THE OUTSET NOT AS PRE
02# #HINESE WRITERS WERE WONT
TO OBSERVE STEPS IN ITS DEVELOPMENT 4HUS AS FAR AS 02# OBSERVERS ARE
CONCERNED THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF 1ING ARMIES ENTERING 4IBET 1ING
OFlCIALS THE WELL
KNOWN AMBAN BEING STATIONED THERE THE ASSOCIATED
CALIBRATIONS IN THE DUTIES OF THOSE OFlCIALS THE SIZE OF THE 1ING GARRISON
ETC SIMPLY REmECT THE #HINESE CENTRAL GOVERNMENTS NORMAL REVISIONS
OF ITS POLICIES FOR A REGION THAT HAD BEEN PART OF THE #HINESE STATE FOR
CENTURIES
4HERE IS NATURALLY FAR MORE INFORMATION AVAILABLE ABOUT THE 1ING
ROLE IN 4IBET GIVEN ITS CHRONOLOGICAL PROXIMITY TO OUR TIMES THAN ABOUT
PRECEDING DYNASTIES CONSEQUENTLY #HINESE WRITERS AND SCHOLARS CAN
DESCRIBE 4IBETS PLACE WITHIN 1ING DYNASTY #HINA IN DETAIL 4HUS WE
CAN lND 4IBETS STATUS DESCRIBED EXTENSIVELY WITH REGARD TO THE POLITICAL
USE OF 4IBETAN "UDDHISM AND THE LINKS BETWEEN 4IBETAN MONKS AND THE
1ING COURT AS WELL AS WITH REGARD TO THE VARIOUS ADMINISTRATIVE MEASURES
IMPLEMENTED FOR 4IBET
$UE ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO THE ARTICLES THAT COMPRISED THE
h2EGULATIONS FOR 2ESOLVING 4IBETAN -ATTERSv MENTIONED EARLIER
0ROMULGATED BY THE 1ING IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE 'URKHA WAR THESE
ARTICLES DEALT WITH A NUMBER OF ISSUES INCLUDING THE ELEVATION OF THE AMBAN
TO A LEVEL EQUAL TO THAT OF #HINESE PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS AND THE RESULTANT
INTERDICTION AGAINST THE $ALAI ,AMAS HAVING DIRECT RELATIONS WITH THE
EMPEROR )N EFFECT THE AMBAN BECAME THE REQUIRED INTERMEDIARIES BETWEEN
THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT AND THE COURT !LL OF THESE MEASURES ARE AGAIN
PRESENTED AS FURTHER INDICATIONS OF #HINESE SOVEREIGNTY OVER 4IBET )N
RECENT YEARS THE SPECIlC ARTICLE THAT IMPOSED THE COURTS DESIGNATED METHOD
FOR CHOOSING AND RECOGNIZING THE $ALAI ,AMAS 0ANCHEN ,AMAS AND OTHER
IMPORTANT INCARNATE LAMAS IN 4IBET HAS RECEIVED PARTICULAR ATTENTION 4HE
COURT DECREED THAT A h'OLDEN 5RNv WAS TO BE USED IN THOSE CASES WITH THE
NAMES OF THE VARIOUS POSSIBLE CANDIDATES FOR RECOGNITION AS THE INCARNATE
LAMA BEING SOUGHT WRITTEN DOWN ON WOODEN LOTS ONE OF WHICH WAS TO BE
DRAWN FROM THE URN 4HE CONTROVERSY OVER THE MOST RECENT SELECTION OF A
%LLIOT 3PERLING
0ANCHEN ,AMA HAS LED #HINA TO PUBLISH A NUMBER OF PIECES DEFENDING THIS
MEANS OF RECOGNIZING SUCH INCARNATE LAMAS AS THE ONLY LEGITIMATE MEANS
OF DOING SO
!LTHOUGH THE EFFECTIVENESS OF #HINESE RULE OVER 4IBET VARIED AS
IMPERIALIST ENCROACHMENT INCREASINGLY ENFEEBLED THE 1ING STATE #HINAS
CLAIM TO 4IBET AS #HINESE WRITERS NOTE NEVER DIMINISHED 4O THE EXTENT THAT
ANY IMPETUS FOR 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE EXISTED AT THIS TIME IT IS SAID TO HAVE
ORIGINATED WITH IMPERIALIST POWERS PRIMARILY "RITAIN BUT ALSO TSARIST 2USSIA
7HILE THESE IMPERIALIST NATIONS WERE FOISTING hUNEQUAL TREATIESv ON #HINA
TO ADVANCE THEIR COLONIALIST AMBITIONS THEY WERE USING SIMILAR LEGALISTIC
COVER TO MASK THEIR INTENTIONS OF SEPARATING 4IBET FROM #HINA ! SERIES OF
TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS THAT WERE FORCED ON #HINA OR NEGOTIATED BETWEEN
"RITAIN AND 2USSIA WERE DESIGNED TO WEAKEN #HINESE RULE OVER 4IBET 4HE
MOST BLATANT STEP IN THIS REGARD HOWEVER WAS THE "RITISH MARCH ON ,HASA
IN n 4HE 4IBETAN DEFEAT PRODUCED A TREATY CONVENTION BETWEEN
"RITAIN AND 4IBET THAT WAS SUBSEQUENTLY RENEGOTIATED BETWEEN "RITAIN AND
THE 1ING 4HESE TREATIES INCLUDED THE COMMON HUMILIATING ELEMENTS OF
FOREIGN OCCUPATION OF #HINESE TERRITORY THE #HUMBI 6ALLEY IN 4IBET AND
AN INDEMNITY ORIGINALLY IMPOSED ON 4IBET BUT LATER IN THE RENEGOTIATION
WITH THE 1ING SHOULDERED BY #HINA
7ITHIN THE GENERAL NARRATIVE OF 4IBETAN HISTORY PREVALENT IN THE 02#
THE FALL OF THE 1ING DID NOT AFFECT THE STATUS OF 4IBET 4HE 2EPUBLIC OF
#HINA WHICH WAS PROCLAIMED AT THE TIME RETAINED SOVEREIGNTY OVER ALL
THE REALMS OF THE FORMER IMPERIAL DYNASTY AND IN NO WAY RELINQUISHED
ANY CLAIM TO 4IBET .EVERTHELESS #HINESE WRITERS NOTE THE 2EPUBLICAN
PERIOD WAS ONE IN WHICH THERE WERE DISTINCT DISAGREEMENTS BETWEEN THE
4IBETAN GOVERNMENT AND THE #HINESE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT DIFFERENCES THAT
WERE EXACERBATED BY "RITISH MACHINATIONS AIMED AT DETACHING 4IBET FROM
#HINA 3TILL THERE WERE PATRIOTIC ELEMENTS WITHIN THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
INCLUDING BOTH THE THIRTEENTH $ALAI ,AMA AND THE NINTH 0ANCHEN ,AMA
WHO WERE CONCERNED ABOUT THE UNITY OF #HINA 4HE #HINESE CENTRAL
GOVERNMENT SEVERAL TIMES SENT OFlCIALS TO MEET AND DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN ITSELF AND THE 4IBETAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT )NDEED THE $ALAI ,AMA
INDICATED THAT HE HOPED TO IMPROVE THOSE RELATIONS (OWEVER THERE WERE
SOME FACTIONS IN THE 4IBETAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT WHO WERE SWAYED BY THE
"RITISH AND WHO UP UNTIL THE 0EACEFUL ,IBERATION OF 4IBET WERE CONVINCED
THAT THEY COULD SEPARATE 4IBET FROM #HINA 4HESE DREAMS PROVED EMPTY
AND 4IBET WAS lNALLY REUNITED WITH #HINA IN
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
4HE %VOLUTION OF THE 4IBETAN 0OSITION
7HAT CONSTITUTES THE 4IBETAN NARRATIVE OF 3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONS IS FRANKLY
FAR LESS DETAILED THOUGH ALSO LESS HOMOGENEOUS THAN THE #HINESE NARRATIVE
GIVEN THAT THERE HAS NOT BEEN A HIGHLY CENTRALIZED
EFFORT IN 4IBETAN EXILE SOCIETY TO DELINEATE THE THE POINT IN TIME AT
DETAILS OF 4IBETS RELATIONSHIP TO #HINA )NDEED
EVEN SOMETHING AS BASIC AS THE POINT IN TIME AT WHICH 4IBET lNALLY FELL
WHICH 4IBET lNALLY FELL UNDER 02# DOMINATION UNDER 02# DOMINATION
HAS DIFFERED IN VARIOUS ACCOUNTS -ANY OF THE
SEAMS STILL SHOW IN THE CASE THAT 4IBETANS IN EXILE HAS DIFFERED IN VARIOUS
HAVE CONSTRUCTED FOR 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCEAS ACCOUNTS
THEY DO WITH THE #HINESE CASE
-UCH OF THE 4IBETAN ADVOCACY ON THE SUBJECT OF 4IBETS HISTORICAL
STATUS IS STRIKING BOTH FOR THE PREPONDERANCE OF %NGLISH
LANGUAGE SOURCE
MATERIALS USED AS THE BASIS FOR ITS ARGUMENTS AND FOR THE EXTENT TO WHICH
4IBETANS DEALING WITH THE ISSUE PRODUCE THEIR ARGUMENTS IN %NGLISH 4HIS
USE OF %NGLISH IS NOT UNIVERSAL HOWEVER THE LARGE HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF 4IBET
BY 2TSIS
DPON :HWA
SGAB
PA $BANG
PHYUG BDE
LDAN DREW EXTENSIVELY ON
4IBETAN HISTORICAL SOURCES MANY QUITE RARE AT THE TIME IT WAS WRITTEN 9ET
EVEN THAT ACCOUNT WAS ORIGINALLY PUBLISHED IN A SHORTENED %NGLISH VERSION
YEARS BEFORE THE FULLER TWO
VOLUME 4IBETAN TEXT APPEARED )N MOST OTHER
WRITINGS ON 4IBETS STATUS COMING FROM THE 4IBETAN SIDE THE PREDOMINANCE
OF %NGLISH IS A PRODUCT OF LOCATIONTHE HAPPENSTANCE OF EXILE IN )NDIA
WHERE %NGLISH IS THE ESTABLISHED LANGUAGE OF MODERN SCHOLARSHIP AND
RESEARCH )T HAS MEANT HOWEVER THAT 4IBETAN SOURCE MATERIALS FORM A
MORE MEAGER PART OF THE EVIDENTIARY CASE MADE BY 4IBETAN EXILES )N
COMPARISON #HINESE WRITERS MAKE AMPLE USE OF #HINESE SOURCE MATERIALS
IN THEIR ASSERTIONS 4HEY MAKE USE OF 4IBETAN SOURCES AS WELL ALBEIT OFTEN
IN TRANSLATION
4HIS LACK OF 4IBETAN
LANGUAGE SOURCES REmECTS ITSELF IN THE TENOR OF THE
DISCUSSION ON THE 4IBETAN SIDE 7HEREAS PRESENT
DAY #HINESE WRITERS EVINCE A
DESIRE TO PROFFER A CASE THAT HAS THE AIR OF SCIENTIlC EXACTITUDE IN TERMS OF DATES
AND EVENTS STRIVING FOR EXAMPLE TO PLACE 4IBETS INCORPORATION INTO #HINA
IN THE 9UAN PERIOD THE 4IBETAN VIEW HAS OFTEN SEEMED UNCLEAR AND CENTERED
AROUND LESS
TANGIBLE NOTIONS 4HERE IS NO SMALL AMOUNT OF IRONY ATTACHED
TO THIS FOR THE 4IBETAN DELEGATION TO THE 3IMLA CONFERENCE OF n IS
WELL KNOWN FOR HAVING ATTENDED ARMED WITH SUBSTANTIVE 4IBETAN LITERARY AND
ARCHIVAL EVIDENCE CONCERNING BOTH 4IBETS STATUS AND ITS BOUNDARIES
%LLIOT 3PERLING
)N SUBSEQUENT YEARS HOWEVER A VAGUENESS SET IN WITH REGARD TO BOTH
DELINEATING 4IBETS STATUS INTERNATIONALLY AND STRUCTURING ITS DEALINGS WITH
PRE #HINA ! RECURRING ELEMENT THAT IS STILL AN IMPORTANT PART OF THE
CASE 4IBETANS HAVE BEEN MAKING IS WHAT IS CONVENTIONALLY TERMED IN %NGLISH
THE hPRIEST PATRONv RELATIONSHIP IN 4IBETAN MCHOD YON !S WE WILL SEE FOR
MANY 4IBETAN WRITERS THE ENTIRE RELATIONSHIP OF 4IBET TO #HINA HINGES ON
THIS CONCEPT ONE SO SPECIlC TO THE 4IBETAN "UDDHIST WORLD SO THEY SAY THAT
IT IS DIFlCULT TO RELATE IT TO 7ESTERN NOTIONS OF SOVEREIGN AUTHORITY
!S JUST NOTED THE 4IBETAN DELEGATION CAME TO 3IMLA IN n WITH
A RESEARCHED STATEMENT ABOUT THE EXTENT OF 4IBETS TERRITORIES AND FRONTIERS
4HERE WAS NO HESITANCY IN THEIR ASSERTIONS THAT 4IBET WAS A COUNTRY SEPARATE
FROM #HINA !S TO WHETHER IT HAD BEEN A VASSAL STATE OR NOT UNDER THE
1ING THE 4IBETAN REPRESENTATIVE IN A STATEMENT DATED /CTOBER
CONTENDED THAT h4IBET AND #HINA HAVE NEVER BEEN UNDER EACH OTHER
AND WILL NEVER ASSOCIATE WITH EACH OTHER IN ;THE= FUTUREv 4HE #HINESE
REPRESENTATIVE RESPONDED WITH HIS OWN STATEMENT ON /CTOBER PROPOSING
A SETTLEMENT THAT WOULD REQUIRE AGREEMENT hTHAT 4IBET FORMS AN INTEGRAL
PART OF THE TERRITORY OF 2EPUBLIC OF #HINAv 4HE MEANING OF hINTEGRAL
PARTv IS SOMEWHAT COLORED BY THE CONCESSIONS #HINA WAS WILLING TO MAKE
4IBET WOULD NOT BE CONVERTED INTO A #HINESE PROVINCE AND WOULD CONDUCT
ITS FOREIGN AND MILITARY AFFAIRS UNDER #HINESE GUIDANCE
)N THE 4IBETAN STATEMENT ONE ALSO lNDS REFERENCE TO THE PRIEST PATRON
RELATIONSHIP AS THE UNIQUE BASIS FOR HISTORICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN 4IBET AND
#HINA
4HE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE -ANCHU %MPEROR AND THE 0ROTECTOR $ALAI
,AMA THE lFTH BECAME LIKE THAT OF THE DISCIPLE TOWARDS THE TEACHER
4HE SOLE AIM OF THE THEN 'OVERNMENT OF #HINA BEING TO EARN MERITS
FOR THIS AND THE NEXT LIFE THEY HELPED AND HONOURED THE SUCCESSIVE
$ALAI ,AMAS AND TREATED THE MONKS OF ALL THE MONASTERIES WITH RESPECT
4HUS FRIENDSHIP UNITED THE TWO COUNTRIES LIKE THE MEMBERS OF THE SAME
FAMILY 4HE 4IBETANS TOOK NO NOTICE OF THEIR BOUNDARY WITH #HINA FOR
THEY THOUGHT THAT THE ACTIONS OF THE LATTER WERE ALL MEANT FOR THE GOOD
OF 4IBET
4HIS CONCEPT THAT 4IBETS TIES TO THE 1ING WERE ESSENTIALLY OF A PRIEST
PATRON NATURE IS ALLUDED TO IN THE DESPERATE CABLE SENT BY THE 4IBETAN
GOVERNMENT TO THE 5NITED .ATIONS ON .OVEMBER FOLLOWING
THE ENTRY OF #HINAS 0EOPLES ,IBERATION !RMY 0,! INTO THE AREA OF THE
4HE 4IBET #HINA #ONmICT
4IBETAN 0LATEAU UNDER THE JURISDICTION OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT
4HE #HINESE HOWEVER IN THEIR NATURAL URGE FOR EXPANSION HAVE
WHOLLY MISCONSTRUED THE SIGNIlCANCE OF THE TIME OF FRIENDSHIP AND
INTER
DEPENDENCE THAT EXISTED BETWEEN #HINA AND 4IBET AS BETWEEN
NEIGHBOURS 4O THEM #HINA WAS SUZERAIN AND 4IBET A VASSAL 3TATE )T IS
THIS WHICH lRST AROUSED LEGITIMATE APPREHENSION IN THE MIND OF 4IBET
REGARDING #HINAS DESIGNS ON ITS INDEPENDENT STATUS
&OR CENTURIES THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP HAS BEEN A REAL INSTITUTION
IN 4IBETAN HISTORY LINKING SECULAR RULERS WITH 4IBETAN HIERARCHS "UT IN
SOME ITERATIONS SUCH AS THOSE JUST CITED THE ARGUMENT ESSENTIALLY TURNS
ON AN ACCEPTANCE OF THE POSITION THAT 4IBETS RELATIONSHIP TO THE DYNASTIC
STATES THAT RULED #HINA WAS NOT ONE OF SOVEREIGN POWER RULING OVER 4IBETS
TERRITORY AND PEOPLE BUT RATHER A SIMPLE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMPERORS
AND THE 4IBETAN LAMAS WHO GUIDED AND INSTRUCTED THEM $URING #HINAS
2EPUBLICAN PERIOD WHEN THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT DID EXERCISE
INDEPENDENT RULE AND AUTHORITY OVER 4IBET THE $ALAI ,AMA ON AT LEAST
ONE OCCASION PROPOSED TO THE #HINESE GOVERNMENT THAT THE PRIEST
PATRON
RELATIONSHIP BE THE BASIS FOR RESOLVING THE 4IBET ISSUE
4HE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT DID NOT OTHERWISE PAY MUCH ATTENTION TO THE
HISTORICAL CASE FOR 4IBETS INDEPENDENCE NOR DID IT EXPEND MUCH ENERGY
IN ASSERTING IT IN ANY DETAIL UNTIL THE CRISIS OF 0RIOR TO THAT TIME
THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT HAD MADE SOME DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE PRACTICAL
REALITY OF 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE BUT A STRUCTURED HISTORICALLY
GROUNDED
ARGUMENT BEYOND THE POSITION PRESENTED AT THE 3IMLA CONFERENCE WAS NOT
PUT FORWARD 7ITH 4IBETAN ACQUIESCENCE TO THE 3EVENTEEN
0OINT !GREEMENT
OF 4IBET FORMALLY BECAME PART OF THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA AND
THE QUESTION OF ITS HISTORICAL STATUS ESSENTIALLY FELL DORMANT
/NLY WITH THE EVENTS OF DID 4IBETANS RETURN TO PUTTING TOGETHER A
HISTORICAL DEFENSE OF 4IBETS STATUS AS AN INDEPENDENT STATE !S ALREADY NOTED
DUE IN PART TO THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF EXILE THAT DEFENSE IS MULTIFARIOUS AT
TIMES INCONSISTENT AND OFTEN MORE REmECTIVE OF 7ESTERN IDEAS AND ACCOUNTS
OF 4IBET THAN OF INDIGENOUS 4IBETAN EVIDENCE AND DOCUMENTS
!FTER WHEN THE $ALAI ,AMA BEGAN TO CONSTITUTE A GOVERNMENT
IN EXILE THERE WAS AN URGENT NEED TO MAKE AN APPROACH TO THE 5. /N
3EPTEMBER THE $ALAI ,AMA ADDRESSED A LETTER TO THE 5. SECRETARY
GENERAL LAYING OUT AN ARGUMENT FOR 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE
) AND MY 'OVERNMENT WISH TO EMPHASIZE THAT 4IBET WAS A SOVEREIGN
%LLIOT 3PERLING
STATE AT THE TIME WHEN HER TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY WAS VIOLATED BY THE
#HINESE !RMIES IN )N SUPPORT OF THIS CONTENTION THE 'OVERNMENT
OF 4IBET URGE THE FOLLOWING
&IRST NO POWER OR AUTHORITY WAS EXERCISED BY THE 'OVERNMENT OF
#HINA IN OR OVER 4IBET SINCE THE $ECLARATION OF )NDEPENDENCE BY THE
TH $ALAI ,AMA IN
!LL OTHER POINTS MADE IN THE LETTER ALSO RELATE TO EVENTS OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY SUCH AS 4IBETS NEUTRALITY IN 7ORLD 7AR )) AND THE CONTENTION THAT
THE ABILITY OF 4IBETAN DELEGATES TO TRAVEL TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES ON 4IBETAN
PASSPORTS IN THE S CONSTITUTED RECOGNITION OF 4IBETS SOVEREIGN STATUS
4HE LACK OF REFERENCE TO ANY 4IBETAN DOCUMENTS IS INDICATIVE OF THE FACT THAT
THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT IN APPROACHING THE 5. AFTER SOUGHT OUT
AND WORKED WITH SEVERAL NON
4IBETAN ADVISERS AND MADE MUCH USE OF THE
WORK OF THE )NTERNATIONAL #OMMISSION OF *URISTS WHICH PUBLISHED ITS lRST
REPORT ON 4IBET IN
7ITH THE SUPPRESSION OF THE 4IBETAN UPRISING OF CONTACT
BETWEEN THE #HINESE GOVERNMENT AND THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT NOW
A 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILE EFFECTIVELY CEASED 4HE HISTORICAL STATUS OF
4IBET WAS DEALT WITH BY THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT AS PART OF ITS INTERNATIONAL
REPRESENTATION MORE OR LESS ALONG THE LINES OF ARGUMENTATION ALREADY
DESCRIBED 4HERE WAS NO REAL ENGAGEMENT WITH #HINESE ARGUMENTS FOR SOME
DECADES 4IBETAN PRONOUNCEMENTS ON THE CASE FOR 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE
4IBETAN PRONOUNCEMENTS REmECTED AN EMPHASIS ON TWENTIETH
CENTURY
EVENTS AS ALREADY MENTIONED OR ON EVIDENCE
ON THE CASE FOR 4IBETAN FROM 7ESTERN SOURCES (UGH 2ICHARDSON WHO
HAD HELPED THE 4IBETANS IN THEIR DEALINGS WITH THE
INDEPENDENCE REmECTED
5. AFTER PRODUCED A HISTORY OF 4IBET THAT
AN EMPHASIS ON STRESSED THE CASE ALONG SIMILAR LINES -OREOVER HE
TWENTIETH
CENTURY EVENTS WAS AMONG THOSE WHO HELPED INTERPRET THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP FOR 7ESTERN READERS IN A WAY
THAT CAME TO BE REPEATED AND ECHOED IN LATER WRITINGS 3TATING THAT THIS WAS
A hPURELY #ENTRAL !SIAN CONCEPT v HE NOTED
)T IS AN ELASTIC AND mEXIBLE IDEA AND NOT TO BE RENDERED IN THE CUT
AND
DRIED TERMS OF MODERN WESTERN POLITICS 4HERE IS IN IT NO PRECISE
DElNITION OF THE SUPREMACY OF ONE OR THE SUBORDINATION OF THE OTHER
AND THE PRACTICAL MEANING OF THE RELATIONSHIP CAN ONLY BE INTERPRETED IN
THE LIGHT OF THE FACTS OF THE MOMENT
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
)N THE SAME YEAR THAT 2ICHARDSONS HISTORY APPEARED THE $ALAI
,AMA PUBLISHED AN %NGLISH
LANGUAGE AUTOBIOGRAPHY THAT ALSO LAMENTED
THE INABILITY OF 7ESTERN LEXICONS TO ADEQUATELY REmECT THE NATURE OF THIS
RELATIONSHIP
3UZERAINTY IS A VAGUE AND ANCIENT TERM 0ERHAPS IT WAS THE NEAREST
WESTERN POLITICAL TERM TO DESCRIBE THE RELATIONS BETWEEN 4IBET AND #HINA
FROM TO BUT STILL IT WAS VERY INACCURATE AND THE USE OF
IT HAS MISLED WHOLE GENERATIONS OF WESTERN STATESMEN )T DID NOT TAKE
INTO ACCOUNT THE RECIPROCAL SPIRITUAL RELATIONSHIP OR RECOGNIZE THAT THE
RELATIONSHIP WAS A PERSONAL MATTER BETWEEN THE $ALAI ,AMAS AND THE
-ANCHU %MPERORS 4HERE ARE MANY SUCH ANCIENT EASTERN RELATIONSHIPS
WHICH CANNOT BE DESCRIBED IN READY
MADE WESTERN POLITICAL TERMS
2TSIS
DPON :HWA
SGAB
PAWHOSE HISTORY OF 4IBET DREW FROM A
WIDE RANGE OF 4IBETAN SOURCESALSO REINFORCED THE 4IBETAN POSITION THAT
THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP WAS SOMETHING SO SPECIlC TO 4IBET THAT ITS
SIGNIlCANCE WAS CLOSE TO IMPOSSIBLE FOR 7ESTERNERS TO APPRECIATE (IS
ORIGINAL TEXT IN 4IBETAN IS WORTH QUOTING ON THIS SUBJECT
4AKING TOGETHER THE TWO EDICTS ONE PRESENTED BY ;THE -ONGOL PRINCE=
'ODAN 1AN TO 3A
SKYA PANDITA AND ONE BY 1UBILAI 1AN TO 0HAGS
PA
RIN
PO
CHE THE lRST RESEMBLES ONE GIVEN BY A LORD TO A SUBJECT WHILE
THE LATTER IS LIKE ONE OFFERED BY A PATRON TO A LAMA 4HAT IS EXACTLY HOW
WE %ASTERN PEOPLES WOULD CONSIDER IT 4HE LAMA ACTS AND TEACHES IN
A WAY THAT SPREADS THE DOCTRINES OF THE DHARMA AND BRINGS PEACE TO
BEINGS 4HE PATRON MUST ATTEND TO THE lNANCIAL REQUISITES SO THAT THIS
MAY CONTINUE IN THE LONG TERM 4HUS WE CAN DESCRIBE THE 0RIEST
0ATRON
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 4IBET AND -ONGOLIA AS HAVING EXISTED ALONG THESE
LINES (OWEVER THIS CANNOT BE EXPLAINED ACCORDING TO 7ESTERN FORMS
OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR )F 7ESTERNERS SERIOUSLY ANALYZE THE ACCOUNT ABOVE
;IE THE AUTHORS ACCOUNT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 0HAGS
PA AND
1UBILAI= THEN THE 1ANS PROFESSING THAT HE WOULD NOT GO AGAINST THE
WISHES OF 0HAGS
PA RIN
PO
CHE WAS AN EXPLICIT RECOGNITION THAT 0HAGS
PA WAS THE HIGHEST POWER IN 4IBET 3IMILARLY THE MANNER IN WHICH THE
1AN REQUESTED THE DHARMA OF HIM SHOWED HIM RESPECT REQUESTED HIS
TEACHINGS WHEN HE CONQUERED 3OUTHERN #HINA OFFERED HIM A SEAL AND
HIGH TITLES ACCOMPANIED HIM ENROUTE TO !
MDO AND CARRIED OUT A
;CENSUS= INVESTIGATION IN 4IBET BECAUSE IT WAS THE COMMAND OF THE LAMA
ALL REVEAL NOT JUST THAT THE TWO COUNTRIES ENGAGED IN MUTUAL COOPERATION
%LLIOT 3PERLING
AND SHOWED THE HIGHEST RESPECT TO EACH OTHER BUT ALSO THAT NEITHER ONE
WAS SUBORDINATE TO THE OTHER 4HUS ON THE BASIS OF THIS 0RIEST
0ATRON
RELATIONSHIP ;WE SEE THAT= UP THROUGH THE END OF THE 1ING OR -ANCHU
ERA IN THE )RON
0IG 9EAR OF THE TH RAB
BYUNG THERE EXISTED
BETWEEN 4IBET AND #HINA ACTIVITIES COMMENSURATE WITH A MUTUAL 0RIEST
0ATRON RELATIONSHIP AS DESCRIBED ABOVE
!LMOST NONE OF THOSE WHO APPROACHED THE QUESTION OF 4IBETS STATUS
FROM THE 4IBETAN SIDE DEALT WITH THE SORT OF INSTITUTIONAL ISSUESTHE
STRUCTURES OF 1ING AUTHORITY IN 4IBET THE RULES AND OFlCES FOR DEALING
WITH 4IBET THAT PERTAINED IN EARLIER DYNASTIESTHAT ARE A NOTICEABLE PART OF
#HINESE STUDIES AND POLEMICS )N EFFECT TAKING THEIR LEAD FROM :HWA
SGAB
PA THE CONSENSUS DEVELOPED THAT THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP WAS THE
PRIMARY INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE FOR UNDERSTANDING THE HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN 4IBET AND #HINA )N THE S THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILE
TURNED TO A LONGTIME 4IBET SUPPORTER -ICHAEL # VAN 7ALT VAN 0RAAG A
LAWYER WITH A DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL LAW TO PROVIDE A FUNDAMENTAL LEGAL
CASE FOR 4IBET ONE THAT ALSO TOOK INTO ACCOUNT 4IBETS HISTORICAL RELATIONS
WITH #HINA 4HE BOOK HE EVENTUALLY PRODUCED 4HE 3TATUS OF 4IBET WAS
STRONGLY SUPPORTED BY THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILE WHICH HAD IT
TRANSLATED INTO 4IBETAN AND VAN 7ALT BECAME THE EXILE GOVERNMENTS
ADVISER ON RELEVANT LEGAL ISSUES !S SUCH HIS BOOK AS MUCH AS ANYTHING
ELSE EFFECTIVELY CAME TO REPRESENT THE OFlCIAL 4IBETAN EXILE POSITION
4HE 3TATUS OF 4IBET GAVE GREAT WEIGHT NOT SURPRISINGLY TO THE NEED TO
UNDERSTAND THAT STATUS THROUGH THE LENS OF THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP
REFERRED TO THROUGHOUT AS h#H
YNv 4IB MCHOD
YON 7E SEE ONCE MORE
IN THIS ACCOUNT AN INSISTENCE THAT THE RELATIONSHIP COULD NOT BE ADEQUATELY
CONTAINED WITHIN CONVENTIONAL INTERNATIONAL LEGAL TERMINOLOGY !CCORDING
TO VAN 7ALT
4HIS RELATIONSHIP FORMED THE BASIS FOR THE FUTURE UNIQUE RELATION NOT
ONLY BETWEEN THE 9UAN %MPERORS AND THE 4IBETAN 3AKYA ,AMAS BUT ALSO
IN MORE RECENT HISTORY BETWEEN THE -ANCHU %MPERORS AND THE $ALAI
,AMAS
x ;4=HE RELIGIOUS #H
YN RELATIONSHIP CANNOT BE CATEGORIZED OR
DElNED ADEQUATELY IN CURRENT INTERNATIONAL LEGAL TERMS AND MUST BE
REGARDED AS A SUI GENERIS RELATIONSHIP x
4HE CONCLUSION THAT MUST BE REACHED THEREFORE IS THAT -ANCHU
4IBETAN RELATIONS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY WHILE FORMALLY AND SOLELY
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
;EMPHASIS ADDED= BASED ON THE #H YN RELATIONSHIP INCLUDED FEATURES
PRIMARILY CHARACTERISTIC OF PROTECTORATE ARRANGEMENTSTHOUGH THEY
WERE OFTEN CONCEIVED IN TERMS OF TRIBUTARY RELATIONS BY THE 1ING COURT
!S THE FORMAL SOURCE OF GOVERNMENT REMAINED IN 4IBET AS 4IBET WAS NOT
CONQUERED OR ANNEXED BY THE %MPEROR BUT RATHER WAS TAKEN UNDER HIS
PROTECTION AND AS THE NATURE OF -ANCHU INTERFERENCE IN 4IBETAN AFFAIRS
SPECIlCALLY ITS FOREIGN AFFAIRS DID NOT DIFFER FROM THAT CHARACTERISTIC
OF PROTECTORATE RELATIONSHIPS AND THE EXTENT OF ACTUAL INTERFERENCE WAS
LIMITED AND BY NO MEANS CONTINUOUS THE 3TATE OF 4IBET NEVER CEASED TO
EXIST 4HE EXERCISE OF SOVEREIGNTY BY THE 4IBETANS WAS RESTRICTED BY THE
-ANCHU INVOLVEMENT IN THE AFFAIRS OF 4IBET BUT THAT DID NOT RESULT IN
THE EXTINCTION OF THE INDEPENDENT 3TATE WHICH CONTINUED TO POSSESS THE
ESSENTIAL ATTRIBUTES OF STATEHOOD
4HE BASIC 4IBETAN POSITION ON THE HISTORICAL STATUS OF 4IBET THAT IS LAID
OUT HERE HAS PRETTY MUCH BEEN MAINTAINED INTACT BY 4IBETANS IN EXILE 4WO
YEARS BEFORE THE PUBLICATION OF 4HE 3TATUS OF 4IBET VAN 7ALT AUTHORED A
PAMPHLET FOR THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT IN EXILE THAT PUT IT RATHER SUCCINCTLY
AT THE OUTSET h4IBET EXISTED AS AN INDEPENDENT STATE FOR ALMOST TWO THOUSAND
YEARS BEFORE THE COMMUNIST #HINESE TROOPS INVADED AND OCCUPIED THE
COUNTRYv 4HE HISTORICAL ARGUMENT ADVANCED BY MANY 4IBETANS IN EXILE
CONTINUES TO MAINTAIN THAT 4IBET HAD ALWAYS BEEN INDEPENDENT UNTIL #HINA
MARCHED IN IN THE MIDDLE OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ! STUDY OF 4IBETS
RELATIONS WITH THE 1ING PUBLISHED BY THE $EPARTMENT OF 3ECURITY OF THE
4IBETAN GOVERNMENT IN EXILE CONCLUDED h4HE ESSENCE OF AN ANALYSIS OF THE
ACTUAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 4IBET AND THE -ANCHUS lNDS THAT 4IBET DID
NOT BELONG TO THE -ANCHUS AND THE SITUATION IN 4IBET WAS NOT ONE OF ACTUAL
-ANCHU ADMINISTRATIONv
/NE OF THE ONLY INSTITUTIONAL INNOVATIONS OF THE 1ING THAT IS REALLY
ADDRESSED BY 4IBETAN WRITERS AND COMMENTATORS HAS BEEN THE RECOGNITION OF
INCARNATIONS THROUGH A SYSTEM OF DRAWING LOTS FROM THE 'OLDEN 5RN WHICH
WAS IMPOSED AS PART OF THE MEASURES INSTITUTED TO REFORM 4IBETAN
AFFAIRS )T IS EFFECTIVELY DISMISSED WITH :HWA SGAB PA SAYING THAT IN CHOOSING
THE $ALAI ,AMAS IN THE FOLLOWING DECADES IT WAS EITHER NOT USED OR A PRETENSE
WAS MADE OF HAVING USED IT 6AN 7ALT IN TURN MAINTAINS THAT THE EDICT
ORDERING THE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN WAS VIRTUALLY WITHOUT EFFECT
)N ESSENCE THEN 4IBETAN EXILE WRITERS GENERALLY DO NOT DEAL WITH THE
INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES OR INDEED THE INSTITUTIONAL RECORDS OF THE DYNASTIC
STATES CREATED IN #HINA 4HUS THEY DESCRIBE 4IBETS RELATIONS WITH THE
%LLIOT 3PERLING
-ONGOLS AND WITH THE 9UAN COURT FROM THE SOLE PERSPECTIVE OF THE 3A
SKYA
PA SECTS INTERACTIONS WITH -ONGOL RULERS 4IBETAN DEALINGS WITH THE
SUCCEEDING -ING DYNASTY ARE GIVEN ONLY GLANCING NOTICE AT BEST %ARLY 1ING
RELATIONS WITH 4IBET ARE DESCRIBED IN THE MANNER JUST RECOUNTEDIE FROM
THE STANDPOINT OF THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP EXEMPLIlED LARGELY BY
-ANCHU INTEREST IN THE $ALAI ,AMAS
4HE ONE MINOR EXCEPTION TO THE GENERAL VIEW OF 3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONS
IS REPRESENTED BY THE SMALL BOOKLET ON THE SUBJECT AUTHORED BY 4ASHI
4SERING AND PUBLISHED IN BY THE $EPARTMENT OF )NFORMATION AND
)NTERNATIONAL 2ELATIONS OF THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILE 4ASHI 4SERING
ACKNOWLEDGES THE REALITY OF THE -ONGOL OCCUPATION OF 4IBET SEEING IT AS
COMMENSURATE WITH THE SITUATION THAT PREVAILED IN OTHER COUNTRIES UNDER
-ONGOL DOMINATION "UT HE STATES THAT THE -ONGOLS DID NOT MAKE 4IBET
A PART OF #HINA PROPER (E ALSO ELABORATES ON THE NATURE OF -ING
4IBETAN
RELATIONS NOTING THAT THERE WAS NO -ING DOMINATION OVER 4IBET (E IS
ALSO MORE NUANCED THAN OTHER 4IBETAN WRITERS ABOUT THE 1ING
4HUS WHILE THE 4IBETANS VIEWED THE RELATIONSHIP WITH THE -ANCHUS AS
ONE OF PRIEST AND PATRON THE -ANCHU VIEWED IT AS ONE OF VASSAL AND
OVERLORD (OWEVER IT MAY BE DESCRIBED IT WAS A WEAK AND CEREMONIAL
RELATIONSHIP THROUGHOUT ITS DURATION
4HE 0REVAILING 4IBETAN 6IEW OF 4IBETS (ISTORICAL 3TATUS
7RITINGS FROM THE 4IBETAN SIDE DO INDEED TEND TO EMPHASIZE THE LACK OF
EFFECTIVE 1ING AUTHORITY IN 4IBET REGARDLESS OF THE ACTUAL ADMINISTRATIVE
STRUCTURES IN PLACE 4HEY POINT TO THE INABILITY OF THE 1ING TO EFFECTIVELY
INTERVENE IN SEVERAL CRISES INCLUDING THE 9OUNGHUSBAND EXPEDITION THE
"RITISH MARCH ON ,HASA AND A VARIETY OF INTERNAL 4IBETAN POLITICAL
CONmICTS )N THIS AND SOME OTHER RESPECTS THE 4IBETAN NARRATIVE HEWS CLOSELY
TO THE VIEWS OF EARLIER "RITISH WRITERS FOR WHOM THE 1ING HOLD ON 4IBET
SEEMED TENUOUS AND LOOMED LARGELY AS AN IMPEDIMENT TO LEGITIMATE "RITISH
DEALINGS WITH 4IBET #URZONS REMARKS CITED AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS PAPER
CONSTITUTE THE MOST WELL
KNOWN EXAMPLE OF THAT POINT OF VIEW
)N ADDITION ALMOST ALL WHO WRITE FROM THE 4IBETAN EXILE PERSPECTIVE
ADDUCE THE THIRTEENTH $ALAI ,AMAS DECLARATION OF 4IBETS INDEPENDENCE
FROM #HINA MADE IN AS YET ONE MORE ITEM BOLSTERING THE CASE
FOR 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE 4HEY ALSO PLACE SOME STRESS ON SUBSEQUENT
DEVELOPMENTS THAT THEY VIEW AS DEMONSTRATIVE OF 4IBETS INDEPENDENT STATUS
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
OVER THE NEXT SEVERAL DECADES 4HESE INCLUDE 4IBETS CONTACTS WITH SEVERAL
FOREIGN COUNTRIES AND PARTICULARLY THE VISITS OF 4IBETAN DELEGATIONS TO SEVERAL
COUNTRIES IN THE AFTERMATH OF 7ORLD 7AR )) USING 4IBETAN PAPERS AS THEIR
OFlCIAL TRAVEL DOCUMENTS
)N THE CURRENT 4IBETAN NARRATIVE 4IBETS INDEPENDENCE WAS VIOLATED
WHEN #HINA INVADED 4IBET IN 4HIS DATE WAS lXED ONLY OVER THE
COURSE OF THE S HOWEVER 0REVIOUSLY #HINA WAS SAID TO HAVE INVADED
4IBET IN IE AT THE TIME THE 0EOPLES ,IBERATION !RMY ATTACKED ACROSS
THE LINE SEPARATING THOSE PARTS OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU UNDER THE JURISDICTION
OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT FROM THE 4IBETAN TERRITORIES THAT WERE
UNDER #HINESE CONTROL AS PROVINCES OR PARTS OF PROVINCES 4HUS WE lND THE
$ALAI ,AMA IN THE LETTER HE WROTE TO THE 5. SECRETARY
GENERAL IN
STATING THAT THE TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY OF 4IBET WAS VIOLATED IN 4HIS WAS
ALSO THE DATE THAT APPEARED IN MOST COMMENTARIES ON THE 4IBET ISSUE 4HE
$ALAI ,AMA REPEATED THIS IN HIS lRST AUTOBIOGRAPHY hFROM UNTIL THE
FATEFUL YEAR OF 4IBET ENJOYED COMPLETE DE FACTO INDEPENDENCE OF
ANY OTHER NATIONv AND ALSO IN ANOTHER LETTER TO THE SECRETARY
GENERAL IN
h"ETWEEN AND THERE WAS NOT EVEN A SEMBLANCE OF #HINESE
AUTHORITY IN 4IBET x !S THE HEAD OF THE 4IBETAN
'OVERNMENT ) SAY THAT WHAT HAPPENED ON /CTOBER )N THE CURRENT 4IBETAN
WAS A mAGRANT ACT OF AGGRESSION ON THE NARRATIVE 4IBETS
PART OF #HINA AGAINST MY COUNTRYv 4HIS DATE FOR
THE 0,!S INVASION OF 4IBET CAME TO BE GENERALLY INDEPENDENCE WAS
ACCEPTED OUTSIDE THE 02# THOUGH HERE AND THERE VIOLATED WHEN #HINA
AS CAN BE SEEN BELOW THE DATE OF HAS EVEN
BEEN GIVEN IMPLYING THAT IT WAS THE #HINESE INVADED 4IBET IN
SUPPRESSION OF THE 4IBETAN REVOLT AND ABOLITION OF
THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT THAT CONSTITUTED THE REAL BREAK WITH 4IBETS
EARLIER STATUS
!SSERTIONS AND THE (ISTORICAL 2ECORD
(OW ACCURATE ARE THE CLAIMS THAT HAVE BEEN USED TO BUILD THE CORE CASES THAT
HAVE BEEN MADE ABOUT THE STATUS OF 4IBET )T SHOULD ALREADY BE OBVIOUS THAT
MANY OF THESE CLAIMS HAVE FAR SHORTER PEDIGREES SO TO SPEAK THAN MANY
MIGHT IMAGINE SIMPLY FROM LOOKING AT THE MOST RECENT ELUCIDATIONS OF THE
CASES FOR 4IBETS STATUS AS EITHER A PART OF #HINA OR AN INDEPENDENT STATE
4HEY ARE RELATIVELY RECENT CONSTRUCTS 4HIS IS NOT TO DISMISS THEM OUT OF
HAND BUT IT IMPOSES THE TASK WHERE POSSIBLE OF MEASURING THESE CLAIMS
%LLIOT 3PERLING
AND VIEWS AGAINST EXTANT SOURCE MATERIALS AND EARLIER INTERPRETATIONS OF
4IBETS RELATIONSHIP TO #HINA
!T THE OUTSET WE HAVE INTERPRETATIONS THAT HAVE FORMED OVER THE COURSE
OF THE LAST CENTURY BUT THAT PURPORT TO PRESENT A VIEW THAT DEVELOPED MUCH
EARLIER 7E CAN START MOST CONVENIENTLY WITH THE BASIC PREMISE IN THE #HINESE
ARGUMENT THE NOTION THAT 4IBET BECAME AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA DURING
THE PERIOD OF -ONGOL RULE 7HAT IS MOST STRIKING IS THAT ONE DOES NOT lND
THIS INTERPRETATION AT ALL IN THE CENTURIES OF #HINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY THAT LAY
BETWEEN THE 9UAN PERIOD AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 02# 4HIS IS NOT TO
DENY THE REALITY OF -ONGOL DOMINATION OF 4IBET BUT THAT DOMINATION IS
SOMETHING QUITE DIFFERENT FROM 4IBETS BEING A PART OF #HINA
/FlCIAL #HINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY HAS RECORDED OVER THE COURSE OF
SEVERAL DYNASTIES THE SHAPE OF #HINA 4HE GEOGRAPHIC RANGE OF THE STATE
IS DELINEATED QUITE CLEARLY IN THE CHAPTERS ON GEOGRAPHY DILIZHI چ ݳ
IN THE RESPECTIVE OFlCIAL DYNASTIC HISTORIES !ND 4IBET IS SIMPLY NOT FOUND
WITHIN THE #HINESE STATE DURING THE 9UAN !S A RESULT THERE IS SOMETHING
QUITE INTERESTING ABOUT ASSERTIONS REGARDING 4IBETS INCORPORATION INTO 9UAN
#HINA THERE IS NO AGREEMENT AS TO WHEN THIS HAPPENED 4HE WHITE
PAPER PUBLISHED BY THE )NFORMATION /FlCE OF THE 3TATE #OUNCIL OF THE
02# DATED IT TO AFTER THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
4IBET IS SIMPLY NOT FOUND 9UAN CENTRAL GOVERNMENT THE SAME DOCUMENT
WITHIN THE #HINESE STATE DATES THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CENTRALIZED 9UAN RULE
TO ! VOLUME BROUGHT OUT UNDER THE
DURING THE 9UAN AUSPICES OF THE 0ROPAGANDA $EPARTMENT OF THE
4IBET !UTONOMOUS 2EGION 0ARTY #OMMITTEE
8IZANG ZIZHIQU DANGWEI XUANCHUANBU 㽔㮤㞿⊐एྩܯᅸӵ䚽 PUT IT
SOMEWHAT DIFFERENTLY
)N THE -ONGOL 1ANATE DESIGNATED 9UAN AS THE TITLE OF THEIR STATE
AND ESTABLISHED A CENTRAL POLITICAL AUTHORITY FOR THE GREAT UNITY OF
ALL OF #HINAS REGIONS AND NATIONALITIES 4HE 4IBET REGION BECAME AN
ADMINISTRATIVE AREA UNDER THE DIRECT CONTROL OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
OF #HINAS 9UAN $YNASTY
!ND IN ANOTHER STUDY OF 4IBETS HISTORY WE READ
4HE IMPLEMENTATION OF 9UAN RULE AND ADMINISTRATION OF 4IBET STARTED
APPROXIMATELY IN THE MID
THIRTEENTH CENTURY )N 1UBILAI MOVED
HIS CAPITAL TO "EIJING AND IN THE SAME YEAR ESTABLISHED THE :ONGZHIYUAN
WITHIN THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 4HE FULL NAME OF THE :ONGZHIYUAN IS THE
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
3HIJIAO :ONGZHIYUAN h3UPREME #ONTROL #OMMISSION FOR "UDDHISMv
AND ITS ESTABLISHMENT WAS WHOLLY A PRODUCT OF THE UNIQUE INGENUITY OF
THE -ONGOL RULERS )T WAS AN OFlCE WITH A DOUBLE FUNCTION TO HANDLE
THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR MANAGING "UDDHIST AFFAIRS FOR THE WHOLE COUNTRY
INCLUDING THE (AN REGIONS AND TO DIRECTLY GOVERN THE 4IBETAN
NATIONALITY AREAS
4HERE IS A DEGREE OF VAGUENESS IN MANY #HINESE COMMENTS ON THE
QUESTION OF 4IBETS INCORPORATION INTO #HINA DURING THE 9UAN AND
INDEED THE WHOLE QUESTION OF -ONGOL RULE OVER 4IBET IS COMPLEX !S ONE
STUDY OF 4IBETS STATUS SAYS hA GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE ACTUAL RULE AND FULL
ADMINISTRATION OF THE 4IBETAN AREA BY THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY OF THE 9UAN
$YNASTY INVOLVES HISTORICAL FACTS THAT ARE TOO NUMEROUS TO MENTION AND
CANNOT BE SET OUT HERE ONE BY ONEv !S A RESULT MOST #HINESE SOURCES
PRESENT A NARRATIVE OF ONLY THE BASIC EVENTS IN THE EVOLUTION OF 4IBETS
DOMINATION BY THE -ONGOLS AND BY THE 9UAN DYNASTY "UT THE FACT REMAINS
THAT BEING SUBJECT TO THE 9UAN AS 4IBET INDEED WAS IS NOT IPSO FACTO THE
SAME THING AS BEING A PART OF #HINA 4HE ANALYSES THAT HAVE COME OUT OF
THE 02# ARE UNIFORM IN NOT ENTERTAINING THE POSSIBILITY THAT THE 9UAN WAS
AN EMPIRE WITH CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS THAT WERE NOT INTEGRAL PARTS OF #HINA
)N CONTRAST THE INTERPRETATIONS OF 9UAN HISTORY PRODUCED OUTSIDE #HINA
OVERWHELMINGLY VIEW THE SITUATION AS ONE OF A -ONGOL %MPIRE 1UBILAI
1AȖAN FOR INSTANCE CLEARLY PRESENTED HIMSELF AS THE RULER OF SUCH 7ITHIN
THIS CONTEXT THEN THERE IS NO FORMAL ACT OR INCIDENT THAT APPENDED 4IBET
TO THE #HINESE PORTION OF THE EMPIRE !ND WHEN THE 9UAN COLLAPSED AND
THE -ING WROTE THE PREVIOUS DYNASTYS HISTORY THE OFlCIAL GEOGRAPHICAL
DESCRIPTION OF THE 9UAN NATURALLY OMITTED 4IBET AS #HINESE TERRITORY
3EVERAL WORKS PRODUCED IN #HINA DO HOWEVER ENGAGE EXPLICITLY WITH
THE POSITIONS OF :HWA
SGAB
PA AND VAN 7ALT !ND HERE THEY ARE ON
lRMER GROUND FOR THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP INVOKED AS IF TO DENY A
RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL SUBORDINATION PRESENTS LESS THAN A FULL PICTURE OF
4IBETS HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIP WITH #HINA 4HE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP
HAS BEEN A FEATURE OF 4IBETAN POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE FOR CENTURIES )T HAS
EXISTED UNDER A VARIETY OF CIRCUMSTANCES THAT LINKED 4IBETAN CLERICS WITH
BOTH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL RULERS AND POWERS 4HE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP
HAS BEEN PRESENT DURING PERIODS IN WHICH 4IBET WAS SUBORDINATE TO SECULAR
POWERS ACTING AS RELIGIOUS PATRONS EG 1UBILAI 1AȖAN AS WELL AS DURING
PERIODS IN WHICH THOSE POWERS HAD NO REAL POLITICAL AUTHORITY IN 4IBET
INDEED SUCH WAS THE CASE WITH THE DYNASTY THAT SUCCEEDED THE 9UAN THE
%LLIOT 3PERLING
-ING DYNASTY
4HE GENERAL OPINION EVINCED IN MOST MODERN #HINESE ACCOUNTS OF 4IBET
DURING THE -ING IS AS ALREADY MENTIONED THAT THE -ING SIMPLY MAINTAINED
THE SYSTEM THAT HAD BEEN ESTABLISHED BY THE 9UAN FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF
4IBET WITH SOME MODIlCATIONS )N PART THIS MEANT THE GRANTING OF TITLES
TO IMPORTANT 4IBETAN lGURES SO AS TO MAINTAIN A HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM OF
RANKING )N ADDITION MUCH AS THE 9UAN HAD ESTABLISHED VARIOUS OFlCES FOR
ADMINISTERING 4IBETAN AFFAIRS SO TOO #HINESE COMMENTATORS NOTE DID THE
-ING ESTABLISH OFlCES FOR HANDLING 4IBETAN AFFAIRS 4HE ADMINISTRATION OF
4IBET UNDER THE -ING IS DESCRIBED IN ONE VOLUME AS FOLLOWS
!T THE BEGINNING OF THE -ING $YNASTY THE 8IAN BRANCH REGIONAL
MILITARY COMMISSION WAS ESTABLISHED AT (EZHOU TO GOVERN THE 4IBETAN
AREAS OF THE WHOLE COUNTRY !FTERWARDS THIS WAS CHANGED AND THERE WERE
ESTABLISHED A -DO
KHAMS BRANCH REGIONAL MILITARY COMMISSION AND
AN $BUS
'TSANG BRANCH REGIONAL MILITARY COMMISSION DIVIDING UP
THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE 4IBETAN AREAS x 4HE -DO
KHAMS BRANCH
REGIONAL MILITARY COMMISSION WAS CENTERED AROUND 8INING IN 1INGHAI
AND GOVERNED THE !
MDO 4IBETAN REGION x4HE SPHERE OF GOVERNING
AUTHORITY OF THE $BUS
'TSANG BRANCH REGIONAL MILITARY COMMISSION
ENCOMPASSED THE GREATER PART OF PRESENT
DAY 4IBET
4HIS DESCRIPTION MORE OR LESS REmECTS WHAT IS DEPICTED IN THE RELEVANT
#HINESE RECORDS PARTICULARLY THE -ING SHILU IN AN ENTRY FOR !UGUST
)N THIS ENTRY THERE IS AN INTERESTING PASSAGE RECOUNTING THE
ELEVATION OF A #HINESE OFlCIAL 7EI :HENG ଁ إFROM THE POSITION OF
COMMANDER #H ZHIHUISHI ਐཀࠌ OF THE (EZHOU ࣾ ڠGUARD TO THAT
OF REGIONAL MILITARY COMMISSIONER #H DUZHIHUISHI ຟਐཀࠌ (E WAS
NOW THE HIGHEST RANKING OFlCIAL IN (EZHOU AND WE ARE TOLD GIVEN GENERAL
GOVERNING AUTHORITY OVER (EZHOU -DO
+HAMS AND $BUS
'TSANGIE
ALL OF 4IBET 4HE IMPORT OF THIS IS CONSIDERABLE IF ONE IS TO ASSUME THAT THE
-ING DYNASTY CONTINUED TO DOMINATE 4IBET AS THE 9UAN HAD FOR THIS MAKES
7EI :HENG THE MOST POWERFUL POLITICAL lGURE IN 4IBET AT THE BEGINNING OF
THE -ING A PROPOSITION THAT IS ON ITS FACE FARCICAL 7EI :HENG IS WHOLLY
UNKNOWN IN 4IBETAN HISTORICAL LITERATURE -ORE TO THE POINT THE OFlCES
BEARING THE NAMES OF -DO
+HAMS AND $BUS
'TSANG WERE NOT ESTABLISHED
IN 4IBET PROPER BUT REMAINED IN THE BORDER REGIONS AROUND (EZHOU AND
8INING ۫ኑ 4HEY WERE NOT IN ANY WAY A PART OF THE ACTUAL POLITICAL POWER
STRUCTURE OF 4IBET
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
3IMILARLY EXAGGERATED IS THE SIGNIlCANCE OF THE TITLES THAT WERE GRANTED
TO 4IBETANS BY THE -ING 4HESE TITLES WHICH HAVE ALREADY BEEN NOTED
ABOVE WERE HONORS THAT CONVEYED PRESTIGE AND RECOGNITION BUT THEY DID
NOT CONFER POLITICAL AUTHORITY )N POINT OF FACT THE GRANT OF TITLES IN #HINA
TO FOREIGNERS WAS NOT UNUSUAL IT WAS A WELL
KNOWN TOOL OF STATECRAFT "UT
IN THE CASE OF THREE 4IBETAN HIERARCHS WHO WERE ACCORDED THE TITLE FAWANG
? ?
OR DHARMARAJA #HINESE COMMENTATORS ESSENTIALLY PRESENT THE BESTOWAL OF
THESE TITLES AS BOTH A MARK OF #HINESE SOVEREIGNTY AND A POLITICAL MEASURE
BY WHICH THE -ING EXERTED CONTROL OVER 4IBETAN "UDDHISM 4HESE THREE
FAWANG WERE HONORED AS SUCH BECAUSE THEY TRAVELED TO THE -ING COURT
WHERE THEY PERFORMED RITES AND CONFERRED INITIATIONS UPON THE EMPEROR
SPECIlCALLY -ING #HENGZU ࣔګల AND -ING 8UANZONG ࣔࡲ 4HUS
THEIR PRESTIGE AND POSITIONS WERE ESTABLISHED WELL BEFORE THEY EVER WENT TO
#HINA ,EST THERE BE ANY DOUBT ABOUT THE AUTHORITY OF THE -ING COURT IN
THESE MATTERS THERE IS THE AFOREMENTIONED CASE OF 4SONG
KHA
PA "LO
BZANG
GRAGS
PA ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT lGURES OF
THE PERIOD )NVITED TO THE COURT OF #HENGZU HE 4HESE TITLESxWERE
SIMPLY REFUSED TO GO AND SENT A DISCIPLE INSTEAD HONORS THAT CONVEYED
WHO LATER BECAME ONE OF THE THREE FAWANG
!S FOR THE LESSER TITLES AWARDED 4IBETANS PRESTIGE AND RECOGNITION
DURING THE -ING MANY OF THESE WERE GIVEN TO BUT THEY DID NOT CONFER
lGURES ACTIVE ALONG THE -ING
4IBETAN FRONTIER
"UT OTHERS WERE AWARDED TO lGURES INSIDE 4IBET POLITICAL AUTHORITY
WHO WERE STILL NOT SUBORDINATE TO THE -ING COURT
4HERE IS NO INDICATION AT ALL IN 4IBETAN SOURCESOR IN #HINESE SOURCES
FOR THAT MATTERTHAT ANY OF THOSE INSIDE 4IBET EXERTED POWER OR ACTED
ON BEHALF OF THE -ING COURT "LUNTLY PUT THERE WAS NO -ING POLITICAL
AUTHORITY OVER 4IBETNO ORDINANCES LAWS TAXES ETC IMPOSED INSIDE
4IBET BY THE -ING
)F THE SUBSTANTIVE SIGNIlCANCE OF THESE -ING STRUCTURES IS MISREPRESENTED
IN #HINESE WRITINGS THE 1ING INSTITUTION OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IS NOT
ACCORDED ITS TRUE IMPORT IN 4IBETAN WRITINGS !S WE HAVE SEEN THE USE OF
THE URN WAS IMPOSED IN THE WAKE OF THE 'URKHA WAR WITH 4IBET AT THE END
OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 4HE 1ING HAD SLOWLY TAKEN ON AN INCREASINGLY
DOMINANT ROLE IN 4IBET SO MUCH SO THAT BY THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
THE SUBORDINATE PLACE OF 4IBET WITHIN THE 1ING %MPIRE WAS BEYOND DISPUTE
4HE MEMOIRS OF ONE OF THE 4IBETAN MINISTERS INVOLVED IN THE 'URKHA WAR
AND IMPLICATED IN ITS ESCALATION ARE TELLING 3UMMONED TO "EIJING FOR AN
%LLIOT 3PERLING
INQUEST HE MAKES CLEAR IN HIS OWN ACCOUNT THE FACT HE WAS UNAMBIGUOUSLY
? ?
A SUBJECT OF THE 1ING EMPEROR WHOM HE DESCRIBES AS hTHE DHARMARAJA LORD
OF ALL BELOW HEAVEN AND ABOVE EARTH THE -A¶JUSR | eEMPEROR )T IS SIMPLY NOT
POSSIBLE TO CHALK 1ING
4IBETAN RELATIONS UP TO A PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP
ON A PERSONAL LEVEL WITH NO ELEMENT OF POLITICAL SUBORDINATION
4HE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IS PARTICULARLY CONTENTIOUS BECAUSE IT
REPRESENTS THE INTRUSION OF 1ING AUTHORITY INTO THE SELECTION OF IMPORTANT
LAMAS MOST PROMINENTLY THE $ALAI ,AMAS .EVERTHELESS IT IS CLEAR FROM
4IBETAN SOURCES THAT ITS USE WAS REQUIRED FOR SOME TIME AT LEAST )N THE
EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY A SURVEY OF ALL CONTEMPORARY INCARNATIONS WAS
COMPILED THAT SPECIlED WHICH ONES HAD ACTUALLY BEEN SELECTED BY MEANS
OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN 4HE SURVEY LIST MAKES IT CLEAR THAT THE 'OLDEN 5RN
WAS NOT LIMITED TO THE $ALAI ,AMA AND THE 0ANCHEN ,AMA 4HE FOURTEENTH
+ARMA
PA 4HEG
MCHOG RDO
RJE IS ALSO NOTED AS HAVING BEEN CHOSEN
THROUGH ITS USE 4HERE CAN BE LITTLE DOUBT THAT THE 1ING HAD THE AUTHORITY
TO IMPOSE THE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN .OR CAN THERE BE ANY DOUBT ABOUT
THE REAL AUTHORITY IN 4IBETAN AFFAIRS EXERTED BY THE OFlCES AND OFlCIALS
THAT THE 1ING POSTED IN 4IBET )T IS OF COURSE TRUE THAT FOR MOST OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY 1ING AUTHORITY THERE WAS WEAK "UT THAT AUTHORITY WAS
STILL ACKNOWLEDGED BY THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT UNTIL WHEN THE
THIRTEENTH $ALAI ,AMA DECLARED 4IBET TO BE FREE OF #HINA
)T SHOULD BE CLEAR THAT MUCH OF WHAT IS CLAIMED BY BOTH SIDES IN THE
4IBET
#HINA CONmICT COMES DOWN TO RATHER RECENT CONSTRUCTIONS OF HISTORY
"EARING THIS IN MIND IT MAY BE USEFUL TO LOOK FURTHER AT SOME OF THESE
CONSTRUCTIONS WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF THE LARGER ISSUES THAT THEY BOTH RESPOND
TO AND REmECT ! GLANCE AT FOUR OF THE MORE OBVIOUS INSTANCES IN WHICH THE
HISTORICAL RECORD IS AT VARIANCE WITH CURRENT ASSERTIONS OUGHT TO ILLUSTRATE TO
SOME EXTENT THE FACTORS AT WORK 4HESE HAVE LARGELY BEEN EXAMINED ABOVE
BUT ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ABOUT THEM AS THEY APPEAR SET AGAINST OTHER ISSUES
OF CULTURE POLITICS OR IDENTITY SHOULD SHED MORE LIGHT ON THE WAY IN WHICH
THEY HAVE BECOME SUCH CONSIDERABLE IMPEDIMENTS TO ATTEMPTS AT DEALING
WITH THE ISSUE OF 4IBETS STATUS
)NTEGRAL 0ART OF #HINA OR 6ASSAL 3TATE
.OT ONLY IS THE NOTION THAT 4IBET HAS BEEN AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA SINCE
THE 9UAN DYNASTY A TWENTIETH
CENTURY IDEA INTO THE S THE PREDOMINANT
VIEW WAS THAT 4IBETS RELATIONS WITH LATE IMPERIAL #HINA WERE BEST DESCRIBED
AS THOSE OF A VASSAL SOMETHING QUITE OPPOSITE TO AN INTEGRAL PART OF A
COUNTRY !S WE HAVE ALREADY SEEN #HINESE WRITERS WELL INTO THE EARLY YEARS
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
OF THE 02# SAW THE FULL IMPLEMENTATION OF #HINESE SOVEREIGNTY IN 4IBET
COMING ONLY AFTER THE 'URKHA WAR 4HIS IS STARKLY DIFFERENT FROM WHAT HAS
NOW BECOME RECEIVED WISDOM IN THE 02# NAMELY THAT 4IBETS PLACE AS AN
INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA DATES TO THE 9UAN -OREOVER EVEN WHEN SPEAKING
OF THE 1ING PERIOD AND 4IBETS STATUS UNDER THE 1ING THE TERMS USED
BY THESE EARLIER WRITERS CANNOT BE SAID TO POINT TO SOMETHING hINTEGRALv
TO THE #HINESE STATE 2ATHER THEY POINT TO A 4IBET THAT IS A TRIBUTARY OR A
DEPENDENCYIE SOMETHING THAT CANNOT BE CALLED hINTEGRALv 4HIS IS NOT
TO SAY THAT 4IBET WAS NOT SUBJECT TO THE 1ING OR THAT THE INTERNATIONAL
COMMUNITY DURING THE 1ING PERIOD DID NOT ACCEPT THAT FACT "UT THE 1ING
STATE IN ITS DAY WAS VIEWED AS AN EMPIRE AS INDEED IT WAS AN EMPIRE !ND
THE TERMS THAT WE SEE BEING USED TO CHARACTERIZE 4IBET WITHIN THE 1ING
REALMS ARE TERMS THAT SPEAK OF A PART OF AN EMPIRE NOT AN hINTEGRALv PART
OF #HINA 4HE 1ING RULERS MAINTAINED SOME VERY CLEAR BOUNDARIES BETWEEN
THEIR RULE OF #HINA ON THE ONE HAND AND THEIR RULE OF REGIONS SUCH AS 4IBET
OR -ONGOLIA ON THE OTHER )NDEED BOTH REGIONS FELL UNDER THE JURISDICTION
OF THE ,IFANYUAN ⧛㮾䰷 COMMONLY TRANSLATED AS h#OURT OF #OLONIAL
!FFAIRSv A BUREAU THAT ALSO HANDLED 1ING RELATIONS WITH 2USSIA INTO THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY 7HEN :HAO %RFENG ᎓ዿ᠆ THE LAST MAJOR 1ING
OFlCIAL DEALING WITH 4IBETAN AFFAIRS TOOK UP THE MILITARY PACIlCATION OF
THE EASTERN 3INO
4IBETAN BORDERLANDS HE DESCRIBED HIS ENTERPRISE THERE AS
A COLONIAL ONE COMPARABLE TO THOSE OF THE "RITISH &RENCH *APANESE AND
!MERICANS IN !SIA AND !FRICA
4HE TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE 4IBET UNDER THE 1ING FANBANG ᢋ߶ FANSHU
ᢋ᥆ ETC ARE GENERALLY TRANSLATED AS hVASSAL STATEv OR SOMETHING SIMILAR
! RECENT ARTICLE MAINTAINS THAT FANSHU ARE NOT LIKE OTHER TRIBUTE
PAYING
REGIONS IN THAT THE FORMER FALL UNDER THE FULL SOVEREIGN ADMINISTRATION OF
#HINA BUT THAT IS NOT THE POINT THOUGH AN IMPERIAL POWER CAN EXERCISE
FULL SOVEREIGN RULE OVER A SUBJECT COUNTRY THIS IN ITSELF DOES NOT MAKE THAT
COUNTRY AN INALIENABLE OR INTEGRAL PART OF THE IMPERIAL COUNTRY
3ETTING ASIDE THE ISSUE OF FANSHU HOWEVER IT IS STILL MANIFESTLY CLEAR
THAT #HINESE WRITERS HAVE COME TO VIEW PRE
EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY 4IBET AS
lRMLY UNDER #HINESE SOVEREIGNTY ONLY DURING THE LAST lVE DECADES 4HIS
CHANGE HAS BEEN PART OF A LARGER ENTERPRISE OF DElNING #HINA AND THE
#HINESE PEOPLE IN A NEW WAY ONE IN WHICH ELEMENTS OF PAST IMPERIAL
DOMINATION HAVE BEEN SUPPRESSED AND PREVIOUSLY SUBJECT PEOPLES lTTED
INTO THE CATEGORY OF hNATIONAL MINORITYv )N THE CASE OF 4IBET WHERE THE
HISTORICAL MEMORY ENCOMPASSES A SENSE OF NATIONHOOD AND A KNOWLEDGE
%LLIOT 3PERLING
OF A TIME WHEN 4IBETANS PRESIDED OVER A 4IBETAN STATE ADMINISTERED BY A
4IBETAN BUREAUCRACY USING 4IBETAN
LANGUAGE ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS
AND TOOLS THE PERSISTENCE OF TENSIONS IS NOT SURPRISING 4HE CATEGORY OF
hNATIONAL MINORITYv ULTIMATELY REDUCES 4IBETANS TO A PAR WITH A VARIETY
OF OTHER GROUPS MANY NUMBERING JUST TENS OF THOUSANDS OR FEWER AND
HAVING NO SIMILAR NATIONAL HISTORY OR CONSCIOUSNESS 9ET THIS DElNITION
OF THE #HINESE NATION HAS BEEN CREATED AND SUCCESSFULLY INCULCATED IN
THE GENERAL POPULATION OF THE 02# .OW REGARDLESS OF PAST HISTORY MOST
#HINESE DO INDEED FEEL THAT 4IBET BELONGS TO #HINA AND HAS BEEN AN
INSEPARABLE PART OF THE COUNTRY SINCE ANCIENT
#HINESE WRITERS HAVE TIMES
COME TO VIEW PRE
4HIS CULTURAL SENSE OF WHAT IS RIGHTLY #HINAS
IS ALSO BOUND UP WITH THE NOTION THAT ANY ATTEMPT
EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY 4IBET TO SEPARATE 4IBET FROM #HINA IS ULTIMATELY THE
AS lRMLY UNDER #HINESE RESULT OF FOREIGN MACHINATIONS OR INCITEMENT
DERIVED FROM EARLIER IMPERIALIST POLICIES THAT
SOVEREIGNTY ONLY DURING SOUGHT TO DIVIDE UP #HINA 4HE SENSE OF POPULAR
THE LAST lVE DECADES GRIEVANCE THIS PLAYS ON HAS COMMONLY BEEN
MARSHALED IN BOOKS AND ESSAYS POINTING TO THE
IMPERIALIST PROVENANCE OF 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE )NDEED THE #HINESE
RESPONSE TO NON
#HINESE WRITERS AND SCHOLARS WHO SEE 4IBET AS POSSESSING
A HISTORICAL IDENTITY SEPARATE FROM #HINA HAS BEEN TO TAR THEM WITH THE
COLONIALIST LABEL "UT THE FACT IS 4IBET WAS HISTORICALLY NOT A PART OF #HINA
RATHER 4IBETS SUBORDINATE RELATIONSHIP TO THE 1ING IS MORE APTLY DESCRIBED
WITH THE FEUDAL TERMINOLOGY OF VASSALAGE THAT #HINESE WRITERS PREVIOUSLY
USED FOR IT
4HE 0RIEST
0ATRON 2ELATIONSHIP
4HE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP COEXISTED WITH 4IBETS POLITICAL SUBORDINATION
TO THE 9UAN AND THE 1ING 4HERE IS SIMPLY NOTHING TO SUBSTANTIATE THE
NOTION THAT THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP EXCLUDED POLITICAL DOMINATION
)T EXISTED AS WE HAVE SEEN BETWEEN 4IBETAN HIERARCHS AND EMPERORS OF THE
9UAN -ING AND 1ING DYNASTIES INCLUDING PERIODS IN WHICH THE -ING AND
1ING DID NOT EXERCISE AUTHORITY OVER 4IBET .EVERTHELESS IT HAS BECOME
COMMON FOR 4IBETAN EXILE COMMENTATORS TO SEE THE RELATIONSHIP AS UNIQUELY
PERSONAL AND IDEAS OF 4IBETS SUBORDINATION TO 9UAN OR -ING EMPERORS AS A
MISUNDERSTANDING OF THAT FACT
(ERE TOO WE HAVE A CULTURAL NOTION AT WORK AS A NATIONAL IDEA IS DElNED
ANEW )N THIS CASE THE PROCESS IS A COMPLEX ONE INVOLVING IN PART 4IBETAN
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
INTERACTION WITH THE 7EST AND THE ASSIMILATION OF MODERN IDEAS ABOUT 4IBET
AS AN EXCEPTIONAL REALM OF A UNIQUELY RELIGIOUS CULTURE /NE SEES THIS IDEA
DEVELOPING THROUGH AN INCREASING DE
EMPHASIS AMONG THE EXILE LEADERSHIP
ON THE hNATIONALv ASPECTS OF WHAT HAD ONCE BEEN
A MOVEMENT FOR INDEPENDENCE AND THAT TO BE 4HERE IS SIMPLY NOTHING
HONEST REMAINS AS SUCH AMONG MOST 4IBETAN TO SUBSTANTIATE THE
EXILES AND ACTIVISTS !T THE HIGHER LEVELS OF THE
4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILE IT HAS DEVOLVED INTO NOTION THAT THE PRIEST
A MOVEMENT FOR CULTURAL PRESERVATION !S IF TAKING PATRON RELATIONSHIP
A CUE FROM 7ESTERN FANTASIES OF 4IBET AS THE PLACE
WHEREIN ALL IS CENTERED AROUND SPIRITUAL PURSUITS EXCLUDED POLITICAL
THE 4IBETAN EXILE AUTHORITIES ARE INCREASINGLY GIVEN DOMINATION
TO SPEAKING OF 4IBET LARGELY AS A GLOBAL RELIGIOUS
AND SPIRITUAL RESOURCE FOR WHICH INDEPENDENCE AS A NATION IS UNIMPORTANT
4HE PRESENT EXILE PRIME MINISTER 3AMDHONG 2INPOCHE TOLD THE .EW 9ORK
4IMES AS MUCH IN *ULY !S A RESULT ONE ENCOUNTERS AN INCREASINGLY
MUDDLED VIEW OF THE NATURE OF 3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONS IN SOME QUARTERS
OF THE 4IBETAN EXILE LEADERSHIP !GAINST THIS BACKGROUND THE IMPETUS TO
MAKE RELIGION THE OVERWHELMING CORE OF 4IBETS IDENTITYAGAIN PARTIALLY
IN RESPONSE TO NON
4IBETAN EXPECTATIONSWOULD SEEM TO HAVE FOSTERED AN
INABILITY IN SOME QUARTERS TO UNDERSTAND THE HARD POLITICAL FACTS OF 4IBETS
TIES WITH THE 9UAN AND 1ING COURTS
4HE 'OLDEN 5RN
4HE 'OLDEN 5RN WAS USED TO SELECT 4IBETAN INCARNATIONS DURING THE 1ING
BUT ITS INVOCATION IN THE RECOGNITION OF CONTEMPORARY INCARNATIONS IS A
SELECTIVE RESPONSE TO POLITICAL EXIGENCIES )N SPITE OF EXILE INTERPRETATIONS
TO THE CONTRARY THE 'OLDEN 5RN LOTTERY WAS USED IN 4IBET IN THE CASES OF A
NUMBER OF INCARNATIONS "UT ITS REVIVAL AS A PRESENT
DAY DEVICE CANNOT BE
SEEN AS ANYTHING BUT CYNICAL 4HE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN WAS NOT CONSTANT
BY THE LATE 1ING AND IT SUBSEQUENTLY FELL INTO DISUSE )T WAS AFTER ALL A
1ING DEVICE IMPOSED ON THE 4IBETAN "UDDHIST AUTHORITIES /NE CANNOT BUT
NOTE SOMEWHAT WRYLY THAT AFTER ALMOST A CENTURY OF RHETORIC ON THE PART
OF BOTH THE 2EPUBLICAN AND THE 3OCIALIST GOVERNMENTS OF #HINA DEPICTING
THE POLICIES OF THE 1ING UPPER STRATA AS DIVISIVE AND OPPRESSIVE TOWARD THE
BORDERLAND OR MINORITY PEOPLES THE 02# HAS CHOSEN TO RESURRECT THIS ONE
PARTICULAR 1ING INSTITUTION SPECIlCALLY WITH REGARD TO THE RECOGNITION OF
THE 0ANCHEN ,AMA MAINTAINING THAT IT IS ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY IN CHOOSING
AN INCARNATION )T GOES WITHOUT SAYING THAT THERE HAS NOT BEEN A RUSH
%LLIOT 3PERLING
TO RESTORE ANY OTHER 1ING INSTITUTIONS ACROSS MODERN #HINA "UT GIVEN
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IT IS INTERESTING TO NOTE
THAT ALTHOUGH THE FOURTEENTH +ARMA
PA WAS RECOGNIZED THROUGH THE USE
OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN AT THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ALL REPORTS
OF THE RECOGNITION AND ENTHRONEMENT OF THE SEVENTEENTH +ARMA
PA IN
INDICATE THAT THIS WAS NOT THE CASE WITH HIM 4HE REVIVED USE OF
THE 'OLDEN 5RN IS MEANT TO IMPART LEGITIMACY TO
;THE 'OLDEN 5RNS= 02# CONTROL OVER THE INCARNATION OF HIGH LAMAS
BY CREATING THE PERCEPTION OF HISTORICAL CONTINUITY
REVIVAL AS A PRESENT
DAY WITH A PARTICULAR EYE TO 02# SUPERVISION OF THE
DEVICE CANNOT BE SEEN AS RECOGNITION OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS NEXT INCARNATION
4HE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IS ONE OF THE FEW
ANYTHING BUT CYNICAL ELEMENTS OF IMPERIAL DYNASTIC RULE THAT CAN BE
CALLED ON TO REINFORCE THE MODERN #HINESE NOTION
THAT #HINAS CENTRAL GOVERNMENTS ENJOYED PRIMACY IN 4IBETAN AFFAIRS FROM
THE 9UAN PERIOD UP TO THE PRESENT 4HE NOTION THAT 4IBET SOMEHOW WARRANTS
THE RESTORATION OF THIS ELEMENT OF 1ING RULE IS BEST VIEWED AS PART OF A LARGER
STRUGGLE TO BRING HISTORY AND HISTORICAL PRECEDENT TO BEAR ON THE LEGITIMACY
OF 02# POLICIES AND RULE IN 4IBET TODAY
4HE )NVASION 1UESTION OR 7HAT #ONSTITUTES 4IBET
4IBET WAS NOT INVADED BY #HINA IN NOR WERE 4IBETANS IGNORANT OF
THE NAME OF THEIR COUNTRY 4HESE LAST TWO POINTSPURPOSELY PHRASED SO
AS TO RAISE EYEBROWSARE CONNECTED ONCE MORE WITH THE ATTEMPT TO DElNE
A SPECIlC VISION OF A NATION 4HEY ARE USEFUL IN POINTING OUT THE DEGREE OF
AMBIGUITY CONTRADICTION AND EVEN STRAINED ILLOGICAL INVENTION THAT GOES
INTO SUCH AN ENTERPRISE
4HE lRST POINT RELATES TO THE IDEA OF WHAT 4IBET IS EXACTLY 7E HAVE
ALREADY NOTED THAT IN WHEN THE 0,! ATTACKED ACROSS THE FRONTIER
SEPARATING THE TERRITORIES UNDER THE $ALAI ,AMAS JURISDICTION FROM OTHER
PARTS OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT CLAIMED THAT #HINA
HAD LAUNCHED AN INVASION OF 4IBET /NLY IN THE S WAS IT DECIDED TO
SET AS THE YEAR OF THE INVASION 4HE REASON VERY OBVIOUSLY WAS TO
ASSERT A POLITICAL CLAIM TO ALL OF THE CONTIGUOUS TERRITORIES ON THE 4IBETAN
0LATEAU INHABITED BY 4IBETANS 4HIS ELICITS THE NATURAL QUESTION OF WHY THE
4IBETAN GOVERNMENT DID NOT MAKE THE CLAIM OF INVASION IN /NE IS
HARD PRESSED TO IMAGINE 4IBETS BEING INVADED IN WHILE ITS POPULATION
REMAINED OBLIVIOUS OF THE EVENT )N FACT THE TERRITORIES INVOLVED GENERALLY
SPEAKING THE 4IBETAN
INHABITED REGIONS OUTSIDE THE MODERN 4IBET
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
!UTONOMOUS 2EGION HAD BEEN REMOVED BY THE 1ING FROM THE JURISDICTION
OF THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT IN THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY )N THE lRST HALF
OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY THEY HAD BECOME PARTS OF #HINESE PROVINCES
SOMETHING THE 1ING HAD NOT DONE WITH THEM AND WERE GENERALLY UNDER
THE DOMINATION OF PROVINCIAL WARLORDS 4HE TIES OF CULTURE LANGUAGE AND
RELIGION BETWEEN THESE AREAS AND ,HASA REMAINED LARGELY UNIMPEDED
)NDEED THE PRESENT $ALAI ,AMA AND THE PREVIOUS 0ANCHEN ,AMA WERE
BOTH BORN IN THESE REGIONS 4HUS AN ACCOMMODATION WITH THIS SITUATION OF
DIVIDED POLITICAL REGIMES ON THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU WAS IN PLACE -ANY PEOPLE
IN THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT WERE LARGELY IGNORANT OF WHAT THE IMPLICATIONS
OF THIS WERE IN TERMS OF MODERN NATIONALIST ASPIRATIONS #LEARLY IT WAS
THE COMING TO TERMS WITH THAT SENTIMENT IN THE AFTERMATH OF THAT
DISABUSED CERTAIN lGURES IN THE EXILE COMMUNITY OF THE VIABILITY OF A 4IBET
WITH IMPRECISE BORDERS AND STATUS
%SSENTIALLY THE VAGARIES OF THE SITUATION ON THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU
BEFORE WERE SUCH THAT THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT ACCOMMODATED AN
ARRANGEMENT WITH #HINESE PROVINCIAL POWERS IN WHICH MUCH WAS INFORMAL
AND LEFT UNARTICULATED IN OFlCIAL AGREEMENTS 4HE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT HAD
LONG BEEN ACCUSTOMED TO THIS STATE OF AFFAIRS AND DISCRETION WAS OFTEN PART
OF IT .OT THAT THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT HAD WRITTEN OFF THE EASTERN PORTIONS
OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU THEIR STATUS HAD BEEN PART OF THE BRIEF BROUGHT
BY THE 4IBETAN DELEGATION AT THE 3IMLA CONFERENCE AND EARLIER DECADES
HAD SEEN SERIOUS CONmICT THERE "UT THERE WAS NO URGENT SENSE THAT 4IBET
HAD BEEN INVADED WHEN IN CIVIL AND MILITARY OFlCIALS OF THE 02#
REPLACED THE RULERS IN THE AREA WHO HAD BEEN PART OF THE #HINESE 2EPUBLICAN
PRESENCE THERE 3O OBTUSE WAS THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT IN THOSE YEARS ABOUT
QUESTIONS OF SOVEREIGNTY THAT IT HAD EVEN BEEN ABLE TO PERSUADE SOME IN
,HASA THAT ITS SIGNING OF THE 3EVENTEEN
0OINT !GREEMENT IN STILL LEFT
4IBET INDEPENDENT 4HUS THERE WAS NO CLAIM OF A INVASION UNTIL THE
S EVEN THOUGH THE BACKBONE OF THE UPRISING COMPRISED 4IBETANS
FROM THE VERY AREAS IN QUESTION THOSE THAT LAY OUTSIDE THE JURISDICTION OF
THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT CERTAINLY ONE CANNOT DISPUTE THEIR IDENTITY
AS 4IBETANS
)N DUE COURSE THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILE BEGAN TO BACKTRACK IN
ORDER TO BUILD A VISION OF 4IBET THAT REmECTED THE NEW SENSE OF NATIONALISM
THAT GREW OUT OF THE REVOLT AND THE YEARS OF EXILE THAT FOLLOWED 9ET A
PAMPHLET ON 4IBETS STATUS PUBLISHED BY THE $ALAI ,AMAS .EW $ELHI OFlCE
NOT LONG AFTER THE UPRISING GAVE AS THE DATE OF THE INVASION
%LLIOT 3PERLING
7HEN REPRINTED IN THE DATE HAD BEEN CHANGED TO 4HE
INTRODUCTION BY THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT
IN
EXILES /FlCE OF )NFORMATION
AND )NTERNATIONAL 2ELATIONS TO THE SURVEY OF 3INO
4IBETAN GOVERNMENT 4IBETAN RELATIONS BY 4ASHI 4SERING SPEAKS OF hTHE
ACCOMMODATED AN #HINESE INVASION AND OCCUPATION IN v WITH
hINVASION ANDv WHITED OUT
ARRANGEMENT WITH )F THIS SHOWS SOME RATHER SLOPPY STITCHING
#HINESE PROVINCIAL IN THE 4IBETAN CONSTRUCTION OF WHAT 4IBET IS
THE INCLUSION OF 4IBET WITHIN THE #HINESE VISION
POWERS IN WHICH MUCH OF #HINA HAS ALSO PRODUCED SOME BIZARRE TWISTS
WAS INFORMAL AND LEFT OF LOGIC /NE SUCH TWIST RELATES TO LANGUAGE AND
STEMS FROM THE SAME MOTIVATION THAT IS AT WORK IN
UNARTICULATED IN OFlCIAL THE #HINESE REVISION OF THE TERM (AN ዧ ∞ A
AGREEMENTS SYNONYM FOR #HINESE NOW MARSHALED IN ORDER
THAT h#HINESE v AN OTHERWISE ETHNO
LINGUISTICALLY
SPECIlC DESIGNATION CAN BE APPLIED TO -ONGOLS 4IBETANS AND OTHER
NATIONAL MINORITIES 4HE 4IBETAN LANGUAGE HAS NEVER TREATED THE TERM FOR
#HINA 2GYA
NAG AS MEANING ANYTHING OTHER THAN THE COUNTRY NEIGHBORING
4IBET TO THE EAST )TS lELD OF MEANING DOES NOT ENCOMPASS 4IBET MUCH AS
THE 4IBETAN NAME FOR 4IBET "OD DOES NOT ENCOMPASS #HINA !N ARTICLE
FROM #HINAS 4IBET PUBLISHED IN TO COMMEMORATE THE SIGNING
OF THE 3EVENTEEN
0OINT !GREEMENT DESCRIBED SOME OF THE TRANSLATION
PROBLEMS THAT AROSE DURING THE AGREEMENTS NEGOTIATION )T CONTAINED A
TELLING COMMENT h)N ;THE= 4IBETAN LANGUAGE THERE WAS NO WORD WHICH
MEANT @#HINAv 4HE AUTHOR WHO WORKED AS A TRANSLATOR DURING THE
NEGOTIATIONS THEN NOTES THAT THE #HINESE NAME FOR #HINA HAD TO BE
TRANSLITERATED TO PROVIDE A USABLE TERM )N EFFECT SINCE THE #HINESE POSITION
WAS THAT 4IBET HAD BEEN AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA FOR CENTURIES THE ONLY
POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION FOR THIS ANECDOTE IF ONE TAKES IT AT FACE VALUE IS THAT
THE AUTHOR CONSIDERED 4IBETANS TO BE IGNORANT OF THE NAME OF THEIR OWN
COUNTRY /F COURSE THAT IGNORANCE IS AN INVENTION WHAT THE 4IBETANS WERE
UNAWARE OF WAS THE BEGINNING OF A PROCESS OF MOLDING AND MANIPULATING A
NEW 4IBETAN IDENTITY
"UT THIS PROCESS WAS PART OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF #HINA AND THE #HINESE
IDENTITY "ECAUSE OF THE AUTHORITARIAN UNDERPINNINGS OF THAT CONSTRUCTION
QUESTIONS ABOUT THE VALIDITY OF THE HISTORICAL CASE BEHIND 4IBETS
INCORPORATION IN THE 02# BECOME FRAUGHT WITH EXISTENTIAL OVERTONES )F
4IBET IS PRESENTED AS AN hINTEGRALv PART OF #HINA THE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
INTEGRITY OF A #HINA SO CONSTRUCTED ARE FUNDAMENTAL ONCE THE LEGITIMACY
OF THAT POSITION IS UNDERMINED 4HUS THE SIMPLE REALIZATION THAT CERTAIN
ELEMENTS IN THE CONTEMPORARY VISION OF #HINA ARE MODERN CONTRIVANCES
AND HARDLY A LEGACY HANDED DOWN FROM TIME IMMEMORIAL HAS VERY SERIOUS
RAMIlCATIONS /NE MIGHT CARRY THE THOUGHT FURTHER CALLING THIS VISION INTO
QUESTION ALSO RAISES ISSUES ABOUT THE POLITICAL STRUCTURES THAT DERIVE FROM A
lXED NOTION OF #HINA AND THE #HINESE IDENTITY IN ITS OWN WAY THIS RAISES
ISSUES ABOUT A GOVERNMENT THAT STAKES SO MUCH OF ITS LEGITIMACY ON ITS
PERCEIVED ABILITY TO DELIVER A SPECIlC VISION OF #HINA
#ONCLUSION
4HE HISTORICAL STATUS OF 4IBET IS HARDLY A SMALL MATTER OF CLARIFYING SOME
TEXTUAL MISUNDERSTANDINGS WERE THAT THE CASE THIS PAPER MIGHT INDEED
BE WELCOME TO ALL PARTIES 4HE ISSUE HAS A RESONANCE WELL BEYOND THAT
THE POSITIONS OF THE PARTIES TO THE 4IBET ISSUE ARE IMBUED WITH QUESTIONS
OF POLITICAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY AND GROUNDED IN DECADES OF POLEMICAL
DIPLOMATIC AND MILITARY STRUGGLE 4HE FACTS AS ESTABLISHED BY RECOURSE TO
THE HISTORICAL RECORD ARE WONT TO BE SUBJECT TO DIVERGENT INTERPRETATIONS
SOME ELEMENTS ARE EMPHASIZED OTHERS IGNORED 7HY THEN ACKNOWLEDGE
THESE FACTS
&OR ONE THING THERE IS THE SHEER NECESSITYAND NATURAL IMPETUSTO
KNOW AS MUCH AS CAN BE KNOWN OF THE PATH THAT HAS LEAD TO THE CURRENT
SITUATION 4HIS UNDERSTANDING IS CENTRAL TO ANY ATTEMPT TO GAIN CONTROL OVER
THE ISSUE EVEN IF THE PARTIES TO IT HAVE DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE HISTORICAL FACTS
WE STILL NEED TO KNOW WHAT THOSE FACTS ARE AS WELL AS THE MANNER IN WHICH
THEY ARE BEING DISPUTED
4HEN THERE IS THE REALITY THAT THE FUNDAMENTAL PLACE OF HISTORY IN THE
4IBET ISSUE IS NOT SOMETHING IMPOSED BY OUTSIDE PARTIES %VEN THOUGH THE
$ALAI ,AMA AND HIS EXILE GOVERNMENT APPEAR QUITE AT EASE WITH ACCEPTING
4IBET AS A PART OF #HINA THE 02# HAS POINTEDLY ACCUSED THE $ALAI ,AMA
OF DUPLICITY STATING THAT HIS UNWILLINGNESS TO RECOGNIZE 4IBET AS HAVING
BEEN AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA FOR CENTURIES RENDERS HIS ACQUIESCENCE
UNACCEPTABLE 4HE CENTRALITY OF HISTORY IN THE QUESTION OF 4IBETS STATUS
COULD NOT BE MADE CLEARER
4HEREFORE IT DOES MATTER WHETHER THE 9UAN DYNASTY MADE 4IBET A PART
OF #HINA IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 4HE $ALAI ,AMAS REFUSAL TO ACCEDE TO
THIS PROPOSITION HAS ON THE FACE OF IT BECOME ONE OF #HINAS PRIMARY STATED
REASONS FOR THE IMPASSE OVER THE 4IBET ISSUE )N THIS CONTEXT IT MATTERS TOO
%LLIOT 3PERLING
THAT #HINESE COMMENTATORS INTO THE S HELD THAT 4IBET HAD BEEN A
VASSAL STATE OF THE 1ING
3IMILARLY THE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IN RECOGNIZING 4IBETAN
INCARNATIONS IS A SIGNIlCANT ISSUE )T IS CLEARLY MEANT TO IMPART LEGITIMACY TO
#HINESE CONTROL OVER THE INCARNATION OF HIGH LAMAS WITH A PARTICULAR EYE
TO THE $ALAI ,AMAS NEXT INCARNATION THROUGH THE
4HE CENTRALITY OF HISTORY ESTABLISHMENT OF HISTORICAL CONTINUITY 4HE 02#
IN THE QUESTION OF 4IBETS IN EXCORIATING THE $ALAI ,AMA FOR NOT ACCEPTING
ITS USE OF THIS 1ING PROCEDURE IS CONSCIOUSLY
STATUS COULD NOT BE MADE MANIPULATING A HISTORICAL ELEMENT IN 3INO
4IBETAN
CLEARER RELATIONS )T IS IMPOSSIBLE TO IGNORE #HINAS DESIRE
FOR HISTORICAL PRECEDENT HERE AS A LEGITIMIZING
ELEMENT FOR ITS ADMINISTRATION OF 4IBET
"OTH THE QUESTION OF THE PRIEST
PATRON RELATIONSHIP AS ONE EXCLUSIVE OF
POLITICAL SUBORDINATION AND THE STATUS OF TERRITORIES OUTSIDE THE CONTROL OF THE
$ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT ON THE EVE OF 4IBETS INCORPORATION INTO THE 02#
ARE LIKEWISE QUESTIONS THAT STILL PROVOKE STRONG OFlCIAL PRONOUNCEMENTS
MEANT TO ASSERT HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS TO LEGITIMIZE OR CONTEST CURRENT
CIRCUMSTANCES !S WE HAVE SEEN THE PRESENTATION OF 4IBETS RELATIONSHIP
WITH IMPERIAL #HINA AS A RELIGIOUS ONE WITH NO ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ACCORDED
THE ATTESTED SUBORDINATION OF 4IBET TO THE EMPERORS OF THE -ONGOL 9UAN
AND -ANCHU 1ING DYNASTIES IS A MISREPRESENTATION OF THE HISTORICAL RECORD
4HERE IS A BIT MORE AMBIGUITY ABOUT THE TERRITORIAL IDENTITY OF 4IBETAN AREAS
OUTSIDE THE JURISDICTION OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT BUT IT REMAINS A
FACT THAT IN WHEN THOSE AREAS WERE TAKEN UNDER THE ADMINISTRATION
OF THE 02# THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT DID NOT CLAIM ITS TERRITORY HAD BEEN
INVADED
)N SPITE OF ALL THIS ONE MIGHT STILL SAY THE STATUS OF 4IBET WHATEVER IT
WAS IN THE PAST IS NOW SETTLED AND THE INCORPORATION OF 4IBET INTO #HINA
HAS LONG SINCE BEEN A FAIT ACCOMPLI "UT SETTLED ISSUES HAVE THE CAPACITY TO
REAR UP UNEXPECTEDLY AND CATCH THE POLITICAL STATE OF AFFAIRS UNAWARE !ND
IT IS THEN THAT HISTORY BECOMES VITAL )T WOULD BE SENSIBLE TO HAVE A GRASP OF
THAT HISTORY BEFORE THE FACT
'PFPQVGU
4IBET)TS /WNERSHIP AND (UMAN 2IGHTS 3ITUATION P
4IBET 0ROVING 4RUTH &ROM &ACTS P
0APERS 2ELATING TO 4IBET n4HIS EARLY
TWENTIETH
CENTURY ASSESSMENT DID
NOT PRECLUDE "RITAIN FROM AVOWING IN WHEN IT NO LONGER WANTED TO BE PARTY
TO THE 4IBET ISSUETHAT 4IBETS STATUS VIS
Í
VIS #HINA WAS ACTUALLY UNCLEAR 4HE
JUDGMENTS OF OTHER THIRD PARTIES REGARDING 4IBETS RELATIONS WITH #HINA HAVE ALSO
mUCTUATED DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
7HAT 02# PUBLICATIONS RENDER IN THEIR %NGLISH VERSIONS AS hINTEGRALv OR
hINALIENABLEv IS A #HINESE TERM THAT HAS THE MORE LITERAL MEANING OF hINSEPARABLEv
#H BUKE FENGE լױ։໊
4HERE ARE INNUMERABLE EXAMPLES OF THESE SORTS OF WRITINGS THAT CAN BE ADDUCED TWO
WELL
KNOWN EXAMPLES ARE 1UESTIONS AND 4IBET)TS /WNERSHIP
%PSTEIN
8IZANG SHEHUI KEXUEYUAN ET AL
!GAIN THERE IS A VARIETY OF EXAMPLES THAT CAN BE CITED BUT ONE MAY SEE TYPICALLY
4IBET 0ROVING 4RUTH FROM &ACTS
h/N @4IBETAN 0EOPLES 2IGHT TO 3ELF
$ETERMINATIONv #F h7HAT )S
)Tv n h%VERYONE WITH SOME KNOWLEDGE OF #HINESE HISTORY KNOWS
THAT #HINA IS A UNIlED MULTI
NATIONAL COUNTRY AND WAS CREATED BY THE CONCERTED
EFFORTS OF ALL ITS ETHNIC GROUPS 4IBETANS INCLUDED OVER A LONG TERM HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT !S EARLY AS THE TH CENTURY x 4IBET WAS INCORPORATED INTO THE
TERRITORY OF #HINA xv
! NUMBER OF VOLUMES HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED IN THE 02# AIMED AT PROVIDING
DOCUMENTATION FOR #HINAS POSITION SUCH AS 8IZANG SHEHUI KEXUEYUAN ET AL
"OD RANG
SKYONG
LJONGS YIG
TSHAGS
KHANG AND THE IMPORTANT SEVEN
VOLUME
COLLECTION :HONGGUO :ANGXUE YANJIU ZHONGXIN ET AL /THER WORKS PRESENT
%LLIOT 3PERLING
A WIDE ARRAY OF MATERIALS THAT IF NOT CLEARLY SUPPORTIVE OF A CASE FOR #HINESE
SOVEREIGNTY OVER 4IBET FROM THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY ON DO PROVIDE A WEALTH OF
MATERIALS ON 4IBETS INTERACTIONS AND DEALINGS WITH #HINAS DYNASTIC GOVERNMENTS
!MONG THESE ARE WORKS IN BOTH #HINESE AND 4IBETAN INCLUDING THE FOUR
VOLUME
COLLECTION OF 4IBET
RELATED EXTRACTS FROM THE STANDARD #HINESE DYNASTIC HISTORIES
#HEN 8IEZHANG ET AL n AS WELL AS 'U :UCHENG ET AL AND
"OD
LJONGS YIG
TSHAGS KHANG DANG KRUNG
GOI "OD
KYI SHES
RIG ZHIB
JUG LTE
GNAS
"KRA
SHIS DBANG
DUS AND TWO DIFFERENT COLLECTIONS BEARING THE SAME
TITLE "OD RANG
SKYONG
LJONGS SPYI
TSHOGS TSHAN
RIG
KHANG AND +RUNG
DBYANGS MI
RIGS SLOB
GRWAI "OD
RIG
PAI ZHIB
JUG KHANG AND +RUNG
DBYANGS MI
RIGS
SLOB
GRWAI "OD
RIG
PAI ZHIB
JUG TSHOGS
CHUNG
&OR THE TEXTS OF THESE VARIOUS AGREEMENTS SEE ,AMB n
3EE 7ANG 'UI ET AL n
"OUNDARY 1UESTION n )N ADDITION TO THE NONHISTORICAL SUBJUGATION OF
4IBET IN BY #HINGGIS 1A«AN ONE lNDS IN THE SAME STATEMENT THE FANCIFUL
NOTION OF A #HINESE EXPEDITION ENTERING ,HASA IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY
$REYER n
'OLDSTEIN n
4HIS VAGUENESS IS REmECTED MOST CLEARLY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE TEXT OF THE
h3EVENTEEN
0OINT !GREEMENT ON -EASURES FOR THE 0EACEFUL ,IBERATION OF 4IBET v
SIGNED BY REPRESENTATIVES OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT AND THE CENTRAL
GOVERNMENT OF #HINA ON -AY h4HE 4IBETAN NATIONALITY IS ONE OF THE
NATIONALITIES WITH A LONG HISTORY WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF 4IBETv 3EE "OD RANG
SKYONG
LJONGS YIG
TSHAGS
KHANG DOC
8IE "IN n ࣍ၼնԼԮԶࠟ ڣԫԮԲڣΠԫԮԿڣΠ ૯
ലխഏፖ۫៲հᣂএΠൕءՂޏאףΖ ࠀᒔࡳխഏኙ࣍۫៲հᦞΠڼ
৵֊ኔ۩ࠌհߎΖ
۫៲۞Ղ૪אޏء৵Πొྥڎխഏհᢋ߶Ζ۫៲լรᦞࡲڶբՈΠࠀ
ٍࠡᦞ᥆խഏΖ
7ANG 1INYU ᕋ៲ᙄࠃՕհ۩ࠃᏚࣹΠطਢࡨፖሒᘸఄٵΠࠡ
ڶ༽ࡨ៲۫ڇਙएհᦞΖ۞אڼ৵Π۫៲ԯᒔࡳݺխഏհᢋ᥆
(UANG &ENSHENG ၼնԼԮڣԫԮԲ ࡳؓנڇኢዿ໔ॿ៲ऱ
૨ࠃܓհ৵Πቇ܉Աࢬᘯψ۫៲৵ີ࿓ωΠࡳᕋ៲ՕፖሒᘸΕఄ
ؓΠࠀࠠڶऴ൷൳ࠫਙएΕ૨ࠃΕࡲඒΕತਙΕຏಛΕٌຏ壆ՕᦞΖ۫៲
۟ݙڼ٤ګխഏᏆՒऱԫຝ։Ζ
8IAN :ONGTONG *IANG GONG GAO 8IZANG TONGBAO SHU ND 4HE %NGLISH TRANSLATION
STATES P h) WISH TO AFlRM EMPHATICALLY THAT IN CONNECTION WITH THE FUTURE
POLITICAL STATUS AND INSTITUTIONS OF 4IBET AS SOON AS THE PUPPET #OMMUNIST REGIME
ON THE MAINLAND IS OVERTHROWN AND THE PEOPLE OF 4IBET ARE ONCE AGAIN FREE TO
EXPRESS THEIR WILL THE 'OVERNMENT WILL ASSIST THE 4IBETAN PEOPLE TO REALIZE THEIR OWN
ASPIRATIONS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF
DETERMINATIONv
#ONCERNING THE 1UESTION OF 4IBET
)BID n .OTE THAT THE BOOK ERRONEOUSLY GIVES THE NAME OF ANOTHER EMPEROR
h+HRI
LDE TSUG
LDAN v IE +HRI
LDE GTSUG
BRTAN WHO REIGNED A CENTURY EARLIER
)BID
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
!LL OF THE GENERAL HISTORIES OF 4IBET PUBLISHED DURING THIS PERIOD GIVE SUPPORT IN ONE
FORM OR ANOTHER TO 4IBETS STATUS AS A PART OF #HINA SINCE THE 9UAN PERIOD 4HESE
INCLUDE $UNG
SKAR "LO
BZANG PHRIN
LAS 2GYAL
MO BRUG
PA 7ANG
&UREN AND 3UO 7ENQING #HAB
SPEL 4SHE
BRTAN PHUN
TSHOGS AND .OR
BRANG
/
RGYAN 4HUB
BSTAN PHUN
TSHOGS :ANGZU JIANSHI BIANXIEZU
AND (UANG &ENSHENG 4HIS LAST WORK IS BY THE SAME AUTHOR CITED IN NOTE
)T WAS EDITED FOR POSTHUMOUS PUBLICATION AND THE EDITOR NOTES THAT REVISIONS AND
ADDITIONS WERE SPECIlCALLY NEEDED WITH REGARD TO THE AUTHORS ACCOUNT OF THE 9UAN
-ING AND OTHER PERIODS 5NLIKE (UANG &ENGSHENG THIS WORK CONFORMS
MORE TO THE INTERPRETATION THAT 4IBET CAME UNDER #HINESE RULE DURING THE 9UAN
AND NOT THE 1ING (OWEVER OWING PERHAPS TO AN EDITING SLIP 4IBET IS SAID TO HAVE
BECOME SIMPLY A VASSAL STATE OF #HINA DURING THE PERIOD OF -ONGOL RULE P
3EVERAL OTHER WORKS ARE MORE SPECIlCALLY FOCUSED ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF #HINESE
SOVEREIGNTY OVER 4IBET DURING THE 9UAN !MONG THIS GROUP ARE 7ANG *IAWEI AND
.IMA JIANZAN 7ANG 'UI ET AL $ENG 2UILING AND :HANG
9UN 4HESE TITLES REPRESENT A VERY SMALL PORTION OF THE OUTPUT OF #HINESE
HISTORIANS OF 4IBET )T SHOULD BE STATED THAT CONTROVERSIAL AND POLITICIZED ISSUES SUCH
AS THE STATUS OF 4IBET ASIDE THERE IS A TREMENDOUS AMOUNT OF VALUABLE AND ORIGINAL
RESEARCH ON 4IBETAN HISTORY THAT IS BEING DONE BY MANY OF THE SCHOLARS CITED HERE
AS WELL AS BY A MUCH LARGER NUMBER WHO HAVE NOT BEEN CITED )NDEED IT IS NIGH
IMPOSSIBLE TO CARRY OUT SERIOUS RESEARCH ON 4IBETAN HISTORY WITHOUT TAKING INTO
ACCOUNT THE WORK OF CONTEMPORARY 4IBETAN AND #HINESE HISTORIANS
3EE :HU 8IAOMING AND 3UO 7ENQING EDS 4HE TEXT IS UNPAGINATED
THE INFORMATION IS IN THE TEXT OF THE BEGINNING SECTION TITLED h4HE #ONFERMENT
OF (ONORIlC 4ITLES UPON $ALAI ,AMAS AND 0ANCHEN ,AMAS BY THE #ENTRAL
'OVERNMENT THROUGH THE !GESv
,OC CIT
3EE FOR EXAMPLE #HE -INGHUAI AND ,I 8UEQIN EDS
3EE FOR EXAMPLE 7ANG 9UPING n 7U 9UNCEN n ,IAO
:UGUI #HEN 1INGYING AND :HOU 7EI n !INAM n $OJE
#EDAIN n 3HISHI "ANCHAN ZHUANSHI LINGTONG XUNFANG RENDING ZUOCHUANG
XIEZHEN n AND 'UO 8IN ND n
3EE :HOU 7EIZHOU n 9ANG 'ONGSU n 7ANG 9UANDA
n AND :HOU 7EIZHOU n
7ANG &UREN AND 3UO 7ENQING n
:HOU 7EIZHOU n
:HWA
SGAB
PA $BANG
PHYUG BDE
LDAN
"OUNDARY 1UESTION
)BID
)BID
)BID
4IBET IN THE 5NITED .ATIONS ND
/N THE CONCEPT IN GENERAL SEE $ 3EYFORT 2UEGG
3UCH AT LEAST IS THE IMPRESSION GENERATED BY THE ACCOUNT OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS
RESPONSES IN TO QUESTIONS ON 3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONS POSED BY AN ENVOY SENT
%LLIOT 3PERLING
FROM #HINA GIVEN BY 4IEH TSENG ,I .OTE THAT THE AUTHOR STATES P
THAT THE $ALAI ,AMAS STATEMENTS INCLUDING HIS REMARK THAT RELATIONS BETWEEN
#HINA AND 4IBET COULD BE RESTORED hIF THE #ENTRAL 'OVERNMENT WOULD TREAT THE
PATRONAGE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN #HINA AND 4IBET WITH SINCERITY AND GOOD FAITH AS IT
PREVIOUSLY DID v ARE TRANSLATED FROM THE OFlCIAL #HINESE TRANSLATION OF THE 4IBETAN
TEXT OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS RESPONSES ITSELF COPIED hWORD FOR WORD FROM THE ARCHIVES OF
THE -ONGOLIAN AND 4IBETAN !FFAIRS #OMMISSIONv
4RUTH ABOUT 4IBET ND
)BID
1UESTION OF 4IBET AND THE 2ULE OF ,AW 4HE )NDIAN JURIST 0URSHOTTAM
4RIKAMDAS DID THE PRELIMINARY RESEARCH FOR THE GROUPS h,EGAL )NQUIRY #OMMITTEE
ON 4IBETv (E LATER CONTRIBUTED THE HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO 4IBET IN THE 5NITED
.ATIONS PUBLISHED BY THE $ALAI ,AMAS .EW $ELHI BUREAU AND CITED IN NOTE
2ICHARDSON
$ALAI ,AMA
:HWA SGAB PA $BANG PHYUG BDE LDAN 'O DAN +HcNG GIS 3A SKYA
PANDITAR PHUL BAI JA SA DANG +UB LAI +H
cNG GIS 0HAGS PA RIN PO CHER PHUL BAI
JA SA GNYIS BSDUR NA DANG PO DE DPON POS MI SER LA BTANG BA LTA BU DANG RJES MA DE
SBYIN BDAG GIS BLA MAR PHUL BA LTA BU ZHIG SNANG RANG CAG 3HAR DKYIL MI RIGS TSHOI
BSAM BLO GTONG STANGS KYANG DE RANG YOD CING BLA MA CHOS KYI THOG NAS BSTAN PA RGYAS
PA DANG GRO BA BDE BAI BKA SLOB DANG MDZAD PA GNANG BA DANG YON BDAG YIN GIS
DPAL BYOR THOG NAS DE YUN NAS YUN DU GNAS PAI DON LA ZHABS DEGS ZHU DGOS PA LTAR
"OD DANG 3OG POI DBAR GYI MCHOD YON GYI BREL BAANG DE LTA BU ZHIG YIN ZER ON
KYANG .UB PHYOGS PAI SRID DON GYI GRO STANGS THOG DI LTAI GREL BSHAD BYED MI THUB PA
ZHIG YOD DUG .UB PHYOGS PA TSHOS GONG GI LO RGYUS LA ZHIB CHA NAN PO ZHIG BYAS NA
+HcNG GIS 0HAGS PA RIN PO CHEI THUGS DANG MI GAL BA ZHU RGYU ZHUS PA DE GA RANG
NAS "OD KYI DBANG CHA MTHO SHOS 0HAGS PA RIN PO CHE NYID LA YOD PA +HcNG RANG GIS
KHAS LEN ZHUS YOD PA DANG DA DUNG +HcNG GIS CHOS ZHU STANGS DANG GUS ZHABS ZHU
STANGS 3MAN TSEI YUL LEN DUS BKA SLOB ZHU STANGS THAM GA DANG MTSHAN STOD KYI
TSHIG DON ! MDOI YUL BAR PHEBS SKYEL DU NGO BCAR ZHU STANGS BLA MAI BKA YIN
DBANG LA CHA BZHAG STE "OD DU ZHIB GCOD PA GTONG STANGS SOGS GANG SA NAS RGYAL KHAB
PHAN TSHUN GNYIS GCIG PHAN GCIG GROGS DANG CHE MTHONGS BUL RES BYAS PA MA GTOGS
RGYAL KHAB GCIG GI OG TU GCIG MED PA GSAL POR MTSHON PA DE LTAR MCHOD YON GYI BREL
BA DI GZHI LA BZHAG STE "OD DANG 2GYA NAG GNYIS DBAR LAANG RAB BYUNG BCO LNGA PAI
LCAGS PHAG LOR #HING NGAM -AN JU GONG MAI DUS RABS MA RDZOGS BAR PHAN
TSHUN MCHOD YON GYI BREL BAI BYA BA GONG MTSHUNGS LTA BUR YOD DO
3EE *AMYANG .ORBU n 7E MAY NOTE TOO THAT VAN 7ALT WAS SLATED TO
BE PART OF A PROPOSED TEAM THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT IN EXILE PUT TOGETHER IN THE
LATE S TO NEGOTIATE WITH #HINA HIS INCLUSION ELICITED A REFUSAL FROM THE 02# TO
ENTERTAIN FORMAL DISCUSSIONS OF THE 4IBET ISSUE WITH ANY NON 4IBETANS OR A TEAM THAT
INCLUDED NON 4IBETANS IN ITS RANKS
6AN 7ALT VAN 0RAAG
)BID
)BID
6AN 7ALT VAN 0RAAG
4HE 4IBET #HINA #ONmICT
"OD DANG -AN JUI BREL BAR DPYAD PAI GTAM DUS SKABS LNGA CAN "OD
DANG -AN JUI BREL BA DNGOS BYUNG KHAG LA DPYAD ZHIB BYAS PAI SNYING POR "OD
-AN JUI KHONGS GTOGS MIN PA DANG "OD -AN JUS DNGOS SU DZIN SKYONG MA BYAS PAI
GNAS LUGS GTAN LA PHAB PA YIN ZHING
:HWA SGAB PA n AND n
6AN 7ALT VAN 0RAAG n
4ASHI 4SERING n
)BID n
2EFERENCE HAS BEEN MADE ABOVE TO THE $ALAI ,AMAS STATEMENT IN THIS REGARD
4HE TRAVELS OF 4IBETAN REPRESENTATIVES HAVE BEEN ESPECIALLY INVOKED BY :HWA SGAB
PA WHO WAS A MEMBER OF ONE OF THESE MISSIONS 4HE lRST EDITION OF THE %NGLISH
LANGUAGE VERSION OF HIS HISTORY OF 4IBET INCLUDED A FACSIMILE REPRODUCTION OF HIS
TRAVELING PAPERS WITH THE VARIOUS FOREIGN VISAS AND RELATED STAMPS ON IT
$ALAI ,AMA
)BID AND
3EE THE GEOGRAPHY CHAPTERS IN 3ONG ,IAN n
4IBET)TS /WNERSHIP n h)N THE MID TH CENTURY 4IBET WAS OFlCIALLY
INCORPORATED INTO THE TERRITORY OF #HINAS 9UAN $YNASTY 3INCE THEN ALTHOUGH
#HINA EXPERIENCED SEVERAL DYNASTIC CHANGES 4IBET HAS REMAINED UNDER THE
JURISDICTION OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT OF #HINA x 4HE REGIME OF THE -ONGOL
+HANATE CHANGED ITS TITLE TO 9UAN IN AND UNIlED THE WHOLE OF #HINA IN
ESTABLISHING A CENTRAL GOVERNMENT WHICH FOLLOWING THE (AN "#n AND
THE 4ANG DYNASTIES ACHIEVED GREAT UNIlCATION OF VARIOUS REGIONS AND RACES WITHIN
THE DOMAIN OF #HINA 4IBET BECAME AN ADMINISTRATIVE REGION DIRECTLY UNDER THE
ADMINISTRATION OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT OF #HINAS 9UAN $YNASTYv
$ANZENG ᑉͼ㩮হ∬ᬔᴘᅯৌЏ߰ͼܘᓏћЂഅएȡ
⇦ᮤ㒴ϕⱙЂ༃ᬔᴘͼ㽔㮤അए៥ЏЂܘᳲЂ༃ᬔᑱⳉ⊐⧛Ϡⱙ
ϕϿ㸡ᬔएපȢ
:HAO 0ING AND 8U 7ENHUI n ܘᳲᇎ㽔㮤ᅳᮒ㒴⊐ㅶ⧛㑻ң
ϫ㑿ЂোᓕྠȢ ᑉͼ ᗒᖚ߬䖖䛒࣬ҁͼ ৡᑉͼᗒᖚ߬Ђ༃ᬔᑱ
ݚ⡎䆓ᘐࠋ䰷Ȣᘐࠋ䰷ܽৢᰄ䞟ᬮᘐࠋ䰷ͼᅘⱙᓏ゠ᅡܽߏ㞿㩮হ㒴⊐㗚
ⱙࣵᖘ⣁䖥ͼैᅘᰄ᳞ড䞢㘡㛒ⱙᴏ݈Ί 䋴䋸໙⧛ܽࣚᣁ∞അⱙ
ᬮѠࡶ ⳉㅶ䕫㮤ᮤഅएȢ
7ANG 'UI ET AL 㟈ѣܘᳲЂ༃ᬔᴘᇎ㽔㮤അᮎⱙᅳ䰚㒴⊐ᭉ༬
ⱙᮒᬔᮎ⬺ͼ েᅳᰄϢ㚱ᵯГͼℹϢ㛒ϕϕ㋐߬
3EE FOR EXAMPLE 7ANG 'UI ET AL WHICH IS MEANT SPECIlCALLY AS A REBUTTAL
OF BOTH BOOKS AS WELL AS 7ANG *IAWEI AND .IMA JIANZAN AND "OD RANG
SKYONG LJONGS i"OD KYI SRID DON RGYAL RABSw BLTA BSDUR MCHAN GOD TSHOGS CHUNG
7ANG &UREN AND 3UO 7ENQING ᯣᳲ䍌߲⊈Ꮃ䆓゠㽔ᅞ㸡䛒ᣜ
Ք্ͼ 㒴䕫ܽ㮤ᮤഅएȢৣᴺঝᬎ䆓ᴊ⫭㸡䛒ᣜՔ্Сᗲ㮤㸡䛒ᣜ
Ք্ͼߛࠀㅶ⧛㮤ᮤഅएȢȢȢᴊ⫭㸡䛒ᣜՔ্ͼㅶ䕫Һ䴧⍌㽔ᅖЏ
Ђᖘⱙᅞ㮤ᮤഅएȢȢȢСᗲ㮤㸡䛒ᣜՔ্ⱙㅶ䕫㣘ͼैҟ㽔㮤ⱙ
䚽ߛഅएȢ
%LLIOT 3PERLING
3EE 'U :UCHENG n )T SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THE THREE MILITARY
COMMISSIONS MENTIONED WERE ESTABLISHED AT THE SAME TIME WITH THE -DO +HAMS
AND $BUS 'TSANG UNITS DERIVING FROM WHAT HAD PREVIOUSLY BEEN DESIGNATED GUARD
#H WEI ᓡ UNITS FOR THE TWO AREAS
/N 7EI :HENG SEE HIS BIOGRAPHY IN :HANG 4INGYU ET AL n
.OTE THAT FOR A LONG PERIOD HE USED THE SURNAME 7EI WHICH WAS THAT OF HIS
ADOPTIVE FATHER AS A REWARD FOR SERVICE RENDERED TO THE -ING DYNASTY AT (EZHOU HE
WAS GIVEN IMPERIAL PERMISSION TO USE HIS ORIGINAL SURNAME .ING ⓻
7ANG &UREN AND 3UO 7ENQING AND 7ANG *IAWEI AND .IMA JIANZAN
n
3EE 3PERLING
3EE $AR HAN "LO BZANG PHRIN LAS RNAM RGYAL FOR A TELLING INSTANCE
IN WHICH IT WAS ORDERED THAT THE 'OLDEN 5RN BE USED IN SELECTING THE TENTH $ALAI
,AMA
"OD DANG "AR KHAMS 2GYA 3OG BCAS KYI BLA SPRUL RNAMS KYI SKYE PHRENG DEB GZHUNG
n
)BID
7U &ENGPEI :HAOS COMMENTS ARE FOUND IN A MEMORIAL ON
MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN +HAMS #F THE MEMORIAL OF THE AMBAN ,IANYU ᜤᘵ WHO
TWO YEARS LATER LIKEWISE COMPARED THE NECESSARY 1ING TASKS IN 4IBET WITH THE COLONIAL
ENTERPRISES OF THE "RITISH !MERICANS &RENCH AND $UTCH 7U &ENGPEI )
AM GRATEFUL TO 4ASHI 2ABGEY FOR POINTING OUT ,IANYUS REMARKS TO ME
!S IN ! #HINESE %NGLISH $ICTIONARY
:HANG :HIRONG n #F THE AUTHORS SOMEWHAT LABORED ATTEMPT
TO DRAW A HARD AND FAST DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE TERMS FANSHU AND WAIFAN ؆ᢋ
.EVERTHELESS THE LATTER TERM IS ALSO GENERALLY UNDERSTOOD TO INDICATE A VASSAL STATE
%G 9ANG 'ONGSU
#ROSSETTE h@0OLITICAL SEPARATION FROM #HINA IS NOT IMPORTANT ;3AMDHONG
2INPOCHE= SAID @7HAT IS IMPORTANT IS TO RESTORE 4IBETAN CIVILIZATION 4IBET IS NOT
SIMPLY A NATION OR STATE )T IS A UNIQUE CULTURAL AND SPIRITUAL HERITAGE )T COULD BE
PRESERVED WITHIN #HINAOR IT COULD NOT BE PRESERVED EVEN IF WE WERE SEPARATE FROM
#HINA /UR BASIC OBJECTIVE IS TO PRESERVE IT IN FUTURE FOR THE BENElT OF ALL HUMANITY
ALL SENTIENT BEINGS #HINA IS NOT OUR ENEMY x #HINA IS A PEOPLE WHO NEED OUR
COOPERATION WHO NEED OUR GUIDANCE SPIRITUALLY )T HAS BEEN SO FOR MORE THAN
YEARSv
3EE "LO BZANG SHES RAB ET AL AND :HOU $UNYOU h!FTER THE
DEATH OF THE TH ,IVING "UDDHA 'ARMAPA THE #URPU -ONASTERY SECT ADHERENTS
FOLLOWING HIS TESTAMENT AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND RITUALS FOUND HIS SUCCESSOR
THE REINCARNATED SOUL BOY /GYAIN #HILAI IN 1AMDO 0REFECTURE OF THE 4IBET
!UTONOMOUS 2EGION IN -AY v 4HE ARTICLE GIVES A DETAILED ACCOUNT PP n
OF THE INSTALLATION CEREMONY WITH NO MENTION OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN
&OR MORE ON THE 'OLDEN 5RN SEE %LLIOT 3PERLING h4HE 2ECOGNITION OF 4IBETAN
)NCARNATIONS 1ING $YNASTY 2EGULATIONS AND 4HEIR 3IGNIlCANCE FOR -ODERN 3INO
4IBETAN 2ELATIONS v UNPUBLISHED PAPER PRESENTED AT THE CONFERENCE h4IBET IN THE
#ONTEMPORARY 7ORLD v 5NIVERSITY OF "RITISH #OLUMBIA 6ANCOUVER "# !PRIL
4HE 4IBET #HINA #ONmICT
3EE h4RUE #OPYv
3TATUS OF 4IBET ND
3TATUS OF 4IBET! "RIEF 3UMMARY
4ASHI 4SERING I
(UANG -INGXIN
3EE EG h$ALAI ,AMA (OLDS &IRM ON 4IBETv
$KDNKQITCRJ[
1UESTIONS ABOUT 4IBET "EIJING
! #HINESE %NGLISH $ICTIONARY "EIJING
!INAM h(OW THE 3OUL "OY OF THE TH "AINQEN )S $ETERMINEDv #HINAS 4IBET
NO n
"KRA SHIS DBANG DUS "OD KYI LO RGYUS YIG TSHAGS DANG GZHUNG YIG PHYOGS BSDUS
DWANGS SHEL ME LONG "EIJING
"LO BZANG SHES RAB ET AL +ARMA PA SKU PHRENG BCU BDUN PA ,HASA
"OD DANG "AR KHAMS 2GYA 3OG BCAS KYI BLA SPRUL RNAMS KYI SKYE PHRENG DEB GZHUNG
)N "OD KYI GAL CHEI LO RGYUS YIG CHA BDAMS BSGRIGS n ,HASA
"OD DANG -AN JUI BREL BAR DPYAD PAI GTAM DUS SKABS LNGA CAN $HARAMSALA
"OD RANG SKYONG LJONGS i"OD KYI SRID DON RGYAL RABSw BLTA BSDUR MCHAN GOD TSHOGS
CHUNG :HWA SGAB PAI i"OD KYI SRID DON RGYAL RABSw DANG "OD KYI LO RGYUS
DNGOS "EIJING
"OD RANG SKYONG LJONGS SPYI TSHOGS TSHAN RIG KHANG AND +RUNG DBYANGS MI RIGS SLOB
GRWAI "OD RIG PAI ZHIB JUG KHANG +RUNG GOI "OD SA GNAS KYI LO RGYUS YIG
TSHANG PHYOGS BTUS ,HASA
"OD RANG SKYONG LJONGS YIG TSHAGS KHANG ; 8IZANG ZIZHIQU DANGANGUAN 㽔㮤㞿⊐एḸ
ḝ佛4HE !RCHIVES OF THE 4IBET !UTONOMOUS 2EGION= "OD KYI LO RGYUS YIG
TSHAGS GCES BTUS ; 8IZANG LISHI DANGAN HUICUI 㽔㮤ज़েḸḝ㤴㊎! #OLLECTION OF
(ISTORICAL !RCHIVES OF 4IBET=
"OD LJONGS YIG TSHAGS KHANG DANG KRUNG GOI "OD KYI SHES RIG ZHIB JUG LTE GNAS
"OD KYI YIG TSHAGS PHYOGS BSGRIGS "EIJING
4HE "OUNDARY 1UESTION BETWEEN 4IBET AND #HINA 0EKING
#HAB SPEL 4SHE BRTAN PHUN TSHOGS AND .OR BRANG / RGYAN "OD KYI LO RGYUS RAG RIM
GYUI PHRENG BA ,HASA
%LLIOT 3PERLING
#HE -INGHUAI 䔻ᯣᗕ AND ,I 8UEQIN ᴣᄻ⨉ EDS 4IANCHAO CHOU :ANG LU ᳲㅎ
㮤ᔪ ,HASA
#HEN 8IEZHANG 䰝⟃サ ET AL n :ANGZU SHILIAOJI 㮤ᮤে᭮䲛 VOLS #HENGDU
#ONCERNING THE 1UESTION OF 4IBET 0EKING
#ROSSETTE "ARBARA h4IBETAN -ONK 0REPARES %XILES FOR A 0OLITICAL 3HIFTv .EW 9ORK
4IMES *ULY
$ALAI ,AMA -Y ,AND AND -Y 0EOPLE ,ONDON
h$ALAI ,AMA (OLDS &IRM ON 4IBETv ,OS !NGELES 4IMES *UNE
$ANZENGЎ ET AL $ANGDAI 8IZANG JIANSHI ᔨҸ㽔㮤ㅕে "EIJING
$AR
HAN "LO
BZANG PHRIN
LAS RNAM
RGYAL 2GYAL
BAI DBANG
PO THAMS
CAD MKHYEN
GZIGS BCU
PA CHEN
PO .GAG
DBANG BLO
BZANG JAM
DPAL BSTAN
DZIN TSHUL
KHRIMS RGYA
MTSHO DPAL BZANG
POI RNAM
PAR THAR
PA NGO
MTSHAR NOR
BUI PHRENG
BA )N 0HAGS
PA
JIG
RTEN DBANG
PHYUG
GI RNAM
SPRUL RIM
BYON
GYI KHRUNGS
RABS DEB
THER NOR
BUI
PHRENG
BA $HARAMSALA
$ENG 2UILING 䙨䫥啙 9UAN
-ING LIANGDAI ZHONGYANG YU 8IZANG DIFANG DE GUANXI ܘ
ᯣϹҸЂ༃ϣ㽔㮤അᮎⱙ݈㋐ "EIJING
$OJE #EDAIN h4HE $ALAI ,AMAS $ISREGARD FOR 0RECEDENCE #HINAS 4IBET NO
n
$REYER *UNE #HINAS &ORTY -ILLIONS #AMBRIDGE
$UNG
SKAR "LO
BZANG PHRIN
LAS "OD
KYI CHOS
SRID ZUNG
BREL SKOR BSHAD
PA "EIJING
%PSTEIN )SRAEL 4IBET 4RANSFORMED "EIJING
'OLDSTEIN -ELVYN # ! (ISTORY OF -ODERN 4IBET n "ERKELEY
'U :UCHENG 乓⼫៥ ET AL -ING SHILU :ANGZU SHILIAO ᯣᅳᔪ㮤ᮤে᭮ ,HASA
'U :UCHENG 乓⼫៥ ET AL 1ING SHILU :ANGZU SHILIAO ⏚ᅳᔪ㮤ᮤে᭮ ,HASA
'UO 8IN ND h(OW THE 0ANCHEN ,AMAS 2EINCARNATION )S %STABLISHEDv )N 3HAN :HOU
ED 4HE 2EINCARNATION OF THE 0ANCHEN ,AMA n NP
(UANG &ENSHENG 咙༠⫴ 8IZANG QINGKUANG ۫៲ൣउ 3HANGHAI
:ANGZU SHILÓE 㮤ᮤে⬺ "EIJING
(UANG -INGXIN h4HE 4IBETAN 6ERSION OF THE
!RTICLE !GREEMENTv #HINAS 4IBET
NO
*AMYANG .ORBU )LLUSION AND 2EALITY $HARAMSALA
+RUNG
DBYANGS MI
RIGS SLOB
GRWAI "OD
RIG
PAI ZHIB
JUG TSHOGS
CHUNG +RUNG
GOI
"OD SA
GNAS
KYI LO
RGYUS YIG
TSHANG PHYOGS
BTUS ,HASA
,AMB !LASTAIR 4HE -C-AHON ,INE VOL ,ONDON
,IAO :UGUI ᒫ⼫ḗ #HEN 1INGYING 䰝ᑛ㣆 AND :HOU 7EI ♱ h1INGCHAO
JINPING CHEQIAN ZHIDU JI QI LISHI YIYIv ⏚ᳲ䞦⫋ㅓࠋᑻটज़েᛤО
:HONGGUO :ANGXUE Ђ㮤ᄻ n
/N @4IBETAN 0EOPLES 2IGHT TO 3ELF
$ETERMINATIONv #HINAS 4IBET 7INTER
0APERS 2ELATING TO 4IBET 0RESENTED TO "OTH (OUSES OF 0ARLIAMENT BY #OMMAND OF (IS -AJESTY
#D ,ONDON
4HE 4IBET
#HINA #ONmICT
4HE 1UESTION OF 4IBET AND THE 2ULE OF ,AW 'ENEVA
2GYAL
MO BRUG
PA "OD
KYI LO
RGYUS GLENG
BAI GTAM "EIJING
2ICHARDSON ( % ! 3HORT (ISTORY OF 4IBET .EW 9ORK
2UEGG $ 3EYFORT h-CHOD YON YON MCHOD AND MCHOD GNASYON GNAS /N THE
(ISTORIOGRAPHY AND 3EMANTICS OF A 4IBETAN 2ELIGIO
SOCIAL AND 2ELIGIO
POLITICAL
#ONCEPTv )N %RNST 3TEINKELLNER ED 4IBETAN (ISTORY AND ,ANGUAGE 3TUDIES
$EDICATED TO 5RAY '£ZA ON HIS 3EVENTIETH "IRTHDAY
6IENNA
3HISHI "ANCHAN ZHUANSHI LINGTONG XUNFANG RENDING ZUOCHUANG XIEZHEN खϫ⧂⽚䕁ϫ♊ズ
ᇐ䆔䅹ᅯഥᑟ ݮ,HASA
3ONG ,IAN ݚᖷ 9UANSHI ց" EIJING n
3PERLING %LLIOT h!WE AND 3UBMISSION ! 4IBETAN !RISTOCRAT AT THE #OURT OF
1IANLONGv )NTERNATIONAL 2EVIEW OF (ISTORY n
4ASHI 4SERING ! "RIEF 3URVEY OF &OURTEEN #ENTURIES OF 3INO
4IBETAN 2ELATIONS
$HARAMSALA
4HE 3TATUS OF 4IBET ND .EW $ELHI
4HE 3TATUS OF 4IBET! "RIEF 3UMMARY 4IBET $OCUMENTS $HARAMSALA
4HUB
BSTAN PHUN
TSHOGS "OD
KYI LO
RGYUS SPYI
DON PADMA R
GAI LDE
MIG #HENGDU
4IBET IN THE 5NITED .ATIONS ND .EW $ELHI
4IBET 0ROVING 4RUTH FROM &ACTS $HARAMSALA
4IBET)TS /WNERSHIP AND (UMAN 2IGHTS 3ITUATION "EIJING
4IEH
TSENG ,I 4IBET 4ODAY AND 9ESTERDAY .EW 9ORK
h4RUE #OPY OF THE 0ETITION 3UBMITTED BY THE 4IBETAN 0UBLIC TO #HINESE 4IBETAN
!UTHORITIES 3OMETIME IN -AY v 9UL
PHYOGS SO
SOI GSAR
GYUR ME
LONG
/CTOBER
4HE 4RUTH ABOUT 4IBET .EW 9ORK ;THE BACK COVER HAS THE .EW 9ORK PRINTERS UNION
LABEL=
VAN 7ALT VAN 0RAAG -ICHAEL # 4HE 3TATUS OF 4IBET (ISTORY 2IGHT AND 0ROSPECTS IN
)NTERNATIONAL ,AW "OULDER
4HE )NDEPENDENT 3TATUS OF 4IBET $HARAMSALA
7ANG &UREN ⥠䕚Җ AND 3UO 7ENQING ㋷᭜⏚ :ANGZU SHIYAO 㮤ᮤে㽖
#HENGDU ; (IGHLIGHTS OF 4IBETAN (ISTORY "EIJING =
7ANG 'UI ⥠䌊 ET AL 8IZANG LISHI DIWEI BIAN 㽔㮤ज़েഅԢ䕽 "EIJING
7ANG *IAWEI ⥠ᆋӴ AND .IMA JIANZAN ሑ⥰യ䌳 :HONGGUO 8IZANG DE LISHI DIWEI
Ђ㽔㮤ⱙज़েഅԢ "EIJING
7ANG 1INYU ׆Ⴇ 8IZANG WENTI ۫៲ംᠲ 3HANGHAI
7ANG 9UANDA ⥠䖱 *INDAI %GUO YU :HONGGUO 8IZANG 䖦Ҹ֙ϣЂ㽔㮤
"EIJING
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ZHIDING ⌐䕁ϫⱙѼ⫴䞦⫋ㅓⱙࠋᅯ 8IZANG YANJIU 㽔㮤ⷩか
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4HE $YNAMICS AND -ANAGEMENT OF )NTERNAL #ONmICTS IN !SIA
0ROJECT 2ATIONALE 0URPOSE AND /UTLINE
0ROJECT $IRECTOR -UTHIAH !LAGAPPA
0RINCIPAL 2ESEARCHERS %DWARD !SPINALL !CEH
$ANILYN 2UTHERFORD 0APUA
#HRISTOPHER #OLLIER 3OUTHERN 0HILIPPINES
'ARDNER "OVINGDON 8INJIANG
%LLIOT 3PERLING 4IBET
2ATIONALE
)NTERNAL CONmICTS HAVE BEEN A PROMINENT FEATURE OF THE !SIAN POLITICAL
LANDSCAPE SINCE !SIA HAS WITNESSED NUMEROUS CIVIL WARS ARMED
INSURGENCIES COUPS DETAT REGIONAL REBELLIONS AND REVOLUTIONS -ANY
HAVE BEEN PROTRACTED SEVERAL HAVE FAR REACHING DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL
CONSEQUENCES 4HE CIVIL WAR IN 0AKISTAN LED TO THE BREAK UP OF THAT
COUNTRY IN SEPARATIST STRUGGLES CHALLENGE THE POLITICAL AND TERRITORIAL
INTEGRITY OF #HINA )NDIA )NDONESIA "URMA THE 0HILIPPINES 4HAILAND
AND 3RI ,ANKA POLITICAL UPRISINGS IN 4HAILAND AND THE
0HILIPPINES 3OUTH +OREA 4AIWAN "ANGLADESH AND
)NDONESIA RESULTED IN DRAMATIC POLITICAL CHANGE IN THOSE COUNTRIES
ALTHOUGH THE POLITICAL UPRISINGS IN "URMA AND #HINA WERE
SUPPRESSED THE POLITICAL SYSTEMS IN THESE COUNTRIES AS WELL AS IN 6IETNAM
CONTINUE TO CONFRONT PROBLEMS OF POLITICAL LEGITIMACY THAT COULD BECOME
ACUTE AND RADICAL )SLAM POSES SERIOUS CHALLENGES TO STABILITY IN 0AKISTAN
)NDONESIA -ALAYSIA AND )NDIA )N ALL MILLIONS OF PEOPLE HAVE BEEN KILLED
IN THE INTERNAL CONmICTS AND TENS OF MILLIONS HAVE BEEN DISPLACED !ND THE
INVOLVEMENT OF EXTERNAL POWERS IN A COMPETITIVE MANNER ESPECIALLY DURING
THE #OLD 7AR IN SEVERAL OF THESE CONmICTS HAD NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES FOR
DOMESTIC AND REGIONAL SECURITY
)NTERNAL CONmICTS IN !SIA AS ELSEWHERE CAN BE TRACED TO THREE ISSUES
NATIONAL IDENTITY POLITICAL LEGITIMACY THE TITLE TO RULE AND DISTRIBUTIVE
JUSTICETHAT ARE OFTEN INTERCONNECTED 7ITH THE BANKRUPTCY OF THE SOCIALIST
MODEL AND THE TRANSITIONS TO DEMOCRACY IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES THE NUMBER
OF INTERNAL CONmICTS OVER THE LEGITIMACY OF POLITICAL SYSTEM HAS DECLINED
IN !SIA (OWEVER POLITICAL LEGITIMACY OF CERTAIN GOVERNMENTS CONTINUES
TO BE CONTESTED FROM TIME TO TIME AND THE LEGITIMACY OF THE REMAINING
COMMUNIST AND AUTHORITARIAN SYSTEMS ARE LIKELY TO CONFRONT CHALLENGES IN
DUE COURSE 4HE PROJECT DEALS WITH INTERNAL CONmICTS ARISING FROM THE PROCESS
OF CONSTRUCTING NATIONAL IDENTITY WITH SPECIlC FOCUS ON CONmICTS ROOTED IN
THE RELATIONSHIP OF MINORITY COMMUNITIES TO THE NATION
STATE (ERE TOO
MANY !SIAN STATES HAVE MADE CONSIDERABLE PROGRESS IN CONSTRUCTING NATIONAL
COMMUNITIES BUT SEVERAL STATES INCLUDING SOME MAJOR ONES STILL CONFRONT
SERIOUS PROBLEMS THAT HAVE DEGENERATED INTO VIOLENT CONmICT "Y AFFECTING
THE POLITICAL AND TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY OF THE STATE AS WELL AS THE PHYSICAL
CULTURAL ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL SECURITY OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS THESE
CONmICTS HAVE GREAT POTENTIAL TO AFFECT DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL STABILITY
0URPOSE
4HE PROJECT INVESTIGATES THE DYNAMICS AND MANAGEMENT OF lVE KEY INTERNAL
CONmICTS IN !SIA!CEH AND 0APUA IN )NDONESIA THE -ORO CONmICT IN
SOUTHERN 0HILIPPINES AND THE CONmICTS PERTAINING TO 4IBET AND 8INJIANG IN
#HINA 3PECIlCALLY IT INVESTIGATES THE FOLLOWING
7HY ON WHAT BASIS HOW IN WHAT FORM AND WHEN DOES GROUP
DIFFERENTIATION AND POLITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS EMERGE
7HAT ARE THE SPECIlC ISSUES OF CONTENTION IN SUCH CONmICTS !RE THESE
OF THE INSTRUMENTAL OR COGNITIVE TYPE )F BOTH WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THEM (AVE THE ISSUES OF CONTENTION ALTERED OVER TIME !RE THE
CONmICTS LIKELY TO UNDERGO FURTHER REDElNITION
7HEN WHY AND UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES CAN SUCH CONTENTIONS LEAD
TO VIOLENT CONmICT 5NDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES HAVE THEY NOT LED TO
VIOLENT CONmICT
(OW CAN THE CONmICTS BE MANAGED SETTLED AND EVENTUALLY RESOLVED
7HAT ARE POLICY CHOICES $O OPTIONS SUCH AS NATIONAL SELF
DETERMINATION
AUTONOMY FEDERALISM ELECTORAL DESIGN AND CONSOCIATIONALISM EXHAUST
THE LIST OF CHOICES AVAILABLE TO MEET THE ASPIRATIONS OF MINORITY
COMMUNITIES !RE THERE INNOVATIVE WAYS OF THINKING ABOUT IDENTITY AND
SOVEREIGNTY THAT CAN MEET THE ASPIRATIONS OF THE MINORITY COMMUNITIES
WITHOUT CREATING NEW SOVEREIGN NATION
STATES
7HAT IS THE ROLE OF THE REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITIES IN THE
PROTECTION OF MINORITY COMMUNITIES
(OW AND WHEN DOES A POLICY CHOICE BECOME RELEVANT
$ESIGN
! STUDY GROUP HAS BEEN ORGANIZED FOR EACH OF THE lVE CONmICTS INVESTIGATED
IN THE STUDY 7ITH A PRINCIPAL RESEARCHER EACH THE STUDY GROUPS COMPRISE
PRACTITIONERS AND SCHOLARS FROM THE RESPECTIVE !SIAN COUNTRIES INCLUDING THE
REGION OR PROVINCE THAT IS THE FOCUS OF THE CONmICT THE 5NITED 3TATES AND
!USTRALIA &OR COMPOSITION OF STUDY GROUPS PLEASE SEE THE PARTICIPANTS LIST
!LL lVE STUDY GROUPS MET JOINTLY FOR THE lRST TIME IN 7ASHINGTON $#
FROM 3EPTEMBER THROUGH /CTOBER /VER A PERIOD OF FOUR
DAYS PARTICIPANTS ENGAGED IN INTENSIVE DISCUSSION OF A WIDE RANGE OF ISSUES
PERTAINING TO THE lVE CONmICTS INVESTIGATED IN THE PROJECT )N ADDITION TO
IDENTIFYING KEY ISSUES FOR RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION THE MEETING FACILITATED
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CROSS COUNTRY PERSPECTIVES AND INTERACTION AMONG
SCHOLARS WHO HAD NOT PREVIOUSLY WORKED TOGETHER "ASED ON DISCUSSION AT
THE MEETING lVE RESEARCH MONOGRAPH LENGTH STUDIES ONE PER CONmICT AND
TWENTY POLICY PAPERS FOUR PER CONmICT WERE COMMISSIONED
3TUDY GROUPS MET SEPARATELY FOR THE SECOND MEETING 4HE !CEH AND 0APUA
STUDY GROUP MEETINGS WERE HELD IN "ALI ON *UNE THE 3OUTHERN
0HILIPPINES STUDY GROUP MET IN -ANILA ON *UNE AND THE 4IBET AND
8INJIANG STUDY GROUPS WERE HELD IN (ONOLULU FROM !UGUST THROUGH
4HE THIRD MEETING OF ALL STUDY GROUPS WAS HELD FROM &EBRUARY
THROUGH -ARCH IN 7ASHINGTON $# 4HESE MEETINGS REVIEWED
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS RELATING TO THE CONmICTS CRITICALLY REVIEWED THE lRST
DRAFTS OF THE POLICY PAPERS PREPARED FOR THE PROJECT REVIEWED THE BOOK
PROPOSALS BY THE PRINCIPAL RESEARCHERS AND IDENTIlED NEW TOPICS FOR
RESEARCH
0UBLICATIONS
4HE PROJECT WILL RESULT IN lVE RESEARCH MONOGRAPHS BOOK LENGTH STUDIES
AND ABOUT TWENTY POLICY PAPERS
2ESEARCH -ONOGRAPHS 4O BE AUTHORED BY THE PRINCIPAL RESEARCHERS THESE
MONOGRAPHS PRESENT A BOOK LENGTH STUDY OF THE KEY ISSUES PERTAINING
TO EACH OF THE lVE CONmICTS 3UBJECT TO SATISFACTORY PEER REVIEW THE
MONOGRAPHS WILL APPEAR IN THE %AST 7EST #ENTER 7ASHINGTON SERIES !SIAN
3ECURITY AND THE %AST 7EST #ENTER SERIES #ONTEMPORARY )SSUES IN THE !SIA
0ACIlC BOTH PUBLISHED BY THE 3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS
0OLICY 0APERS 4HE POLICY PAPERS PROVIDE A DETAILED STUDY OF PARTICULAR
ASPECTS OF EACH CONmICT 3UBJECT TO SATISFACTORY PEER REVIEW THESE
TO WORD ESSAYS WILL BE PUBLISHED IN THE %7# 7ASHINGTON 0OLICY
3TUDIES SERIES AND BE CIRCULATED WIDELY TO KEY PERSONNEL AND INSTITUTIONS
IN THE POLICY AND INTELLECTUAL COMMUNITIES AND THE MEDIA IN THE RESPECTIVE
!SIAN COUNTRIES 5NITED 3TATES AND OTHER RELEVANT COUNTRIES
0UBLIC &ORUMS
4O ENGAGE THE INFORMED PUBLIC AND TO DISSEMINATE THE lNDINGS OF THE PROJECT
TO A WIDE AUDIENCE PUBLIC FORUMS HAVE BEEN ORGANIZED IN CONJUNCTION WITH
STUDY GROUP MEETINGS
4WO PUBLIC FORUMS WERE ORGANIZED IN 7ASHINGTON $# IN CONJUNCTION
WITH THE lRST STUDY GROUP MEETING 4HE lRST FORUM COSPONSORED BY THE
5NITED 3TATES
)NDONESIA 3OCIETY DISCUSSED THE !CEH AND 0APUA CONmICTS
4HE SECOND FORUM COSPONSORED BY THE 5NITED 3TATES )NSTITUTE OF 0EACE
THE !SIA 0ROGRAM OF THE 7OODROW 7ILSON )NTERNATIONAL #ENTER AND THE
3IGUR #ENTER OF THE 'EORGE 7ASHINGTON 5NIVERSITY DISCUSSED THE 4IBET AND
8INJIANG CONmICTS
0UBLIC FORUMS WERE ALSO ORGANIZED IN *AKARTA AND -ANILA IN CONJUNCTION
WITH THE SECOND STUDY GROUP MEETINGS 4HE *AKARTA PUBLIC FORUM ON !CEH
AND 0APUA COSPONSORED BY THE #ENTER FOR 3TRATEGIC AND )NTERNATIONAL
3TUDIES IN *AKARTA AND THE 3OUTHERN 0HILIPPINES PUBLIC FORUM COSPONSORED
BY THE 0OLICY #ENTER OF THE !SIAN )NSTITUTE OF -ANAGEMENT ATTRACTED
PERSONS FROM GOVERNMENT MEDIA THINK TANKS ACTIVIST GROUPS DIPLOMATIC
COMMUNITY AND THE PUBLIC
)N CONJUNCTION WITH THE THIRD STUDY GROUP MEETINGS ALSO HELD IN
7ASHINGTON $# THREE PUBLIC FORUMS WERE OFFERED 4HE lRST FORUM
COSPONSORED BY THE 5NITED 3TATES
)NDONESIA 3OCIETY ADDRESSED THE CONmICTS
IN !CEH AND 0APUA 4HE SECOND FORUM COSPONSORED BY THE 3IGUR #ENTER
OF THE 'EORGE 7ASHINGTON 5NIVERSITY DISCUSSED THE CONmICTS IN 4IBET AND
8INJIANG ! THIRD FORUM WAS HELD TO DISCUSS THE CONmICT IN THE 3OUTHERN
0HILIPPINES 4HIS FORUM WAS COSPONSORED BY THE 5NITED 3TATES )NSTITUTE OF
0EACE
&UNDING 3UPPORT
4HIS PROJECT IS SUPPORTED WITH A GENEROUS GRANT FROM THE #ARNEGIE
#ORPORATION OF .EW 9ORK
0ROJECT $IRECTOR
-UTHIAH !LAGAPPA
%AST
7EST #ENTER 7ASHINGTON
!CEH 3TUDY 'ROUP -ICHAEL 2OSS
%DWARD !SPINALL 5NIVERSITY OF #ALIFORNIA ,OS !NGELES
5NIVERSITY OF 3YDNEY
+IRSTEN % 3CHULZE
0RINCIPAL 2ESEARCHER
,ONDON 3CHOOL OF %CONOMICS
3AIFUDDIN "ANTASYAM
2IZAL 3UKMA
(UMAN 2IGHTS &ORUM
!CEH
#3)3 *AKARTA
(AROLD #ROUCH
0AUL 6AN :YL
!USTRALIAN .ATIONAL 5NIVERSITY
)NTERNATIONAL #ENTER FOR 4RANSITIONAL
!HMAD (UMAM (AMID *USTICE
#ARE (UMAN 2IGHTS !CEH
!GUS 7IDJOJO
"OB (ADIWINATA &ORMER #HIEF OF 3TAFF FOR 4ERRITORIAL
5NIVERSITY OF 0ARAHYANGAN )NDONESIA !FFAIRS
'OVERNMENT OF )NDONESIA
+ONRAD (UBER
#ONCIL ON &OREIGN 2ELATIONS 3ASTROHANDOYO 7IRYONO
#HIEF .EGOTIATOR FOR THE 'OVERNMENT
3IDNEY *ONES
OF )NDONESIA IN THE PEACE TALKS WITH
)NTERNATIONAL #RISIS 'ROUP *AKARTA
THE &REE !CEH -OVEMENT
4 -ULYA ,UBIS
$ANIEL :IV
,UBIS 3ANTOSA AND -AULANA *AKARTA
53!)$ *AKARTA
-ARCUS -EITZNER
53!)$ *AKARTA
+ELLI -UDDELL
)NTERNATIONAL #ENTER FOR 4RANSITIONAL
*USTICE
0APUA 3TUDY 'ROUP
$ANILYN 2UTHERFORD "ENNY 'IAY
5NIVERSITY OF #HICAGO 4HE )NSTITUTE FOR (UMAN 2IGHTS
0RINCIPAL 2ESEARCHER 3TUDY AND !DVOCACY *AYAPURA
)KRAR .USA "HAKTI "ARBARA (ARVEY
)NDONESIAN )NSTITUTE OF 3CIENCES ,)0) &ORMER $EPUTY #HIEF OF -ISSION FOR
*AKARTA THE 53 %MBASSY IN )NDONESIA
2ICHARD #HAUVEL 2ODD -C'IBBON
6ICTORIA 5NIVERSITY -ELBOURNE 53!)$ *AKARTA
0APUA 3TUDY 'ROUP CONTINUED "ARNABAS 3UEBU
/CTAVIANUS -OTE &ORMER 'OVERNOR OF )RIAN *AYA
9ALE 5NIVERSITY
!GUS 3UMULE
3AMSU 2IZAL 0ANGGABEAN 5NIVERSITAS .EGERI 0APUA !MBAN
'ADJAH -ADA 5NIVERSITY 9OGYAKARTA
*OHN 2UMBIAK
%,3
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3OUTHERN 0HILIPPINES 3TUDY 'ROUP
#HRISTOPHER #OLLIER !BRAHAM 3 )RIBANI
!USTRALIAN .ATIONAL 5NIVERSITY !SSISTANT 3ECRETARY $EPARTMENT OF THE
0RINCIPAL 2ESEARCHER )NTERIOR AND ,OCAL 'OVERNMENT
'OVERNMENT OF THE 0HILIPPINES
2OBERT & "ARNES
-ANILA
53!)$ 0HILIPPINES
-ARY *UDD
.OEMI "AUTISTA
4HE 7ORLD "ANK n 0HILIPPINES
53!)$ 0HILIPPINES
-ACAPADO -USLIM
3ATURNINO - "ORRAS
-INDANAO 3TATE 5NIVERSITY
)NSTITUTE OF 3OCIAL 3TUDIES 4HE (AGUE
&ATIMA 'ENERAL 3ANTOS #ITY
*ESUS $UREZA
!MINA 2ASUL
"ERNARDO
0RESIDENTIAL !SSISTANT FOR -INDANAO
!SIAN )NSTITUTE OF -ANAGEMENT
$AVAO #ITY
-ANILA
!LMA %VANGELISTA
3TEVEN 2OOD
5NITED .ATIONS $EVELOPMENT
4HE !SIA &OUNDATION 0HILIPPINES
0ROGRAMME -ANILA
$AVID 4IMBERMAN
%RIC 'UTIERREZ
53!)$ 7ASHINGTON $#
)NSTITUTE FOR 0OPULAR $EMOCRACY
-ICHAEL 9ATES
#AROLINA (ERNANDEZ
53!)$ 0HILIPPINES
)NSTITUTE FOR 3TRATEGIC AND
$EVELOPMENT 3TUDIES -ANILA
4IBET 3TUDY 'ROUP
%LLIOT 3PERLING 3HULONG #HU
)NDIANA 5NIVERSITY 4SINGHUA 5NIVERSITY "EIJING
0RINCIPAL 2ESEARCHER
9ONGBIN $U
!LLEN #ARLSON #HINESE #ENTER FOR 4IBET 3TUDIES
#ORNELL 5NIVERSITY "EIJING
4IBET 3TUDY 'ROUP CONTINUTED
-ARK $ +OEHLER 4ASHI 2ABGEY
53 $EPARTMENT OF 3TATE (ARVARD 5NIVERSITY
#AROLE -C'RANAHAN 4SETEN 7ANGCHUK
5NIVERSITY OF #OLORADO AT "OULDER 6OICE OF !MERICA
7ARREN 7 3MITH *R
2ADIO &REE !SIA
8INJIANG 3TUDY 'ROUP
'ARDNER "OVINGDON 3USAN 3HIRK
)NDIANA 5NIVERSITY 5NIVERSITY OF #ALIFORNIA 3AN $IEGO
0RINCIPAL 2ESEARCHER
3TAN 4OOPS
*AY $AUTCHER -IAMI 5NIVERSITY
5NIVERSITY OF 0ENNSYLVANIA
.URY 4URKEL
!RIENNE $WYER !MERICAN 5NIVERSITY
5NIVERSITY OF +ANSAS
.ABIJAN 4URSUN
4ALANT -AWKANULI 2ADIO &REE !SIA
)NDIANA 5NIVERSITY
3HENGMIN 9ANG
*AMES -ILLWARD #ENTRAL 5NIVERSITY FOR .ATIONALITIES
'EORGETOWN 5NIVERSITY "EIJING
/THER 0ARTICIPANTS
!LLEN #HOAT #HARLES -ORRISON
!SIA &OUNDATION (ONG +ONG %AST
7EST #ENTER
#HESTER #ROCKER (OLLY -ORROW
'EORGETOWN 5NIVERSITY 53 $EPARTMENT OF 3TATE
3TEPHEN $EL 2OSSO (ADI 3OESASTRO
#ARNEGIE #ORPORATION OF .EW 9ORK #3)3 *AKARTA
0AULINE +ERR 3HEILA 3MITH
!USTRALIAN .ATIONAL 5NIVERSITY %AST
7EST #ENTER
&EDERICO - -ACARANAS !RUN 3WAMY
!SIAN )NSTITUTE OF -ANAGEMENT %AST
7EST #ENTER
-ANILA
"ARBARA 7ALTER
#HRISTOPHER -C.ALLY 5NIVERSITY OF #ALIFORNIA 3AN $IEGO
%AST
7EST #ENTER
"ACKGROUND OF THE 4IBET #ONmICT
4IBET HAS BEEN A FOCUS OF INTERNATIONAL CONCERNS FOR CLOSE TO A CENTURY
4IBETS CONTESTED STATUS AS AN INDEPENDENT STATE OR AUTONOMOUS REGION THE
CONDITIONS PREVAILING WITHIN ITS TERRITORYINDEED EVEN ITS VERY BORDERS
HAVE ALL BEEN THE SUBJECT OF CONTROVERSY AND SOMETIMES VIOLENT STRUGGLE
)N WHEN THE 1ING #HINAS LAST IMPERIAL DYNASTY COLLAPSED
4IBET EMERGED AS A DE FACTO INDEPENDENT STATE 4HAT INDEPENDENCE WAS NOT
RECOGNIZED BY #HINA NOR WAS IT FORMALLY AND UNAMBIGUOUSLY ACKNOWLEDGED
BY "RITAIN )NDIA OR ANY OTHER STATE .EVERTHELESS UNDER THE GOVERNMENT
OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS 4IBET DID EFFECTIVELY FUNCTION INDEPENDENTLY OF
#HINA WITH THE REQUISITES GENERALLY EXPECTED OF STATES (OWEVER WITH
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA IN 4IBETS DE
FACTO INDEPENDENCE CAME TO AN END )N /CTOBER OF THE 0EOPLES
,IBERATION !RMY ALREADY IN CONTROL OF 4IBETAN
INHABITED TERRITORY OUTSIDE
THE JURISDICTION OF THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT CROSSED THE LINE INTO
TERRITORY CONTROLLED BY THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENT AND 4IBET WAS FORMALLY
INCORPORATED INTO THE 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC OF #HINA BY MEANS OF AN AGREEMENT
SIGNED IN -AY &RICTION AMBIGUOUS EXPECTATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS
OF 4IBETS STATUS UNDER THAT AGREEMENT AND THE HARSH AND OFTEN BRUTAL
IMPLEMENTATION OF #HINESE SOCIALISM IN 4IBETAN
INHABITED AREAS IN THE
EASTERN PORTIONS OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU ALL WORKED TO SPARK A REVOLT IN THE
S THAT LED ULTIMATELY TO lGHTING IN ,HASA THE 4IBETAN CAPITAL AND THE
mIGHT OF THE $ALAI ,AMA AND WELL OVER 4IBETANS INTO EXILE MOSTLY
IN )NDIA AND .EPAL 3UBSEQUENT DECADES WITNESSED THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
#HINESE POLICIES ON THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU THAT FOLLOWED WHAT OFTEN SEEMED
LIKE RADICALLY DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A 4IBET !UTONOMOUS
2EGION IN THE ATTEMPT TO SUPPRESS A SEPARATE 4IBETAN IDENTITY IN
THE S AND S ECONOMIC LIBERALIZATION AND A RELATIVE LOOSENING OF
CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS RESTRICTIONS IN THE S REPRESSION OF ANY SIGNS OF
SEPARATIST TENDENCIES AND ALLEGIANCE TO THE $ALAI ,AMA IN THE S ETC
3UCH AMBIGUITIES AND APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS HAVE SERVED TO EXACERBATE THE
3INO
4IBETAN RELATIONSHIP
)NTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE 4IBET ISSUE FOLLOWED UPON RESOLUTIONS
PASSED BY THE 5. 'ENERAL !SSEMBLY IN AND ONE
OF WHICH EXPLICITLY SUPPORTED THE RIGHT OF THE 4IBETAN PEOPLE TO SELF
DETERMINATION 4HE RESULT OF THIS HISTORY HAS BEEN TO PLACE LEGITIMACY AT
THE FOUNDATION OF MANY OF THE OTHER ASPECTS OF THE 4IBETAN ISSUE 4HUS
MORE THAN HALF A CENTURY AFTER THE INCORPORATION OF 4IBET INTO THE 02#
QUESTIONS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CULTURAL FREEDOM HUMAN RIGHTS
AND DEMOGRAPHICS IN 4IBET ALL STAND AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF QUESTIONS
ABOUT THE LEGITIMACY OF #HINESE RULE IN THE REGION 4HIS SENSE OF CONTESTED
AUTHORITY IS FURTHER SUPPORTED AS MUCH BY #HINAS PROTESTATIONS THAT THERE IS
NO ISSUE OF 4IBET WHILE AT THE SAME TIME INSISTING THAT THE $ALAI ,AMA MUST
ACKNOWLEDGE THAT 4IBET HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN A PART OF #HINA AS IT IS BY THE
ACTIVITIES AND PRONOUNCEMENTS OF 4IBETAN EXILES RELATING TO 4IBETS RIGHT TO
INDEPENDENCE ORON THE PART OF THE $ALAI ,AMAREAL AUTONOMY
!TTEMPTS TO RESOLVE THE 4IBETAN ISSUE SINCE THE LATE S HAVE FOCUSED
ON FORMAL AND INFORMAL CONTACTS AND DISCUSSIONS BETWEEN REPRESENTATIVES
OF THE $ALAI ,AMA AND HIS GOVERNMENT IN EXILE ON THE ONE HAND AND THE
#HINESE GOVERNMENT ON THE OTHER 4HESE HAVE TAKEN PLACE PERIODICALLY OVER
THE LAST TWENTY lVE YEARS WITH NO REAL RESOLUTION /VER THE LAST TWO YEARS
SUCH CONTACTS HAVE REVIVED AGAIN BUT EVEN THE NATURE OF THOSE CONTACTS IS
DISPUTED BY BOTH PARTIES &OR MORE THAN A DECADE THE $ALAI ,AMA HAS BEEN
ABLE TO MEET WITH SEVERAL WORLD LEADERS WHO AT HIS URGING HAVE PERIODICALLY
CALLED ON THE #HINESE GOVERNMENT TO APPROACH OR RESPOND TO HIM IN AN
ATTEMPT TO RESOLVE THE 4IBETAN ISSUE
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East-West Center
The East-West Center is an internationally recognized education and
research organization established by the U.S. Congress in 1960 to
strengthen understanding and relations between the United States and
the countries of the Asia Pacific. Through its programs of cooperative
study, training, seminars, and research, the Center works to promote a
stable, peaceful and prosperous Asia Pacific community in which the
United States is a leading and valued partner. Funding for the Center
comes for the U.S. government, private foundations, individuals, cor-
porations and a number of Asia Pacific governments.
East-West Center Washington
Established on September 1, 2001, the primary function of the East-
West Center Washington is to further the East-West Center mission
and the institutional objective of building a peaceful and prosperous
Asia Pacific community through substantive programming activities
focused on the theme of conflict reduction in the Asia Pacific region
and promoting American understanding of and engagement in Asia
Pacific affairs.
About this Issue Previous Issues:
The status of Tibet has been at the core of Policy Studies 1
the Tibet-China conflict for all parties The Aceh Peace Process: Why it Failed
Dr. Edward Aspinall, University of Sydney
drawn into it over the past century. China Dr. Harold Crouch, Australian National University
maintains that Tibet is an integral part of
China, while Tibetans maintain that Tibet has Policy Studies 2
historically been an independent country. In The Free Aceh Movement (GAM):
reality the conflict over Tibet’s status has Anatomy of a Separatist Organization
been a conflict over history. When Chinese Dr. Kirsten E. Schulze, London School of
writers and political figures assert that Tibet Economics
is a part of China, they do so on the basis
of history. The People’s Republic of China Policy Studies 3
Security Operations in Aceh:
has pointedly accused the Dalai Lama of
Goals, Consequences, and Lessons
duplicity, stating that his unwillingness to Dr. Rizal Sukma, Centre for Strategic and
recognize that Tibet has been an integral International Studies - Jakarta
part of China for centuries renders his
attempts to compromise on the Tibet issue Policy Studies 4
unacceptable. The centrality of history in Beijing’s Tibet Policy:
the question of Tibet’s status could not be Securing Sovereignty and Legitimacy
made clearer. This paper is a guide to the Dr. Allen Carlson, Cornell University
historical arguments made by the primary
parties to the Tibet-China conflict. It draws Policy Studies 5
The Papua Conflict:
on the key assertions about the issue as
Jakarta’s Perceptions and Policies
they have been framed in Chinese and Dr. Richard Chauvel,Victoria University-Melbourne
Tibetan to examine the extent to which Dr. Ikrar Nusa Bhakti, Indonesian Institute of
positions on the Tibet issue that are Sciences
thought to reflect centuries of popular
consensus are actually very recent construc- Policy Studies 6
tions, often at variance with the history on A Violent Separatism in Xinjiang:
which they claim to be based. A Critical Assessment
Dr. James Millward, Georgetown University
Forthcoming Titles
“The Moro Conflict: Landlessness and
Misdirected State Policies”
Mr. Eric Gutiereez, Institute for Popular Democracy
Dr. Saturnino M. Borras, Institute of Social Sciences-
The Hague
“Southern Philippines and the International
War Against Terror”
Dr. Christopher Collier, Australian National University
About the Author
Dr. Elliot Sperling is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Central Eurasian
Studies at Indiana University at Bloomington.
ISBN 1-932728-12-0
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