CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 BASIC CONCEPT

1.1 Ra&oactiviry and Radiation
1 .1.1 Natural Radioactivity
1.1-2 Radiation
1.1 -3 Radiation Quantities and Units
1.2 Interaction between Rays and Matter - = - - - - * - - - * - - = * - - - * - - - * - - - * - - - - - 1.2.1 X Rays and y Rays
1.2.2 Neutrons
1.2.3 fl Rays
Fiwre

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2
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12
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a
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CHAPTER 2 RADIATION DETECTION BASE

2.1 Radiation Detection
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Ionization Method
2.1.3 Scintillation
2.1.4 Solid Detector
2.1 - 5 Neutron Detector .....................
2.2 Statistic of Radiation Measurement
2.2.1 Probability Distribution
2.2.2 Standard Deviation
2.2.3 Detection Limit and Sensitivity
Figure

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103
123
135
141

a.........................................

a............................................

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CHAPIXR 3 RADIATION PROIXCTION BASE

Radiation
Act on Organism
3.1
3.1.1 X Rays and Mankind undergone Radiation Damage
in Earli ness
3.1 -2 Classification of Exposure to Radiation
3.1 -3 Classification of Radiation Damage...........................
3.2 Principles of Radiation Protection in Practice
3.2.1 Justification for Practic
3.2.2 Radiation Protection Optimization
3.2.3 Dose Equivalent Limitation to Individual
3.3 Shielding against Radiation and Safety Operation
for Radiation
3.3.1 Influence of Factors on Exposure in Radiation Field....
3.3.2 Protection of Various Rays
3.3.3 Protection of External Exposure for Gamma Rayk

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169
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181
.................................... 182
...... 183
.a

- 1 -

3.3.4 Protcction of Neutron External Exposure

FiSre

-*---------------

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198
215

CHAPTER 4 RADIATION PROTECTION OF NUCLEAR

POWER PLANT AND REACTOR
4.1 General Desc-iption
223
4.1.1 Nuclear Power Plant
223
4.1.2 Radiation Protection Limits of Nuclear Power Plant
224
4.2 Radiation Sources in Nuclear Power Plant
227
4.2.1 Reactor Block
227
4.2.2 Coolant System
231
4.2.3 Storage and Transportation of Spent Fuel
233
4.2.4 Waste Treatment Systems
233
234
4.3 Radiation Detriment of Nuclear Power Plant
4.3.1 Occupational Exposures
234
4.3.2 Effects on Environment
240
4.3.3 Radiation Accident of Nuclear Power Plant - = - - - - - - - - - - - - 244
4.4 Prevention Measures of Reducing Exposure Received
Occupational Radiation Workers
244
4.4.1 Control by Zoning
244
4.4.2 Shielding
247
4.4.3 Ventilation
249
252
4.4.4 Measures for Reducing Activity of Radiation Sources
253
4.4.5 Planning. Organization and Trainning......*........*=..=....
4.5 Protection Measures of Reducing Exposure of Public
254
4.5.1 Siting
254
4.5.2 Multibarrier of Preventing Release of Radioactive
Matters
258
4.6 Radiation Monitoring of Nuclear Power Plant
258
4.6.1 Working Area Monitoring
259
4.6.2 Effluent Monitoring
259
4.6.3 Environment Monitoring
261
Fipre
263

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..m
.e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

......
.......=.....=.......-..
......................................................

. . . . . . . .n
e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

..................
.......................................
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.......................................
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..a
n
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...
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .a

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CHAPTER 5 RADIATION PROTECTION MONITORING

Radiation
Monitoring Basis
5.1
5.1.1 Ionization Methods Used to Measure X and y
Ray Dose
5.1.2 Neutron Dose Measurement
5.1 -3 Other Measurement Methods
5.2 Dosage Monitoring
5.2.1 Introduction

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......................................................280
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Light Pipes Tt is often unadvisable or even impossible to couple a

PM tube directly to one face of a scintillator. For example, the size or
shape of the scintillator may not conveniently match the circular
photocathode area of commerciallv available PM tube. Better light collection efficiency usually can be achieved by using a transparent solid,
know as a light pipe. to physically couple the scintillator to the PM tube
and to act as a guide for the scintillation light.
For the simple case of a cylindrical scintillation crystal and tube of
equal diameter, the light pipe can be a simple cylinder of the same diameter. More often, however, the light pipe cross-section shape must vary
along its length in order t serve as a smooth transition between the
scintillator exit surface and the PM tube end-window.
Photomultiplier Tube The widespread use of scintillation counting in radiation detection would be impossible without the availability of
devices of convert the extremely weak light output of a scintillation pulse
into a corresponding electrical signal. The photomultiplier (PM) tube
accomplished this task remarkably wel1,converting light signals that typically consist of no more than a few hundred photons into a usable current-pulsewithout adding a large amount of random noise to the signal.
The simplified structure of a typical photomultiplier tube is illustrated in Fig. 2.1-20. The shell of the PM tube is often made by the
glass, and inside of it is in vacuum. The electrode structure is different
for different type of the PM tube. The electrical lead of electrodes is
connected with the tube pin through the base.
The two major elements consist of a photo sensitive layer called the
photocathode, which is coupled to an electron multiplier structure. The
photocathode serves to convert as many of the incident light photon as
possible into low-enerm electrons. If the light consist of a pulse from a
scintillation crystal, the photoelectrons produced will also be a pulse of
similar time duration. Because only a few hundred photoelectrons may
be involved in a typical pulse, their charge is too small at this point to
serve as a detectable electrical signal. The electrum multiplier section in a
PM tube provides an efficient collection geometry for the photoelectrons
as well as serving as a near-ideal amplifier to greatly increase their
number. After amplification through the multiplier structure, a typical
scintillation pulse will give rise to 1 0 ~ - 1 0 ' ~electrons, sufficient to easily
C P ~ Pa~ t h e r h g r g ~c_igzrl
.
fs,LbUl;5inb: sciati1la:ion event. This charge
is conventionally collected at the anode or output stage of the multiplier
- -

-~

~~

-81

structure.
Most photomultiplier perform this charge amplification in a very
linear manner. producing an output pulse that remains proportional to
the number of original photoelectrons over a wide range of amplitude.
Much of the timing information of the original light pulse is also retained.
Photocathode The act of the photocathode is the conversion of
incident light photons into electrons. First, the incident photons are absorbed and the energy is transferred to an electron within the
photoemissive material, second, the electron migrates to the surface, and
final the electron escapes from the surface of the photocathode.
Photocathodes can be constructed as either opaque or
semitransparent layers. An opaque photocathode is normally fabricated
with a thickness somewhat greater than the maximum escape depth, and
is supported by a thick backing material. Photoelectrons are collected
from the same surface on which the light is incident. Semitransparent
photocathodes generally are no thicker than the escape depth and are
deposit on a transparent backing (often the glass end window of the PM
tube).
Presently available materials for photocathodes include a
"multi-alkaliN material based on the compound Na,KSb. Prepared by
activation with a small amount of cesium, this material was the frrst to
show a relatively high quantum efficiency of up to 30 percent in the blue
region of the spectrum. A later formulation based on K,CsSb activated
with oxygen and cesium is given the name "bi-alkali" and can show an
even high efficiency in the blue.
Multiple Stage I t is the electrode system for multiplicating electrons. The electrons are made by vaporizing Sb-Cs, K-Cs-Sb compound to the Ni base. These materials have higher secondary electron
emission rate and lower thermionic electron emission rate. The number
of multiple electrode is normally from a few to ten electrodes or more.
Electrons leaving the photocathode are attracted to the first dynode
and produce 3-6 electrons for each incident photoelectron. The secondary electrons that are produced at the surface of the first dynode are
quite easily guided by another electrostatic field established between the
first dynode and a secondary similar dynode, and then produce 3-6 electrons at the surface of secondary dynode for one electron come from the
first dynode. These process can be repeated many times until the elec--

trons reach the anode. I t the average multiplication coefficient of electron is m i for i-th dvnode, and the total ilurnkr of dynode is n, then
the total gain of the PM tube is M = m, m,---m,.
Anode Anode is the electrode for collecting the electrons and giving output signal. The anode is made of the materials with large work
function, far example, Ni, Mo and Nb.
PM Tube Specificauon Manufactures will conventionally quote
performance of photomultiplier tubes in terms of certain characteristics
which are defined here:
( 1 ) Overall luminous sensitivity Defined as the ratio of the
measured anode current at operating voltage to the luminous flux from
a tungsten light source of specified temperature incident on the
photocathodes. This quantity is an overall measure of the expected current from the PM tube per unit incident light from a broad-band
source. The units are amperes per lumen.
(2) Cathode luminous sensitivity Defined as above except that
the current of photoelectrons leaving the photocathode is substituted in
the numerator for the anode current. This quantity is again measured in
amperes per lumen, is a characteristic only of the photocathode, and is
independent of the electron multiplier structure.
(3) Overall radiant sensitivity This parameter is defined as the
ratio of anode current to radiant power a t a given wavelength incident
on the photocathode. Units are amperes per Walt.
(4) Cathode radiant sensitivity
Defined as above, except that the
photocathode current is substituted for the anode current.
(5) Dark current Normally specified in terms of anode current
measured without photocathode illumination when the tube is operated
to provide a given overall luminous sensitivity.
(6) Anode pulse rise time Quoted as the time taken for the output pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of the peak when the photocathode is
illuminated by a flash of light of very short duration.
(7) Anode pulse width
Normally quoted as the time width of the
output pulse measured at half maximum amplitude, again for short-duration illumination of the photocathode.
Linearitv of PM Tube The electron multiplication factor in nearly all PM tubes remains constant for pulses that range in size from a single photoelectron to many thousands. Under these conditions the
amplitude of the pulse collected at the anode is linearly related to the
-

~~

-83-

number of photoelectrons, and consequently to the intensity of the

scintillation light flash. Nonlinearities can arise for very large pulses due
to space charge effects between the last dynode and anode where the
number of electrons is greatest. The buildup of space charge affects the
trajectories of electrons in this region and causes some to lost which
would otherwise be collected. Another factor that can cause
nonlinearities at high pulse amplitudes is any deviation of dynode voltages from their equilibrium value during the course of the pulse.
Under normal circumstances in scintillation pulse counting, these
effects are seldom important with an adequately designed tube base and
the photomultiplier tube remains in the linear range.
High-Voltage Supply and Voltage Divider An external voltage
source must be connected to the photomultiplier tubes in such a way
that the photocathode and each succeeding multiplier stage are correctly
biased with respect to one another. Because electrons must be attracted,
the first dynode must be held at a voltage that is positive with respect to
the photocathode, and each succeeding dynode must be held at a positive voltage with respect to the preceding dynode. For efficient
photoelectron collection, the voltage between photocathode and first
dynode is often several times as great as the dynode-to-dynode voltage
differences.
Tn the vast majority of cases, the voltage differences are provided by
a resistive voltage divider and a single source of high voltage. Figure
2.1-21a shows a typical wiring diagram for the base of a photomultiplier tube in which a positive polarity high voltage is used. Tn this case the
cathode of the photomultiplier tube is grounded, and the divider string
supplies successively increasing positive voltages to each dynode down
the multiplying string. The anode is a t a dc potential equal to the supply
voltage, and signal pulses must therefore be capacitively coupled from
the anode to allow the pulse component to be passed on at ground potential to succeeding electronic devices. The load resistor R L can be
chosen by the experimenter so that the resulting anode circuit time constant is of proper magnitude. The anode capacitance C, usually is not a
physical capacitor, but only the stray capacitance associated with the
anode structure and connected cables. An analysis of the pulse shape
expected from this anode circuit is given later.
Tn order to use the simplest and least expensive voltage supply. one
would like to keep the current through she divider a t a minimum. Small
~

currents will also minimize problems due to heat dissipation in the divider resistors. However. the divider string current must always be kept
large compared with the internal photomultiplier tube current represented by the pulse of electrons flowing from dynode to dynode. If the
internal current at the peak of a pulse ever becomes comparable with the
divider current, the voltage of the dynodes will begin to deviate from
their equilibrium values, leading to drift of the PM tube gain. This problem is especially serious for the last few stages of the PM tube where
peak currents are at a maximum. It is often advantageous to provide
"stabilizing capacitors" (labeled as Cs in Fig. 2.1-2 1) to the stages of the
divider string near the anode to help hold these latter dynode voltages at
a constant value throughout the pulse. In order to prevent a more than 1
percent interdynode voltage change, the charge stored on the stabilizing
capacitor (given by the product of capacitance value and the
interdynode voltage) must be 100 times greater than the charge emitted
by that dynode during the pulse.
Exactly the same interdynode voltages can be achieved by grounding the opposite (or anode) end of the divider string, and applying negative high voltage to the photocathode end. This latter arrangement is
shown in Fig. 2.1-21b. It is therefore important that users be aware of
which convention has been chosen by the manufacture of their own tube
base before initial use of the equipment with a photomultiplier tube.
An advantage that stems from use of negative high voltage is the
elimination of the coupling capacitor C, requires if positive polarity is
used. The anode is now at ground potential, and signal pulse can be direct-coupled into subsequent measuring circuits. This advantage is particularly important for fast pulse applications in which it is often desirable to couple the anode directly into 504hm transmission line structure.
However, operating the tube with negative high voltage means that the
photocathode will be at the full high voltage supplied to the tube, and
care must be taken to prevent spurious pulses due to high-voltage leakage through the glass tube envelope to nearby grounded structures.
Light and Magnetic Shielding The light to be accepted by the PM
tube is very weak, therefore the PM tube can not be used under exposure
to light. Intensive incident light will make the photocathode and multiplier fatigue due to the large current. therefore the power of emitting electrons for the PM tube may be lost and then the PM tube can not be
used. The PM tube must be put in the shell which is in light-tight.

The electron optics within a photomultiplier tube are particularly

sensitive to stray magnetic fie!ds because of the !ow average energy (on
the order of 100 eV) of the electrons traveling from stage to stage. In situations in which the tube is likely to be physically moved or brought
near equipment with stray magnetic fields, it is essential that a magnetic
shield be provided to prevent gain shifts of the PM tube. The most
common form conslsts of a thin cylinder of mu-metal which fits closely
around the outside glass envelope of the PM tube. For most tube
designs, this shield must be held at photocathode potential in order to
avoid disturbing the electrostatic field between the photocathode and
first dynode.
Output Pulse Shape of Scintillation Detector The anode circuit
can be idealized as shown in Fig. 2.1-22. C presents the capacitance of
the anode itself, plus capacitance of the connecting cable and input
capacitance of the circuit to which the anode is connected. The load resistance R may be a physical resistor wired into the tube base or, if none
is provided, the input impedance of the connected circuit. After one
scintillation event occurs, the current reached at node is:
i(t)=io - e

- -L

ro

(2.1 - 17)

where 7, is the reciprocal of the scintillator decay constant i.

The initial
current 6 can be expressed in terms of the total charge Q collected over
the entire pulse. Because

- lo

To

=N-M-e
following formula can be obtained

Where
N = the number of electron inverted a t the photocathode due to the
photons produced in the scintillator by one charged particle
M =the multiplication factor of the PM tube
7, = the scintillation decay time

e - 1 . 6 1~0 - l ~ ~ .

To derive the voltage pulse V(t) expected at the anode, we first note
that the current flowing into the parallel R-C circuit must be the sum of
the current flowing into the capacitance i, and the current through the
resistance i,:

The following formula can be obtained from above equation and initial
condition V(0) = 0

If R C > >T,, that is to say, the anode time constant is larger than
the scintillator decay time. then Eq. (2.1-22) can be become

If RC < < T,, then Eq. (2.1-22) can be become

The plot of these pulse forms is shown in Fig. 2.1-23.

Application of Scintillation Detector There are wide application
for scintillation detector in nuclear power plant. Using it to monitor the
total gamma radioactive in the water of the reactor primary loop, the
failure fuel element in the reactor core can be predicted. Using it to monitor the gamma radioactive level in the water of the reactor secondary
loop, the water leakage from primary into secondary can be predicted.
The scintillator whose effective atomic number is approximate to
that of the air or body tissue can replace the ionization chamber. For
example, the scintillation detector with 10cm3 scintillator will give the
current from 1 0 - l ~to~5 x 1 0 + ~for the exposure rate from lOmR / hr
to 500 R / hr. The operation range for this devices is more wide than
that for the air ionization chamber.
2.1.4

SOLID DETECTOR

In many radiation detection appiications, the use of a solid detection medium is of great advantage. For the measurement of high-energy
electrons or gamma rays. detector dimensions can be kept much smaller
than that of the equivalent gas-filled detector because solid densities are
some 1000 times greater :han that for a gas.
-in Solids The periodic lattice of crystalline
Band Structure
inaterials establishes allowed energy bands for electrons that exit within
that solid. The energy of any electron within the pure material must be
confined to one of these energy bands which may be separated by gaps
or ranges of forbidden energies. A simplified representation of the bands
of interest in insulators or semiconductors is shown in Fig. 2.1-24. The
lower band, called the valence band, corresponds to those electrons that
are bound to specific lattice sites within the crystal. In the case of silicon
or germanium, they are parts of the covalent bonding which constitute
the interatomic forces within the crystal. The next higher-lying band is
called the conduction band and represents electrons that are free to migrate through the crystal. Electrons in this band contribute to the electrical conductivity of the material. The two bands are separated by the
band gap, the size of which determines whether the material is classified
as a semiconductor or an insulator. The number of electrons within the
crystal is just adequate to completely fill all available sites within the
valence band. In the absence of thermal excitation, both insulators and
semiconductors would therefore have a configuration in which the
valence band is completely full, and the conduction band completeiy
empty. Under these circumstance, neither would theoretically show any
electrical conductivity.
Charge Carriers At any nonzero temperature, some thermal energy is shared by the electrons in the crystal. It is possible for a valence
electron to gain sufficient thermal energy to be elevated across the band
gap into the conduction band. Physically, this process simply represents
the excitation of an electron which is normally part of a covalent band
such that it can leave the specific bonding site and drift throughout the
crystal. The excitation process not only creates an electron in the otherwise empty conduction band, but it also leaves a vacancy (called a hole)
in the otherwise full valence band. The combination of the two is called
an electron-hole pair and roughly the solid-state analog of the ion pair
in gases. The probability per unit time that an electron-hole pairs is
t'lermally generated is given by
---

where
T = absolute temperature
E, = band gap energy
K = Baltzrnann constant
C = proportionality constant characteristic of the material.
As reflected in the exponential term, the probability of thermal
excitation is critically dependent on the ratio of the band gap energy to
the absolute temperature. Materials with a large band gap will have a
low probability of thermal excitation, and consequently will show the
very low electrical conductivity characteristic of insulators. If the band
gap is as low as several electron voltst sufficient thermal excitation will
cause a conductivity high enough for the material to be classified as a
semiconductor. In the absence of an applied electric field, the thermally
created electron-hole pairs ultimately recombine, and an equilibrium is
established in which the concenuation of electron-hole pairs observed
at any given time is proportional to the rate of formation.
Migration of Charge Carriers in an Electric Field If an electric
field is applied to the semiconductor material, both the electrons and
holes will undergo a net migration. The motion will be the combination
of a random thermal velocity and a net dnft velocity parallel to the direction of the applied field.
At low-to-moderate values of the electric field intensity, the drift
velocity v is proportional to the applied field. Then a mobility p for both
electrons and holes can be defined by

vh=ph0E

(2.1 - 26)

v e = p e 0E

(2.1 - 27)

where E is electric field magnitude. Numerical values for common

semiconductor materials are given in Table 2.1-7.
Many semiconductor detectors are operated with electric field values sufficiently high to result in saturated drift velocity for the charge
carriers. Because these saturated velocity are of the order 107cm/ s, the
time required to collect the carriers over typical dimensions of O.lcm or
less will be under 10 nanoseconds.

Intrinsic Semiconductors In a completely pure semiconductor, all

the electrons in the conduction band and all the holes in the valence
band would be caused by thermal excitation (in the absence of ionizing
radiation). Under these conditions each electron must leave a hole behind, the number of electrons in the conduction band must exactly equal
the number of the holes in the valence band. Such material is called an
intrinsic semiconductor. That is to say,
~

The quantities ni and pi are known as the intrinsic camer densities.

Its properties can be described theoretically, but in practice it is virtually impossible to achieve. The electrical properties of real materials
tend to be dominated by the very small levels of residual impurities.
Intrinsic hole or electron densities at room temperature are 1.5 x
1 0 ' ~ c m - ~in silicon. and 2.4 x 1 0 ' ~ c m - ~in germanium.
n-Type Semiconductor To illustrate the effect of doping on
semiconductor properties, we will use crystalline silicon as an example.
Germanium and other semiconductor materials behave in a similar way.
We first assume that the impurity is pentavalent, or is found in Group
V of the periodic table.When present in small concentrations (of the order of a few pans million or less) the impurity atom will occupy a
substitutional site within the lattice, taking the place of a normal silicon
atom. Because there are five valence electrons surrounding the impurity
atom, there is one left over after all covalent bonds have been formed. It
takes very little energy to dislodge it to form a conduction electron without a corresponding hole. Impurity of this type are referred to as donor
impurities because they readily contribute electrons to the conduction
band. Because they are not p a n of the regular lattice, the extra electrons
associated with donor impurities can occupy a position within the normally forbidden gap. These very loosely bound electrons will have an
energy near the top of the gap as shown in Fig. 2.1-25a.
Even though conduction electrons now greatly outnumber the
holes, charge neutrality is maintained because of the presence of ionized
donor impurities. These sites represent net positive charges which exactly balance the excess electron charges. They are not, however, to be confused with holes because the ionized donors are fixed in the lattice and
can not migrate.

S ome Characteristic of S i and Ge

Table 2-1-7

'

atomic number

atomic weight

atomic mass for stable

isotope

28.09

72.60

28, 29, 30

70, 72, 73,

74, 76

density (300K) (g/cmY)

2.33

5.33

number of atomic (l/cm3)

4.96X102'

4.41 X102z

dieletric

12

16

constant

'

energy band width(300K)eV 1.115

0.665

--

--

- -

--

energy band width (0K)eV

1.165

concentration of
intrinsic charge carrier
(300K) (1,'cm3)

1.5 XIOIO

2.4 X1Ol3

2.3X106

47

: intriisic
,

(O . cm)

resistivity

0.745

1 electron
i

mobility
(300K) (cm2/V sec)

hole mobility
, (300K) (cm2(V sec)
I

'

460

energy of producing one

pair of electron and hole
(300K) eV

3.62

Fano factor

0.08-0.14

0.05-0.12

The net effect in n-type material is therefore to create a situation in

which the number of conduction electrons is much greater and the number of holes much smaller than in the pure material. The electrical conduct.ivity is then deternlined almost exclusively by the flow of electrons.
and holes play a very small role. In this case, the electrons are called the
majority carriers and holes the minority carriers.
-.
The addition of a trivalent impurity such
p-Type Semiconductors
as an element from Group III of the periodic table to a silicon lattice results in a situation sketched in Fig. 2.1-25b. If the impurity occupies a
substitutional site, it has one fewer valence electron than the surrounding silicon atoms and therefore one covalent bond is left
unsaturated. This vacancy represents a hole similar to that left behind
when a normal valence electron is excited to the conduction band, but its
energy characteristics are slightly different. An electron filling this hole,
although still bound to a specific location, is slightly less firmly attached
than a typical valence electron. Therefore, these acceptor impurities also
create electron sites within the normally forbidden energy gap. In this
case, the acceptor lever lie near the bottom of the gap because their
properties are quite close to site occupied by normal valence electrons,
for example shown in Fig. 2.1-25b.
In p-type material, holes are called majority carriers and electrons
minority carriers.
Compensated Material If donor and acceptor impurities are present in a semiconductor in equal concentration, the material is said to be
compensated. Such material has some of the properties of an intrinsic
semiconductor. At present, the only practical means for achieving compensation over large volumes in silicon or germanium is through the
lithium ion dnfting process after the crystal has been fabricated.
"Ionization Energy"
When a charged particle passes through a
-semiconductor with theband structure, the overall significant effect is
the production of many electron-hole pair along the track of the particle. Regardless of the detailed mechanisms involved, the quantity of
practical interest for detector application is the average energy expended
by the primary charged particle to produce one electron-hole pair. This
quantity, often loosely called the "ionization energyNand given the symbol W still.
The dominant advantage of semiconductor detectors lies in the
smallness of the ionization energy. The values of W for either silicon or
-- -

germanium I S about 3eV.

Fano Factor
In addition to mean number the fluctuation or vari.- ance in the number of charge carriers IS also of primary interest because
of the close connection of this parameter with energy resolution of the
detector. The Fano factor F is introduced as an adjustment factor to relate the observed variance to the Poisson predicted variance
---

- -

observed statistical variance

(2.1 - 29)
E
W
where the E is the incident panicle energy which is expended in the
semiconductor. For good energy resolution, one would like the Fano
factor to be as small as possible.
Semiconductor Detector of pn Junction The radiation detectors
described here are based on the favorable properties which are created
near the junction between n- and p-type semiconductor materials.
Charge carriers are able to migrate across the junction if the region are
brought together in good thermodynamic contact.
(1) Basic Junction Properties
As an illustration, assume that
the process begins with a p-type crystal that has been doped with a uniform concentration of acceptor impurity. I n the concentration profile at
the top of Fig. 2.1-26, this original acceptor concentration NA is shown
as a horizontal line. We now assume that the surface of the crystal on
the left is exposed to a vapor of an n-type impurity which diffuses some
distance into the crystal. The resulting donor impurity profile is labeled
ND on the figure, and falls off as a function of distance from the
surface. Near the surface, the donor impurity can be made to outnumber
the acceptors, converting the left portion of the crystal to n-type material.
Because the concentration is different for the electron and hole at
the two sides of the junction, any charge carriers that can migrate freely
will has the net diffusion from the high concentration region to low concentration region.
The diffusion of conduction electrons out of the n-type material
leaves behind immobile positive charges in the form of ionized donor
impurities. A similar and symmetric argument leads to the conclusion
that holes (the majority in the p-type material) must also diffuse across
the junction because they also see an abrupt density gradient. Each hole
F=

that is removed from the p side of'the junction leaves behind an acceptor
site which has picked up an extra electron. and therefore represents a
fixed and immobile negative charge. The combined effect is to build up a
net negative space charge on the p side and a positive space charge on
the n type of the junction.
The accumulated space charge creates an electric field that diminishes t l e tendency for further diffusion. At equilibrium, the field is just
adequate to prevent additional net diffusion across junction, and a
steady-state charge distribution is therefore established.
The region over which the charge imbalance exists is called depletion region and extends into both the p and n sides of the junction. If the
concentration of donors on the n-type material is higher than that of
acceptor atoms in p-type, the electrons diffusing across the junction will
tend to travel a greater distance into the p-type material before all have
recombined with holes. In this case, the depletion region would extend
farther into the p-type side.
(2) Properties of the Reverse Biased Junction If the voltage is
applied at the pn junction and made the p side negative and the n side
positive, that is to say, the junction has applied reverse bias. In this case
the potential will tend to attract minority across the junction. Because
the concentration of the minority is very low, the reverse current is very
little.
When a reverse bias is applied to the junction, virtually all the applied voltage will appear across the depletion, because its resistivity is
much higher than that of the normal n- and p-type material. In this
case, the thickness of the depletion can be written
1

d z ( 2 - ~ - V - p - ~ ) ~

(2.1

30)

where
p = resistivity of the doped semiconductor
IL = mobility of the majority carrier
V = applied reverse bias
E = dielectric constant of the semiconductor.
Because of the fixed charges that are built u p on either side of the
junction, the depletion region exhibits some properties of a charge
capacitor. If the reverse bias is increased, the depletion represented by
the separated charges therefore decreases. The value of the capacitance

per u n i t area is

N = dopant concentration (either donors or acceptors) on the side

of the junction
e = charge of the electron.
The meaning of other parameters is same as that in Eq. (2.1-30).
(3) Surface Barrier Detector
There are many methods for fabncating the pn junction detectors. Surface barrier detectors fabricated by
gold and n-type silicon are one typical detectors of the pn junction. A
cross-sectional diagram of a typical mounting barrier detector is shown
in Fig. 2.1-27. The interface between the silicon and the gold layer on
silicon is the junction area. The large part of the junction thickness is in
the silicon. The operating principle diagram for this detector is shown in
Fig. 2.1-28, and the equivalent circuit for output is shown in Fig.
2.1-29.
The total charge of the electron-hole pairs produced by one charged particle is given by

Because the junction capacitance charges with the operating

voltage, the pulse amplitude produced by the same enerm charged particle changes with the operating voltage, is ilot a fixed value. In order to
make the output pulse amplitude is still proportional with the energy of
the charged particle during the fluctuation of the operating voltage, the
charge sensitive preamplifier shown in Fig. 2.1-30 must be used.
In the condition of (l+A)C,> >C,+C,, the pulse amplitude at the
output terminal can be derived from Fig. 2.1-30

A-Q
C* + C 3 + ( 1 + A ) - C ,

--

Output

Selecting the capacitor with good stabiiity as the feedback capacitor C,

the requirement that the pulse amplitude is proportional with the energy
of rhe charged particle can be ~ealized,and the pulse amplitude is independent of the fluctuation of the external applied voltage.
(4) Collection Time for Electron-hole Pairs
Normally, applied
reverse bias is very high, and can reached to a few hundred volts to one
thousand volts and over, it make the drift velocity of electron-hole pairs
reach the maximum value. In this case, the collection time for
eiectron-hole pairs is about lo-".
(5) Radiation Damage
The radiation damage affects the properties for the semiconductor. Because exposure make the semiconductor
material appear crystalline defects, and then make the resistivity and
drift of charge carrier destructible, the application properties of
semiconductor detector are affectzd. Therefore, semiconductor detectors
are often used in measuring of the weaker radiation field.
High-Purity Germanium Detector The high-purity germanium
detector is widely used for gamma spectroscopy and for nuclide analysis
of the samples contained gamma radioactivity.
The high-purity germanium detector can be classified as two types:
planar geometry and coaxial geometry.
The operating principle diagram of planar geometry high-purity
germanium detector is shown in Fig. 2.1-3 1.
This is one kind of nfpp+ junction detector for the shown planar
geometry high-purity germanium detector . The sensitive region of the
detector extends from the nf boundary of the high-purity germanium
region into high-purity germanium region. With increasing of the operating voltage, the sensitive region can extend to pf boundary of the
high-purity germanium region. As good as pn junction detector, the relationship of thickness of sensitive region and the applied bias is the
same as Eq. (2.1-30). The equation of the junction capacitor is the same
as Eq. (2.1-31). When V is high enough and then making the value of d
larger than the thickness of the high-purity germanium region, the sensitive region thickness of the detector reaches the maximum value.
Therefore, during the high-purity germanium detector is operating, the
operating voitage changes with the requirement of the sensitive region.
--

The junction capacitor decreases with the V increase. When V is over

certain value. the capacitor is no longer decrease.
The operating principle dizgram of the coaxial geometry detector
made by high-purity germanium is shown in Fig. 2.1-32.
The electric field configuration in the p region of the coaxial geometry high-purity germanium can be described by

where
of the medium
NA=concentration of acceptor impurity in the p-type high-purity
germanium
r = perpendicular distance from axial line
e = 1.6 x 10-19c.
In order to ensure the sensitive regon thickness of the detector to
the maximum value r,-r, of the geometry thickness itself, the minimum
value of operating voltage applied at the detector can estimated by
E

= dielectric constant

The junction capacitor of the coaxial geometry detector is decreasing with the V is increasing. When the operating voltage is over the
V,,,, the value of the junction capacitance is no longer decreasing.
2.1.5 Neutron Detector
Neutron are detected through nuclear reactions which result in energetic charged particles such as protons, alphas, and so forth. Virtually
every type of neutron detector involves the combination of a target material designed to carry out this conversion together with one of the
conventional radiation detectors discussed in earlier sections.
In searching
Nuclear Reactions of Interest in Neutron Detection
for nuclear reactions that might be useful in neutron detection, several
factors must be considered. First, the cross sections for the reaction must
be as large as possible so that efficient detectors can be built with small

chmensions. Second, the target nuclide should either be of high isotopic

abundance in the natural element. Third. of principal important here is
the Q-value of the reaction which determines the energy liberated in the
reactions following neutron capture. The higher the Q-value, the greater
will be the energy given to the reaction products, and the easier will be
the task of discriminating against gamma ray events using simple
amplitude discrimination.
(1) The 10B(n,a) reaction
Probably the most popular reaction
for the conversion of slow neutrons into directly detectable particles is
the '%(n,a) reaction. The reaction may be written:

where the branching indicates that the reaction product 'Li may be left
either in its ground state or in its first excited state. The excited lithium
nucleus quickly returns (half-life of 10-13s) to its ground state with the
emission of a 0.48MeV gamma ray. When thermal neutrons (0.025eV)
are used to induce the reaction, about 94 percent of all reactions lead to
the excited state and only 6 percent directly to the ground state. For all
excited state, ELi= 0.84MeV and E,= 1.47MeV.
Figure 2.1-33 is a plot of cross sections versus neutron energy for a
number of nuclear reactions of interest in neutron detection. The thermal neutron cross section for the 'OB (n,a) reaction is 3840 barns. The
cross section value drops rapidly with increasing neutron energy and is
proportional to 1 / v (the reciprocal of the neutron velocity) over much
9
is 19.8 percent.
of the range. The natural isotopic abundance of '
( 2 ) The 6 ~ i ( n , aReaction
)
The next most popular reaction for
the detection of slow neutron is the 6 ~ i ( n , areaction:
)

Calculation of the neutron product energies for negligible incoming

neutron energy yields the following:

The flying direction of alpha panicle and triton produced in the reaction
must be opposite when the incoming neutron energy is low.
The thermal neutron cross section is 940 barns. 6 ~ occurs
i
with a

neutral isotopic abundance of 7.40 percent and is also widely available in

separated form.
(3) The 3He(n,pj reaction
The gas 3 ~ is ealso widely used as
a detection medium for neutrons through the reaction:
3

He + ,n

+ p + 0.765MeV

(2.1 - 38)
For reactions induced by slow neutrons, the Q-value of 0.765MeV !eads
to opposite direction reaction products with energies:
2

-t

The thermal neutron cross section for the reaction is 5330 barns.
Proportional
-Tube
A widely used detector for slow
BF3-neutrons is the BF, proportional tube. In this devices, boron trifluoride
serves both as the target for slow neutron conversion into secondary
particles as well as a proportional gas. In nearly all commercial
detectors, the gas is highly enriched in 'OB.
( I ) BF, tube pulse height spectra
Figure 2.1-34a shows the
ideal pulse height spectrum expected from a BF3 tube of very large dimensions. For a large tube, nearly all the reactions occur sufficiently far
from the walls of the detector to deposit the full energy of the products
within the proportional gas.
Once the size of the tube is no longer large compared with the range
of the alpha particle and recoil lithium nucleus produced in the reaction,
some events no longer deposit the full reaction energy in gas. If either
particle strikes the chamber wall, a smaller pulse is produced. The cumulative effect of this type of process is known as the "wall effects" in gas
counter. The range of the alpha particle produced in the reaction is o n
the order of a centimeter for typical BF, gas pressure.
Figure 2.1-34b shows the differential pulse height spectrum expected from a tube in which the wall effect is important. The primary
change from the spectrum shown in Fig. 2.1-34a is the addition of a
continuum to the left of the peaks corresponding to particle energy deposition in the gas of the tube.
The BF, tube is an example of a detector from which the
differential pulse height spectrum tells us nothing about the enerm spectrum of the incident radiation, but is a function only of the size and geometry of the detector itself. We are likely to seek a stable operating
-

point or a counring plareau for which small drifts in operating

parameters do not significantly affect the neutron sensitivity of the
counter. That objective would be met by setting a fixed discriminator
level a t the point labeled A in Fig. 2.1-34a. The flatten portion of that
plateau should occur when the effective discrimination point is at point
A.
(2) BF, tube construction
The neutron detecting efficiency can
be increased and the wall effect suppressed by making the rube large in
dimension. Similar improvements can be achieved raising the pressure of
BF, fillgas.
Tn common with most proportional counters, BF, tubes are universally constructed using cylindrical outer cathodes and small diameter
central wire anodes. Aluminum is often the material of choice for the
cathodes because of its low neutron interaction cross section. F o r low
background application, other material such as stainless steel are preferred because aluminum normally shows a small amount of low level alpha activ~ty.With typical anode diameters of O.lmm or less, operating
voltages tends to be about 2000-3000V.
The
- ,He Proportional Counter
With a cross section even higher
~)
is a n attractive
than that of the boron reaction, the , ~ e ( n , reaction
alternative for slow neutron detection. Unfortunately, because ,He is a
noble gas, no solid compounds can be fabricated and the material must
be used in gaseous form.
,He of sufficient purity will act as an acceptable proportional gas,
and detectors based on this approach have come into common use. Because the range of the reaction products is not always small compared
with the dimensions of the proportional tube, however, the wall effect
discussed earlier for a BF, tube can also be important for ,He proportional counters. The expected pulse height spectrum for tube of typical
size is illustrated in Fig. 2.1-35. Only a signal full-energy peak should
be expected for neutron energies which are small compared with
765keV. The step structure to the left of the peak is similar to that shown
in Fig. 2.1-34b for a BF, tube. expect that the discontinuities will occur
at energies corresponding to that of the proton (574keV) and triton
(1 9 1keV).
The continuum in the pulse height spectrum due to the wall effect is
detrimental from several standpoints. The voltage range over which an
acceptable counting plateau will be observed is reduced. and the small
-1 00-

pulse height for some neutron events will reduce the separation expected
from low-amplitude, gamma-induced pulse.
e
can be operated a t
Compared with the BF, tube, ' ~ countex
much hisher pressures with acceptable gas multiplica~ionbehavior, and
are therefore preferred for those applications in which maximum detection efficiency is important. The low Q-value of the ' ~ reaction,
e
however, makes gamma ray discrimination more difficult than that of an
equivalent BF, tube.
-Slow Neutron Detectors Because a stable
Lithium-Containing
lithium-containing proportional gas does not exist, a lithium equivalent
of the BF, tube is not available. Because the lithium reaction goes
exclusively to the ground state of the product nucleus, the same energy is
always imparted to the reaction products for all slow neutron
interactions. The resulting pulse height distribution in detectors which
absorb all this energy is therefore a simple single peak.
Lithium-containing scintillators are quite common as also neutron
detectors. A logical choice, because of its chemical similarity to sodium
iodide, is crystalline lithium iodide. If a small amount (less than 0.1
percent of atoms) of europium is incorporated as an activator, light outputs of about 35 percent of the equivalent NaI(T1) yield can be achieved.
The scintillation decay time is approximately 0.3,s.
Similar to sodium iodide, lithium iodide is highly hygroscopic and
can not be exposed to water vapor. Commercially available crystals are
hermetically sealed in a thin canning material with an optical window
provided o n one face. Because of the high density of the material the
crystal size need not be large for very efficient slow neutron detection.
For example, a lOmm thick crystal prepared from highly enriched 6 ~ i ~
remains nearly 100 percent efficient for neutrons with energy from
thermal through the cadmium cut off of 0.5eV.
Counters Based o n Neutron Moderation The inherently low detection efficiency for fast neutrons of any above detector can be somewhat improved by surrounding the detector with a few centimeters of
hydrogenous moderating material. The incident fast neutron can then
lose a fraction of its initial kinetic energy in the moderator before reaching the detector as a lower energy neutron, for which the detector efficiency is generally higher.
The efficiency of a moderated slow neutron detector when used
with a monoenergetic fast neutron source will show a maximum at a

specific moderator thickness. Assumins that the moderator is the usual

choice of a hydrogenous material such as polyethylene o r paraffin. the
optimum thickness will range from a few centimeters for keV neutrons
up to several tens o f centimeters for neutrons in the MeV energy range.
When the properties of a small lithium iodide scintillator placed a t
the center of polyethylene moderating spheres of different diameters
were investigated, the experimental measurements were made of the sensitivity of the device to neutron of variable energy for sphere diameters
ranging from 5.08cm to 30.48cm. Their results are shown in Fig. 2.1-36.
The response curve of the 30.48cm sphere have a similar shape compared with the dose equivalent delivered per neutron as a function of energy. Because of the similarity of the two curves, the efficiency of the
detector is high for those neutrons whose biological importance is high,
and is low for neutrons that deliver less dose. Therefore, the overall
count from the detector in a polyenergetic spectrum will automatically
include proper weighting factors for all energies and give a meaningful
measure of the combined dose due to all the neutrons. Typical intrinsic
efficiency for a 30.48cm sphere, defined as the fraction of neutrons that
strike the surface of the sphere which ultimately result in a count, is 2.5
x 10" a t the peak of the 30.84cm detector response. Translated into
dose, the average response corresponding to about 3 x lo3 counts per
mrem. It is virtually the only monitoring instrument that can provides
realistic neutron dose estimation over the many decades of neutron energy ranging from thermal energies to the MeV range.
An alternate version of the spherical neutron dosimeter is shown in
Fig. 2.1-37, A spherical 3 ~ proportional
e
counter has been substituted
for the lithium iodide scintillator as the slow neutron detector. Used
with the 20.8cm diameter polyethylene moderator, the energy response
of the system to thermal and epithermal neutrons is higher than ideal so
a spherical cadmium absorber, perforated with a number of holes, is
e
to shape the response curve. The
placed around the 3 ~ detector
detector underestimates a t thermal energy and overestimates in the keV
range, so that the overall response to a mixed spectrum of neutrons
should more realistically reflect the actual dose equivalent in most applications.

2.2 STATISTIC OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT

Radioactive decay is a random process. Consequently, any
-102-

measurement which is based on observing the radiatiori emitted in nuclear decay is subject to some degree of statistical fluctuation. These inherent iluctuations represent an unavoidable source of uncertainty in all
nuclear measurement, aiid oftea can be the predominant source of
imprecision or error. Statistics of radiation measurement includes the
framework of statistical analysis to process the results of nuclear experiments to make predictions about the expected precision of quantities
derived from these measurements.
The value of statistic of radiation measurement falls into two general categories. The first is to serve as a check on the normal function of a
piece of nuclear counting equipment. Here a set of measurements is recorded under conditions in which all aspects of the experiment are held
as constant as possible.Because of the influence of statistical
fluctuations, these measurements will not all be the same but will show
some degree of internal variation. The amount of this fluctuation can be
quantified and compared with predictions of statistical models. If the
amount of observed fluctuation is not consistent with predictions, one
can conclude that some abnormality exists in the counting system. The
second application deals with the situation in which we have only one
measurement. We can then use statistics of radiation measurement to
predict its inherent statistical uncertainty and thus estimate a precision
that should be associated with that single measurement.

2.2.1

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Characterization of Data We will assume that we have a collection of N independent measurements of the same physical quantity:
x,,x 2,..-.-. 7xi7.---.PN
we will further assume that a single value xi from this set can only assume integer values so that the data might represent, for example, a
number of successive reading from a radiation counter for equal time intervals. Two elementary properties of this data set are
X

"Sum":

z= Cxi
I =

"Experimental mean1/: x

r
-

The experimental mean is written with the subscript e to distinguish it

fi-om the mean of a particular statistical model which will be introduced
later.
It is often convenient to represent the data set by a frequency distribution function F(x). The value of F(x) is the relative frequency. By definition
number of occurrences of the value "x"
(2.2 - 3)
number of measurements ( = N)
The frequency distribution function F(x) is normalized, that is

F(x) =

3C

C F(x)= 1

(2.2 - 4)

r-0

As long as we d o not care about the specific sequence of the

number, the complete data distribution function F(x) represents all the
information contained in the original data set.
Table 2.2-1 gives a hypothetical set of data consisting of 20 entries.
The corresponding values of F(x) are also shown in Table 2.2-1. Because these entries range from 3 to 14, the data distribution function will
have nonzero only between these extreme values of the argument x.
Table 2.2-1

tg

Example of D a t a Distribution Function

Data

Frequency Distribution
-Function
p(3)= 1 / 20
= 0.05
i

14

A plot of the data distribution function for the example is~givenin

Fig. 2.2-1. These data show an experimental mean, X e = 8.8. The dis-p~

tribution function is in some sense centered about experimental mean.

Furthermore. the relative shape of the distribution function indicates
qualitatively the amount of internal fluctuation in the data set.
Fig. 2.2-2 shows the shape of the distribution function corresponding to two extreme sets of data: one with large amounts of scatter
about the mean and one with little. An obvious conclusion is that the
width of the distribution function is a relative measure of the mount of
fluctuation or scattering about the mean inherent in a given set of data.
It is possible to calculate the experimental mean by using the data
distribution function, because the mean of any distribution is simply its
first moment.

It is also possible to derive another parameter, known as sample variance, which will serve to quantify the amount of internal fluctuation in
the data set. The first step is to define the deviation of any data point as
the amount by which it differs from the mean value
-

ei = X i

Xc

(2.2 - 6)

The 20 numbers given in Table 2.2-1 is shown as the bar graph of Fig.
2.2-3a. The deviation of these value has been plotted on Fig. 2.2-3b.
There must be an equal contribution of positive and negative deviation,
so that
N

C E =~O
I-

(2.2 - 7)

If we take the square of each deviation, however, the result will always
be a positive number. The graph are plotted for the example in Fig.
2.2-3c.
We can now introduce the sample variance s2 as

Which will now serve as single index of the degree of fluctuation inher-

ent in the original data. As long as the number of data entries N is reasonably large, the sample variance is essentially the average value of the
squared deviation of each data point. To be precise, the sample variance
is more fundamentally defined as the average value of the square of the
deviation of each data point from the true mean value x which would
be derived if an infinite number of data point were accumulated

Because we can not know x from a finite set of measurements, we

use value X~ to calculate values for deviation. Use of the experimental
mean value will tend to reduce the average deviation and therefore result
in smaller than normal variance. In statistical parlance, the number of
degrees of freedom of the system has been reduced by one, and the -1
which appears in the denominator of Eq. (2.2-8) accounts for this
self-minimizing effect.
The sample variance is an absolute measure of the amount of the
scatter in the data, and does not, to first approximation, depend on the
number of values in the data set. For example, of the data shown in Fig.
2.2-3 were extended by collecting an additional 20 values by the same
process, we would not expect the sample variance calculated for the extended collection of 40 numbers to be substantially different from that
shown in Fig. 2.2-3.
We can calculate the sample variance directly from the data distribution function F(x). Because Eq. (2.2-9) indicates that s2 is simply the
we can write s2 as
average value of (X c

s2= r ( x - x 1 2

- F(X)

(2.2 - 10)

r-0

An expansion of Eq. 2.2-10 will yield the well-known result

-

s2 = x2

-x2

(2.2 - 1 I )

We can make two conclusions from above:

a) Any set of data can be completely described by its frequency
distribution function F(x).
b) Two properties of this frequency distribution function, the experimental mean and the sample variance. are particular important.
Statistical Models Under certain conditions, we can predict the

dstribution function that will describe the results of many repeatitions

of a given measurement. We will define a measurement as counting the
number of successes resulting from a given number of trials. Each trail
will be assumed to be a binary process in that onlv two results are possible: the trail either success or it is not a success. For everything that follows, we will assume that the probability of success is a constant for all
:rials.
Table 2.2-2 gives three separate examples to show how these conditions apply to real situations. The third example indicates the basis for
applying the theoretical framework that follows to the case of counting
nuclear radiation events. In this case a trial is to observe a given radiation nucleus for a period of time t, the number of trials is equivalent to
the number of nuclei in the sample under observation, and the
measurement is to count those nuclei that undergo decay. We will identify the probability of success of any one trial as p. In the experiment of
- ;.I
radioactive decay, that probability is equal to ( I - e ), where i.is the
decay constant of the radioactive sample.
Table 2.2-2
Tnal

Tossing a coin

Example of Binary Processes

Defin~tionof Success

1/2

'a SLX"
-

nucleus for a ume t

Probabil~tyof Success=p

"heads'

Rolling a die
Obscrv~nga glven rad~oacuve

'
I

- .

1/ 6

The nucleus decays d u n g

Lhc obsemauon

(1) The Binomial Distribution. This is the most general model

and is widely applicable to all constant-p processes. The binomial distribution is computational cumbersome in radioactive decay and is used
only rarely in nuclear measurement because the number of nuclei is always very large in radioactive decay, In order to examine data acquired
by counting a very short-lived radioisotope with a detector of high
counting efficiency the binomial distribution must be used.
If n is the number of trials for which each trial has a success probability p, then the predicated probability of counting x success can be
shown
-107-

n!

p x (1 - p ) n - x
(n x)! x!
p(x) is the predicated probability distribution function as given by the
binomial distribution. and is defined only for integer value of n and x.
For the radioactive decay, following formula is given by

p(s)

---

N(t) = N o e

- Lt

where No is the number of atoms of a given radioactive species existing

at a starting time t = 0, N is the number of surviving atom at some time t,
A is the disintegration constant. In the interval from t=O to t = t, the
number n of atomic disintegations would be given by N,(1

- i~

).

Then the probability of any single atomic disintegration at some time t

can be written as

= I -e

-i

(2.2 - 13)
but the probability q of non-disintegrations, then the probability of the
atomic disintegration of the atoms is as
q= I - ~ =
e -i t
Substitute above p and q into the binomial disintegrations in the interval
of time t can be written as
N o!
p(n>= (No - n)! n! (1-e

-it

- i.t N o - n

>(e

We will show one example of an application of the binomial distribution. Imagine that we have an honest die so that the numbers 1
through 6 are all equally probable. Let us define a successful roll as one
in which any of the numbers 3, 4, 5 or 6 appear. Because there are four
of the six possible results, the individual probability of success p is equal
to 4 / 6 or 0.667. We will now roll the die a total of ten times and record
the number of rolls that result in success as defined above. The binomial
distribution will now allow us to calculate the probability that exactly ?r
out of the ten trials will be successful, where x can vary between 0 and
10. Table 2.2-3 gives the value of the predicted probability distribution

from Eq. (2.2-1 2) For the parameters p = 2 / 3 and n

are also plotted in Fig. 2.2-4.

10. The results

Thus we can calculate the expected number of successes by multiplying

the number of trial n by the probability p that any one trial will result in
a success. In the example just discussed. an average number of successes
is shown by

The mean value is obviously a very fundamental and important property

of any predicated distribution.
(c) A predicted variance is a single parameter which can describe
the amount of fluctuation predicted by a given distribution. We have already defined such a parameter, called the sample variance, for a set of
experimental data as Eq. (2.2-10). By a n a l o a we will define a predicted
variance 02 which will be a measure of the scatter about the mean predicted by a specific statistical model p ( ~ )

r-0

conventionally, 02 is called the variance, we will emphasize the fact that

it is associated with a predicted probability distribution function by calling it a predicted variance. It is also conventional to define the standard
deviation as the square root of 02.The variance is in some sense a typical
value of the square of the deviation from the mean. Therefore, a represents a typical value for deviation itself, hence is called as '{standard deviation''.
If we carry out the summation indicated in Eq. (2.2-18) for the specific case of p(x) given by the binomial distribution, the following result
is obtained:
a-=n-p-(1-p)
Because % = n p, Eq. 2.2-1 9 can be written as

o = u ' x *( I - ~ )
(2.2 - 21)
We have an expression which will give an immediate prediction of the
amount of: fluctuation inherent in a given binomial distribution in terms
of the basic parameters of the distribution, n and p, where % = n p.
For the above example, we define success in such a way that

p = 2 / 3. and assumed 10 rolls of the die for the measurement of each

group so thac n = 10. The predicted variance is given by
7

= n * p (1 - p) = 10 x 0.667 x 0.313 = 2.22

By taking the square root of the above value we get the predicted standard deviation:
rs

a=\/a2

=\12.22= 1.49

For this example, the mean value and the standard deviation are shown
in Fig. 2.2-4.
(2) The Poisson Distribution.
Many categories of binary process can be characterized by a low probability of success for each individual trial. For most nuclear counting experiments in which large numbers of nuclei are included in the sample, whereas a relatively small fraction of these give rise to recorded counts. Under these conditions the
approximation that p < < 1 will holed and some mathematical simplification can be applied to the binomial distribution. I t can be shown that
in this limicthe binomial distribution reduces to the form

Because p n = % holds for this distribution as well as for the binomial

distribution, we can obtain:

which is the familiar form of the Poisson distribution.

Important properties of the Poisson distribution are as follows:
a. It is a normalized distribution:
n

I: p(x)= 1

(2.2 - 24)

r-0

b. The mean value of the distribution can be calculated by:

2

s= 1s-p(x)=p-n

(2.2 - 25)

1-0

c. The predicted variance of the hstribution differs from that of

the binomial and can be evaluated from this definition:

T: ( x - i ) - p ( x ) = p n

(2.2

26)

x-0

This result can also be obtained at the condition p < < 1 from Eq.
(2.2-20). From Eq. (2.2-25), we can obtain:
v&k;&a
L
-

=x
The predicted standard deviation is shown by
G

dF

(2.2 - 27)

(2.2 28)
The predicted standard deviation of any Poisson distribution is just the
square root of the mean value which characterizes that same
distribution. In the limit of p < < 1, Eq. (2.2-28) can also be obtained
from Eq. (2.2-21).
We will now state the usage of the Poisson distribution with a example. We randomly select a group of 1000 people and define our
measurement as counting the birthday among all member of that group.
The measurement consists of 1000 trials, each of which is a success only
if today is just his or her birthday. If we assume a random distribution
of birthday in one year, then the probability of success p is equal to
1 / 365. Because p < < 1, this measurement can be described by the
Poisson distribution. For this example, p = 1 / 365 = 0.00274, n = 1000, F
= 2.74, a = 1.66. Thus, the distribution can be shown by
a=

from wnich the value of Table 2.2-4 can be evaluated.

Table 2.2-4

Probability that x birthday will be observed from

1000 people in the same day
X
P(X>
0
0.064

p(x) gives the predicted probability that x birthday will be observed

from a random sampling of 1000 people. The value are plotted in Fig..
2.2-5 and show that x = 2 is the most probable result. The mean value of
2.74 is also plotted in the figure, together with one value of the standard
deviation on either side of the mean value. The distribution is centered
about the mean value, but considerable asymmetry is evident for this
low value of the mean.
(3) The Gaussian o r Normal Distribution
The Poisson distribution is a mathematical simplification to the binomial distribution in
the limit p < < 1. If the mean value of the distribution is large (for example, the mean value >20) Poisson distribution can further be simplified
and then can lead to the Gaussian distribution:
1

p(x) =

- (X

- i)'-

(2.2 - 29)
2zx
This is again a pointwise distribution function defined only for integer
value of x. I t shares the following properties with the Poisson distribution:
a. It is normalized:
t

x,

b. The distribution is characterized by a single parameter which

is given by the product np;
o is given equal to the mean value F.
c. The predicted variance '
The Ganssian distribution has two properties:
a. The distribution is symmetric about the mean value X. Therefore
p(x) depends only on the absolute value of the deviance of any value x
from the mean, defined as E = 1 x - ? 1.
b. Because the mean value E is large, value of p(x) for adjacent
value of x are not greatly different from each other, in other words, the
distribution is slowly varying.
These two properties suggest a recasting of the distribution as a n explicit
function of the deviation E (rather than of x) and as a continuous function (rather than a pointwise discrete function). These changes are accomplished by rewriting the Gaussian distribution as

where G(&)deis defined as the differential probability of observing a deviation in & about E . Because o = fi,Eq. (2.2-30) can be written as
2

G(E)= 7
e

--

~~

2b2

V2na

Comparing Eq. (2.2-30) with Eq. (2.2-29), a factor of 2 has entered in

G(E)because there are two value of x for every value of the deviation E.
Now we return to the previous example of counting birthdays out
of a group of randomly selected individuals, but now consider a group
of 10000 people. For this example, p = 1 / 365 and n = 10000, so the predicted mean value of the distribution ?i=
np = 27.4. Because the predicted mean is larger than 20, we can turn to the Gaussian distribution
for the predicted distribution of the results of many measurements, each
of which consist of counting the number of birthday found in a different
group of 10000 people. The predicted probability of observing a specific
count x is given by

and the predicted standard variance for the example is

a = 427.4 = 5.23

These results are shown graphically in Fig. 2.2-6a.

Fig. 2.2-6b shows the continuous form of the Gaussian distribution
for the same example chosen to illustrate the discrete case. Comparing
Fig. 2.2-6a and Fig. 2.2-6b, the scale factors for each abscissa are the
same but the origin for Fig. 2.2-6b has been shifted to illustrate that a
value of zero for deviation E corresponds to the position of the mean
value ? on Fig. 2.2-6a. If a factor 2 difference in the relative ordinate
scale is included, then the continuous distribution G(E) represents the
smooth curve which connects the pointwise values plotted in Fig.
2.2-6a.
But the continuous form of the Gaussian distribution for often use
is Eq. (2.2-29) (rather than Eq. (2.2-30)). Eq. (2.2-29) can be rewritten
as

Because the Gaussian distribution is symmetric and continuous, we

can use this property to conveniently evaluate the probability a(%
_+ za)
of the measurement value which appeared in the range of 2 za is
shown by

In order to conveniently calculate, we will change the distribution into

the standardized form of the Gaussian distribution. Let
-

-X
z --. XG

then

In that case, the origin of scale z is in the position of the value ?r and the
unit in a , that is, the size of a is equal to one. Eq. (2.2-33), the disuibution of % = 0 and a = 1, is called as n(0,l) distribution and again as the
standardized normal distribution.
A numerous calculations have been made using the standardized
Gaussian distribution. F o r different value of z, we have evaluate the
probability of the measurement values which appear in the range of 0 k
z. F o r example, a t z = 1, the probability @ ( I ) is given by

= 0.683

(2.2 - 34)
Eq. (2.2-34) shows that a group of the measurement value obeys the
Gaussian distribution, and that 68.3 percent of all measurement values
will deviate from the mean value by less than one value of the standard
deviation. In the same way, we can calculate the probability of the
measurement values which will deviate from the mean value by less than
two or three values of the standard deviation. Table 2.2-5 gives the
-116-

probability for different value of z. Fig. 2.2-7

standard normal distribution.
Table 2.2-5

shows the graphical

Value of the Probability @(z)

Corresponding Values of z

APPLICATIONS O F STATISTICAL MODELS There are two

major applications of measuring statistics in nuclear measurements. We
will call the first application "Application AN.The first application involves the use of statistical analysis to determine whether a set of multiple measurements of the same physical quantity shows an amount of internal fluctuation which is consistent with statistical predictions. The
usual purpose here is to determine whether a specific counting system is
functioning normally. We will call the second application "Application
B". In "Application B" we will examine the methods available to make a
prediction about the uncertainty that should associate with single
measurement to account for the unavoidable effects of statistical fluctuation.
Application A: Checkout of the counting system to see if observed

fluctuaticn are consistent with expected statistical fluctuation. Under

keeping all experimental conditions as constant as possible we will periodically record a series of 20 to 50 successive counts from the detector
system. By applying following analytical procedures, it can be determined whether the inherent fluctuation shown by these multiple
measurements is consistent with a amount of fluctuation expected if statistical fluctuation is only origin. In this way abnormal amount of fluctuation can be detected which could indicate malfunctioning of some
portion of the counting system.
Fig. 2.2-8 shows the chain of events that characterized this application. Properties of the experimental data are confined to the left half of
the figure, whereas on the right-hand side are listed properties of an appropriate statistical model. Suppose that the data of N independent
measurements is successive oneminute counts from a detector. The diseibution function F(x) as defined in Eq. (2.2-3) can be complied, then
mean value Y e and sample variance S' can be computed.
Next task is to match this experimental data with an appropriate
statistical model. Almost universally we will want to match to either a
Poisson or Gaussian distribution (depending on how large the mean
value is). Either of the distribution is fully determined by it own mean
value E. E e is only optimal estimate of the mean value for the distribution from which the data has been obtained. Setting E = Fe

then pro-

vides the bridge from left to right in the figure, so that we have a fully
specified statistical model. If we let p(x) represent the Poisson or
Gaussian distribution with T7 = Kc, provided the statistical model
accurately describes the data distribution, then measured data distribution function F(x) should be an approximation to p(x). p(x) and F(x) are
plotted in same figure to compare the shape and amplitude of the two
dstribution.
A comparison of two function as shown above is only qualitative. It
is desirable to extract a single parameter from each distribution so that
they can be compared quantitatively. The most fundamental parameter
is the mean value, but these have already been compared and are the
same as definition. A second parameter is the variance, and we can carry
out the quantitative comparison by determining the predicted variance
2 of the statistical model and comparing with the measured sample va-

3.3.1 INFLUENCE O F FACTORS ON EXPOSURE IN RADIATION FIELD

For any regulation in radiation protection its basic principle is to
decrease exposure. Either external exposure or internal exposure will be
reduced to as low as reasonably achievable. If to remove the radiation is
impossible or not practice it is necessary to consider the other measures
to reach the aim of protecting the workers.
For a given radiation field the factors which determined the dose
received by individual are as follows:
a. exposure time,
b. distance from the radiation source,
c. shielding.
The time factor, more simply, is that the longer the staying time in
radiation field for individual, the higher the exposure received by individual. Some time, while dealing with an emergency event especially the
job must be done in a strong radiation field. In this case it is necessary to
plan the working procedural carefully in advance outside the radiation
field so that the shortest time is used to perform the job. If the time is
over long for one person performs this job and the exposure received
will exceed the regulated limit from performing this job it must be to organize large numbers of person to perform this job, that is to say, using
the small amount of exposure for many persons replaces the large
amount of one person.
The radiation fluence rate decrease with the distance from the radiation source for this point. Suppose that the point considered is a penetration radiation source, then the radiation fluence rates of any cwo
points are proportional inversely to the square of radial distance from
these two points to radiation source. This law is only suitable for the
dimension of source and detector is less than the distance between the
source and detector, and this distance is measured in air or vacuum. For
other non-point source radiation fluence rate will decrease with the increment of distance , but is not proportional inversely to square of distance.
While operating the radioactive source or doing the radiochemical
experiment, using the long handle tools can greatly reduce the dose received by experimenters. But if the handle is long the operation is not
flexible and the operation time may be enlarged, therefore the distance
-181-

protection and the rime protection musr be used overall planning and
nimbly.
However, normally the worker faces the space problem or the
worker must be close to the position of radiation source and then performs the job. Therefore, this case limits us to consider the problem
from the distance. In this case one suitable shield material can be put into the place between the source and worker to eliminate the detriment.
The selection of shield materials and its thickness depends on the type
and energy of radiation.
In order to decreasing the detriment of external exposure as possible the factors of the time, distance and shielding may use separately and
together.
While selecting the shielding materials the protection against the
worker must be considered firstly. But the other factors influence the selection of materials also. For example, we must know if economy, if
cumbersome, how large space the shield is allowed to occupy, we must
know if the shield material has suitable construction strength. Besides,
we must know if the material produces the poison and contamination
and in order not to influence the precision measurement of various instruments we must know what level the radiation must be reduced to.
3.3.2 PROTECTTON O F VARIOUS RAYS
There are external exposure and internal exposure for body exposured to radiation. External exposure is exposure to radiation source
outside the body for the body, and internal exposure is the exposure
against body and induced by the radionuclides which come into body inside. The former is induced by the X, y rays, neutron beam, charged particles with high energy and P raysyxandthe latter is induced by breathing,
eating the radionuclides and absorbing the radionuclides through the
good skin and the injurious skin. For these two kind of exposure mode
there are completely different two protection means.
For protection of external exposure, normally one of these methods
discussed in section 3.3-1 is adopted. The method of using shield materials between source and worker will be discussed in more detail in next
section.
The protection method of internal exposure is completely different
from the protection method of external exposure. For the protection
method of internal exposure the most principal method is to reduce the
-1

82-

chance of radionuclides come into the body as possible. For example,

laying down the reasonable health management system, ventilation,
leaving with and operating radiation source in airtight case and individual protection. All of these measures are from this basic iciea.
For the radiation protection of reactors it is rare to concern the
protection of external exposure of charged particles. Therefore. this
problem will not be discussed in this book.
3.3.3 PROTECTION O F EXTERNAL EXPOSURE F O R G A M M A
RAYS
The purposes of protection of external exposure are to control the
radiation exposure against the body, and to make it keep all justifiable
exposures as low as reasonably achievable. The dose calculation of external exposures is the basic of radiation protection and shielding calculation.
Dose Calculation of Point-Shape Gamma Source If the distance
between the radiation source and one point in the radiation field is five
times larger than the geometric dimension of radiation source itself,
namely, the radiation source can be considered as the p o i n t s h a p e
source, any shape radiation source can be considered as the summation
of many point-shape sources, therefore, the case of point-shape source
is only discussed here.
1. Kerma K
The Kerma. K , is the quotient of dE,, by dm, where dE, is the
sum of initial kinetic energies of all the charged ionizing particles liberated by charged ionizing particles in a material of mass dm, namely

The concept of Kerma is only suitable for y rays, X rays and neutron.
The initial kinetic e n e r g includes possible nuclear reactions, whether
these kinetic energies deposit at any place.
The unit of Kerma is same with the unit of absorbed dose, i.e.
J / kg. The special unit is Gy.
According to the definition of inass energy transfer coefficient. The
Kerma of medium which is in position of radiation field of non-charged
monoenergetic particles with fluence @ and energy E is

where fx -- E

pen

is called exposure factor which repreP

a
sents the exposure related to unity photon fluence. Its unit is C kg-'
m2. Table 3.3-1 lists the exposure factor, f,, for different energy gamma
rays.
(---)a,,

(T)

Table 3.3-1

1 photon energy (MeV)

Value of Exposure Factor

f, (C kg-' m2)

phocon energy (MeV) .

f, (C kg-' m2)

According to Eq. (3.3-8) if the fluence of gamma rays with energy

E is known, as long as the mass energy transfer coefficient of gamma
~ , be looked u p the exposure, X, can be calcurays in air, (pen/ P ) ~ can
lated. The addend Table 1 . I lists the mass energy transfer coefficient of
-gamma rays with various energy in air.
The exposure rate is

Example gamma ray energy emitted from

' 3 7 ~ ssource is
0.662>1cV, the gamma ray fluence measured at point 1 meter from the
source is 1 x 10'm--' s-', evaluating the exposure rate at this point.
Solving According ro Eq. (3.3-93, rne exposure rate is

From Table 3.3- 1 the f,eq uals 9.2 19 x 10-"C

sure rate at the point I meter from source is

kg-'

m2,then the expo-

3. exposure rate constant

The fluence rate , cp, for monoenergetic point-shape gamma radiation source is

where
A = activity of radiation source, Bq
n = average emitted photon number for one disintegration
r = distance from the radioactive source, m
Normally, the gamma source does not only emit the gamma rays
with one kind of energy. Suppose that one gamma source emits gamma
rays with K kinds of energy. The exposure rate at point whose distance
from source is r should be the sum of exposure rates induced by the various energy at that point

It is convenient to calculate that defining the part of Eq. (3.3-1 1) as

the exposure rate constant

where
-1 86-

ni

'

E, =product of number and energy of i-th photon by considered nuclide in one disintegration. its unit is MeV Fjq-' s-'

cn

(y

=mass energy absorption coefficient of i-th photon in air.

mZ kg-'
=exposure rate constant, C m2 kg-' B ~ - ' s-I.
Table 3.3-2 lists the values, T, of exposure rate constant for some
radionuclides.
Table 3.3-2

I- Value of Radionuclides with y radioactivity

Nuclide
2 4 ~ a

T (C m2 kg-' Bq

s-')

3.532-18

Substituting Eq. (3.3-12) into Eq. (3.3-1 1) the exposure rate for the
-187-

source with activity 4 and at the point whose distance from source is s m
is

The unit of exposure rate is C * kgui s- i .

4. air absorbed dose rate for gamma point-shape source
Under the condition of charged particle equilibrium, from the definitions of absorbed dose and mass energy absorption coefficient the following equation can be gotten

where, ul is the energy fluence. pen/ p is the mass energy absorption

coefficient of certain material for monoenergetic gamma rays.
It is known from above equation that while the energy fluence is
constant the absorbed dose is proportional to mass energy absorption
coefficient, pen/ p , of certain material, therefore
p cn

Dl

(-I1
-

pen
(I2
P
The subscript, 1 and 2, represents the material one and material two
respectively. Therefore, as long as the absorbed dose in one material is
known the absorbed dose in other material can be gotten through the
Eq. (3.3-1 5) under the condition of charged particle equilibrium.
According to Eq. (3.3-7) and Eq. (3.3-14) the relation between the
exposure and absorbed dose in air under the condition of charged particle eqllibrium is
D2

where D, is the absorbed dose in air at the same point. In the same way
the relation between the air absorbed dose rate gamma rays and exposure rate can be gotten

Substituting Eq. (3.3-16) into Eq. (3.3-15) the following equation

can bc zotten

where

Dm= absorbed dose to be evaluated in certain material at the same

point in air, Gy
X =exposure, C kg-'
f m = transforming f ~ t o from
r
exposure in C kg-' to absorbed
dose in Gy, its unit is J C-'.
Table 3.3-3 lists the fm values of water, soft-tissue and bone for
different energy.
From Eq. (3.3-18), the relation between the absorbed dose rate of
material m at the same point in air and the exposure rate is given by

evaluating the exposure rate at the point from the

Example
source, meter for 6 0 ~source
o
with activity 1 Ci, and the absorbed dose
rate in air and the muscle beneath the skin.
Solving A = 1Ci = 3.7 x l o l b q , r = I m. From Table 3.3-2, l- =
2.50 x I O - ' ~ C m2 / kg Bq s for 6 0 ~ oSubstituting
.
these values into
Eq. (3.3-13), then

,,-A,\
- .-. 7
-

From Eq. (3.3-17)

;)

nL'
= 33.$5

= 3.13

x 9.25 x 10 -'

x 10

-6

Gy / s

r,

\,

1.13 x 10

-2

G y / h.
"

From Table 3.3-3 fmus,,,= 37.29 for

60

Co. Substituting l,us,!,

and X

into Eq. (3.3-19), then

=3.35 x I O - ~ G ~ / S
1.24 x l o 2 G Y / h .
5. absorbed dose rate and particle fluence for point-shape source
From Eq. (3.3-14), the following equation can be gotten
=

where
0

D a =absorbed dose rate of gamma rays in air, Gy s-'

cp = photon fluence rate,

m-'

s-'

E = photon energy, J.
Narrow Beam Gamma Ray Attenuation Law The attenuation of
gamma rays in material obeys the simple exponential law, i.e.,

where

No= photon number before passing through substance layer

N =photon number after passing through substance layer
d = thickness of substance layer
p = linear attenuation coefficient of gamma rays in this substance.
The characteristic of gamma rays is described by parameter p. The
physical meaning of parameter p has been described in first chapter, and
pointed out that parameter, p, is the function of photon energy , E, and
the atomic number, z, of substance.
Eq. (3.3-21) can be written as follows

where
p = substance density, kg

m-3

dm= d

p. mass thickness of substance, kg

if = mass
?

m-2

attenua~ioncoefficient 01. substance i b r given photon en-

ergy, rn' kg-'

If decreasing

the

gamma rays for given energy to

--,

No

the

thickness dm,, is needed for the substance one with mass attenuation

coefficient ( p ) , and the thickness 4,..- for substance two with (-P ), .
P .
P Then
d m,l
dm,

PI
~-

(3.3 - 23)

P2

The equivalent concrete thickness of brick and soil can be estimated

from Eq. (3.3-23).
Broad Beam Gamma Rav Attenuation Law The narrow beam
attenuation law is a simplification case. If the Compton scattering occurs the photon scattered may pass out of the substance. The energy and
direction of photon changes, however the photon has not been absorbed
truly by substance.
The radiation encountered in radiation protection is broad beam
radiation for the most part, schemed in Fig. 3.3-1.
In this case the photon subjected to multiple scattering may still
pass out the substance and reaches the point of interest. Therefore, there
are not only the uncollided incident photons, but also photons
undergone multiple scattering.
In order to consider the influence of multiple scattering, one correction factor is introduced a t the right side of Eq. (3.3-21) for use with
correcting the narrow beam attenuation law, i-e.,

where B is called buildup factor.

There are different buildup factors for different radiation
quantities. The B in Eq. (3.3-24) is the buildup factor of photon number
or fluence rate. In practical usage the exposure buildup factor, B,, is often used, i.e.,

is the exposure rate with and without shield layer of

where X and X ,

thickness d at the same point in radiation field respectively

Parameter of Calculating Exposure Buildup Factor
Table 3.3-4
of Isotropic Point Source by Taylor's Formula
rnatenal

energy
,MeV

A,

-31,

z2

) energy

material,

MeV

I
I

A,

-2,

For isotropical point source the relation between buildup factor, B,,
of medium and substance thickness, pd, can be expressed approximately
by formulae. One of the more commonly used is Taylor's formula

where
=linear attenuation coefficient, m-'
d = thickness of shield substance, m
For glven materials a , , a, and A , IS oniy <he function of gamma ray
energy, the relative values can be seen In Table 3.3-4.
Parameters
Used in Shield~ngCalculation
The absorbed dose
-- - rate or dose equivalent rate a t one point in radiation field is proportion11

- -

..

.
-

-.
-

---

--

a1 to exposure rate, X , a t the same point. Therefore, after the broad

beam gamma rays pass out the shield layer the attenuation of absorbed
dose rate or dose equivalent rate can be described in terms of exposure
buildup factor, Bx(E,pd). From Eq. (3.3-25)

where

H =dose equivalent rate a t one point without shield layer

H (d) = dose equivalent rate at same point with shield layer of thick-

ness d .
1. attenuation multiple
Attenuation multiple is defined as

It represents the ratio of dose equivalent rate, H , , a t one point in r a h a tion field without shielding layer to dose equivalent rate, H(d), a t the
same point with shielding layer of thickness d, namely, represents the
shielding power of this shielding material against the radiation.
Attenuation multiple dose not have the hmension.
For given photon energy and material the linear attenuation
coefficient, p, and buildup factor, B,(E,pd) is defined also. From the Eq.
(3.3-28) the relation between K and d can be defined.
2. shielding transmission ratio
Shielding transmission ratio, q , is defined as

.
H (d)

B (E,P~)
-

rl=,

HO

It represents that the power of radiation transmits the shielding material.

The shielding transmission ratio does not have dimension, and is the reciprocal of attenuation multiple-There are many shielding transmission
ratio curves for given shielding material and gamma ray energies.
3. half-value layer and tenth-value layer
The definition of half-value layer, A! , is the shielding layer thick2

ness which can attenuate the incident photon number to half of original.
The definition of tenth-value layer, A L , is the shielding layer
10

thickness which can attenuate the incident photon number to tenth of

original.
The relation between A I and A 1 is
2

10

Because the attenuation of broad beam gamma rays in shielding

medium is not a simple exponential law, the A1 and A L value is not a
2

10

constant in shielding medium for given radiation, they have slightly

change with increasing of attenuation multiple K, and are used for assessing the shielding power of materials to radiation and calculation
approximately shielding layer.
Shielding Calculation of Gamma Point Radiation Source The
purpose of shielding calculation is as follows: what setting sufficient
shielding layer makes the sum of dose equivalent rate, H(d), induced for
various radiation at interest point in radiation field not exceeded

precondition control level, H , i.e.,

If the primary gamma ray beam is the main factor of determining

the shielchng layer thickness, then

The shielding transmission ratio for gamma rays pass through the
shielding layer of thickness d is

or the attenuation multiple of shielding layer of thickness d for given

gamma ray beam is

where
A = activity of gamma source, Bq
r =exposure rate constant, C kg-' m2 B ~ - ' s-1
q =area occupancy factor, during the start o n of radiation source
the time fraction of worker occupancy a t the outside of shielding
layer. In shielding design according to whole occupancy, partial
occupancy and accidental occupancy a t the interest point the q
can take 1, 1 / 4 and 1 / 16 respectively
r = distance from interest point to point source, m
0

,=control level of dose equivalent rate a t interest point.

Either q is calculated o r K calculated, then the shielding layer

thickness, d, can be gotten by looking up relative curve.
o
with activity 3.7 x 10'"q is put into a
Exampic a 6 0 ~ source
lead container, requiring that the dose equivalent rate on the container
Sv h-'. The distance, r, from container
surface is less than 2 x
surface to source is 25 cm. Evaluating the shielding layer thickness of
container.
Solving knowing T = 2.503 x lo-'' C kg-'
m2 B ~ - ' s-'
from Table 3.3-2, taking q = 1. From Eq. (3.3-35)

=0.89 x 10
Looking up relation curve the lead shielding layer thickness is 23.7 cm, it
is taken 24 cm in practice.
Material often Used in Shielding Gamma Rays While any material is chosen to be used of f i r shielding materialthe protection characteristic, construction property, stability and economic cost of material
must be considered sytheticly from optimization principle. The shielding
materials of shielding gamma rays are often used as follows.
Lead
Its atomic number is 82 and its density is 11.34 g / cm3.
Corrosion-resistant characteristic is well. It is damaged easily under exposure to radiation. Lead has high attenuation power for low energy
and high energy gamma rays, therefore it is ideal material for shielding
from gamma rays. But, its attenuation power is most weak for gamma
rays with energy from 1 MeV to few MeV. Besides, the short coming of
lead is its high cost, and is not temperature-resistant. It is of used for
making lead container, portable shielding and lead brick. While making
the larger container and equipment the steel material must be used as the
construction bone otherwise it can collapse because of weight itself.
Iron
Its atomic number is 26 and density is 7.89 g / cm3 (for
steel) or 7.2 g / cm3 (for iron). Its cost is low and available easily.
Shielding characteristic is worse than that of lead. Normally, if the
attenuation multiple is same the weight used of iron is about 30% weightier than that of lead. The mechanism strength is very high. It is easy
fabrication, and used for making shielding iron doors and covering
plates of grooves.
The effective atomic number of normal concrete (ceConcrete
ment 1 : sand 2 : break stone 2 : water 0.5) is 18 and density is 2.3
g / cm3. Its cost is very cheap, and has good construction characteristic.
It is often used for fixed shielding layer in engineering. Sometimes, in
order to decrease the thickness and volume of shielding layer, the high
density concrete (called heavy concrete) is used. The density of heavy
concrete can reach to 6.9 g / cm3, but its cost is very high.
Water
The effective atomic number is 7.4 and density is 1
g / cm3. The characteristic for shielding from gamma ray is worse than
that of three materials above mentioned. But it possesses with special

advantage. Its transparency is well and some materials can be put into it
at will. Therefore, the water is often in form of water well or water pool
to contain the gamma radiation source. While there is resolvable salt in
water, the water can be made radiolysis under the action of strong exposure. Therefore, the deionization water is suitable for purpose of shielding.
The brick, sand and soil used in build may be used of for shielding
from gamma rays. It is not special to use them for shielding, but they
play a role in shielding from gamma rays objectively when they are used
in build.
In some special cases, in order to decrease the weight and volume
some expensiver, high density metals, for example, tungsten and uranium, are used as the partial shielding.
3.3.4 PROTECTION O F NEUTRON EXTERNAL EXPOSURE
The neutron radiation source can be classified as four kinds by production means of neutron, namely, radionuclide neutron source, accelerator neutron source, reactor neutron source and plasma neutron
source. The neutron sources can be classified as two kinds by its e n e r a ,
namely, monoenergetic neutron source and polyenergetic neutron
source. The neutron sources, for example, the radionuclide neutron
source, have often concomitant gamma radiation.
Reactor Neutron Source The neutrons of reactor neutron source
come from the self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. The property of
this neutron source is that: the neutrons are produced in a large number
in unit time and the neutron spectrum distribution is very wide (from
0.025 eV to 17 MeV).
There are many kinds of radiation released from the reactor. The
kinds and processes released from reactor are schemed in Fig. 3.3-2. Because the transparent power of the neutron and gamma radiation is the
most strong in these radiation as long as the shielding layer thickness is
so sufficient that the neutron and gamma radiation can be reduced below the control level required, then the shielding problem of other radiations can be ignorable. For the shielding design of radiation the important radiation in nuclear reaction is as follows: fission prompt neutrons.
fission prompt gamma rays, the gamma radiations induced by inelastic
scattering of fast neutrons and the capture gamma radiations emitted
from the reactor construction materials absorbed thermal neutrons.
-1

98-

Property of Interaction Between Neutrons- and Body Tissue

It is
----important to consider the interaction between the neutrons and elements
which consist of the body tissue.
weight of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen is 95%
weight of body in body tissue. The number of hydrogen atom is over
60%of total number of the body tissue atom.
The fast neutrons gradually transfer the energy to tissue and then
are moderated through the elastic and inelastic scattering with the nuclei
of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. The thermal neutrons moderated are absorbed by tissue through the reactions of ' ~ ( n , ~
'H) and
' 4 ~ ( n , p I4c.
)
The energy of recoil protons (0.6MeV) and gamma rays
released from reactions are finally absorbed by the tissue.
Calculation
of Neutron DoseThe following two methods are
-adopted in calculating the neutron dose.
1. Calculating of Kerma
The Kerma of monoenergetic neutron can be expressed as follows
--- ..-.----ppp--p--pp----.

- -

where
tr

f k = (-)

- E, Kerma factor of neutron, expressing the Kerma per

unity neutron fluence

cD = monoenergetic neutron fluence in radiation field.
If the Kerma of certain substance in neutron radiation field, K,,
has been known, then the Kerma of a small block tissue exposed to radiation at same point in radiation field, KT, can be gotten from following equation

3 7)

If the charged particle equilibrium condition is satisfied, then the

absorbed dose of relative tissue is as follows

After getting the monoenergetic neutron fuence from partial

measurement or calculation and looking up the value of f, from
appendant table 3.3 corresponding to the relative energy, then the
Kerma, K, can be calculated. The value of Kerma can be seen as the approximate value of the absorbed dose. F o r the neutron whose energy is
below 30 MeV the error introduced by this approximation can be ignored.
Neutron Radiation Weighting Factor,
Table 3.3-5
w,, Neutron Dose Equivalent Factor, f,.,,
and Relative Neutron Fluence Rate (25,uSv h-')
En,McV
-.

2.5 x lo-'

--

neutron radiatron

dose

weighting

cquivalcnt factor

factor w,

(fAp-x10-"SV m')

1.068

neutron

flucncc rate
(CII-'

. 5-')

650.2

blood specimen of 1 ml is out into the nylon tube whose

wall thickness is 3 mrn. Calculating the neutron absorbed dose for unity
neutron fluence. The neutron energy is 14 MeV.
Solving while E n= 14MeV, the range of recoil proton in nylon is 2
mm, the charged particle equilibrium condition can be satisfied for the
wall thickness of nylon is 3 mm. Therefore, the absorbed dose of blood
is equal the Kerma of blood, i.e.,
Example

tr

(7
)

b l d

(fK)nylon

pu

(7)
From

the

addend

nylon

Table

3.3 (f,),,,,,

prn

0 =lcm-2. The ratio of (--)blo,

P

= 0.658

10-lo

Gy / crn2,

prn

to (T)nylon equals 1 approximately.

Therefore, the absorbed dose equals Kerma for blood, i.e.,

blood

=
=

blood

=@

(f K 'nylon

1 x 0.658 x 10-lo

6.58 x 10-l1 Gy
2. Calculation of Dose Equivalent
The radiation weighting factors of neutron for different energy, w,,
and the dose equivalent factors for unity neutron fluence, f,,, are listed
in Table 3.3-5. The neutron fluence rate relative with 25pSv h-', cp,,
are listed in the same table also. The neutron dose equivalent rate can be
calculated by following equation
=.

Example For the ''OPO-B~

neutron source with activity 3.7 x
I O " B ~calculatingthe
,
neutron dose equivalent rate at the point from
source 1 meter

Solving
source

From the Table 3.3-12 getting emitting rate of neutron

From Table 3.3-5 the f,,, of " V o - ~ e neutron source is 35.5 x

10-"SV m2. According Eq. (3.3-39)

in Shielding Laycr
As viewed from
Attenuation of Neutron
neutron shielding, firstly, the fast neutrons become inro thermal
neutrons through the elastic scattering and inelastic scattering between
the substance and fast neutrons, secondly. the thermal neutrons are absorbed by substance.
The inelastic scattering is with threshold energy. The neutron
inelastic scattering whose energy is higher than threshold energy may
occur. For nuclei of mass number from 100 to 150, its level density near
the ground state is very large and the level width is about 0.1 MeV.
However, for light nuclei the corresponding level width is about 1 MeV.
Once the inelastic scattering between neutrons and nuclei occurs, the
neutron energy will be reduced in large amplitude. When neutron energy
reduced to the energy which is less than that of threshold induced the
inelastic scattering the neutrons rely on only elastic scattering to reduce
its energy.
In elastic scattering the lighter the nuclei come into collision with
neutrons, the more energy the neutron transfer to recoil nuclei. While
neutrons come into collision with hydrogen nuclei the recoil nuclei get
the energy in most. In one elastic scattering between neutron and
hydrogen nucleus the neutron transfers its half energy to recoil proton
on an average, even all energy at times. Therefore, the hydrogen is the
best moderator for fast neutron with energy about 1 MeV. The average
numbers of elastic scattering needed for reducing the neutron energy
from 1 MeV to 0.025 eV in several substances are listed in Table 3.3-6.
~

Average Numbers of Elastic Scattering Needed for

Table 3.3-6
Reducing the Neutr.on Energy from 1 MeV to 0.025 eV in Substance
--

- --

mass number
collision number

1
18

D
2
24

He
4
41

B -,- B e ---C.-- 0
Fe U
--7
9
12 16 56 2381
65 84 ' 1 1 1 146 485 20881

Table 3.3-7 Thermal Neutron Absorption Cross Section

of Some Substance and Relative Maximum Energy of
Capture Gamma Radiation
Thermal
Maximum energy
Element Neutron ( n , ~ ) of capture gamma
cross section (b) nd~atlon(MeV)

log~)

0.332 3837

- - --

2.23
-- P..
0.478

Thermal
Max~mumenergy
Element ; Neutron (n.7) of capture gamma
I cross sectior, (b)
radiat~on(MeV)

Co
hTi '

37.0
4.8

7.49
9.00

1) Cross section of (n,z) reaction a n d its concomitant gamma radiation energy

Although the thermal neutrons can be absorbed by substance, every

one is not suitable for absorbin5 the thermal neutrons. After many materials absorbed the thermal neutron the energy capture gamma radiation are emitted. The thermal neutron absorption cross section for some
materials and relative maximum energy of capture gamma radiation are
given in Table 3.3-7.
It is similar to
Attenuation
of Neutron
Current
in Shielding
--attenuation of gamma radiation in shielding, the attenuation of narrow
neutron current in shielding layer obeys simple exponential law also, i.e.,
--

-.

-.
--

----

--

.
.

where
cpd=neutron fluence rate at one point in radiation field without
shielding layer
$,=neutron fluence rate at the same point in radiation field with
shielding layer
C = total macroscopic cross section of shielding material for incident neutrons.
In the same way the attenuation law of broad neutron current is

where B, is the buildup factor of broad neutron current. It is used to

characterize the increasing fraction of neutron fluence rate at interest
point behind shielding layer because of the polyscattering neutron produced in shielding layer.
Removal Cross Section Method for Calculating Attenuation of
Broad Beam Neutron The basic content of removal cross section is as
follows. To choose suitable shielding material makes the neutrons can be
rapidly moderated in very short distance once the neutrons undergo
scattering and ensures that the moderated neutrons are absorbed in
shielding layer. That is to say, the neutrons undergone scattering are effective "removed" from the neutron beam of penetrating out the shielding layer, and the neutrons of penetrating out the shielding layer are
those neutrons undergone interaction in shielding layer. In this case, the
attenuation of neutrons? even if broad beam neutrons, satisfies the simple exponential law.
Using removal cross section the shielding material must satisfy fol-

lowing conditions.
a. That the shielding layer is enough thick makes the dose equivalent behind the shielding layer from the attributing to neutrons with very
strong penetrating power in neutron beam.
b. Shielding layer contains the medium heavy o r heavy materials,
for example. iron o r lead. Therefore. the neutron energy can be rapidly
reduced to about 1 MeV.
c. The shielding layer must be enough hydrogenous so that it ensures that the neutrons can be made to reduce the energy from 1 MeV to
thermal energy in very short distance and can be absorbed in shielding
layer.
If the conditions mentioned above are satisfied the attenuation of
broad beam neutron in shielding layer can be described by following
equation

where
0

cp,,

,= neutron

fluence rate and dose equivalent rate a t one

point in radiation field without shielding layer

0

cp,(d),

H ,(d)=neutron fluence rate and dose equivalent rate a t

the same point in radiation field with shielding layer

whose thickness is d
C,=macroscopic removal cross section of shielding material for
neutron
d = thickness of shielding layer.
For fission spectrum neutrons the relation between macroscopic
removal cross section and microscopic removal cross section is

where
Z, = macroscopic removal cross section, cm

M A= molar mass of nuclide, g mol-'

p = material density, g

If shielding material is mixture or compound, then total

macroscopic ;emoval cross section is
Z, = Z N ,

a,,

where
Qi= weight percent for i-th nuclide in mixture
M =molar mass of i-th nuclide, g mol-'

*,

a
Ai

=microscopic removal cross section of i-th nuclide

Qi
- number of i-th nuclide in unit volume.
0.602 p -M

Ai

Table 3.3-8 to Table 3.3-10 list macroscopic removal cross section

of some materials and elements for fission spectrum neutrons. Although
these values are for fission spectrum neutrons, they can be used to treat
the shielding problem of radionuclide neutron source. Table 3.3-1 1 lists
the microscopic removal cross section of some materials for different energy neutron.
Table 3.3-8

Macroscopic Removal Cross Section

for Fission Spectrum Neutrons

Material
Soil Contained Water 10%
Normal Concrete

Polyethylene
Iron

0.089

0.123
0.1576

Macroscopic Removal Cross Section of Some

Elements for Fission Spectrum Neutron

Table 3.3-9

Z
-

Elcmcnt

----3

Macroscopic

Dcnsity p

g-cm

Li

6.940

-3

rcrnoval cross

section E,, cm-'

0.0449

.-

0.534

Tabie 3.3-10
Macroscopic Removal Cross Section of Some
Compound for Fission Spectrum Neutron
Compound

Density, g
1 .oo

H20

D2O
-

steel (1 % Carbon)
sand
(CHJn
petroleum

C8HH
FeB

gravel

p
p
p
p

t-

1.10
0.952
7.83
2.20

cmU2

C , , an-'
0.10
0.091 3
0.109
0.1 63
0.052

1
I

-~

0 .O 92

L
J

2 .g

G-d

U O G
.a L-d
U *
v 3 2

r=
C

the incident direction reduce to tenth of initial tluence is called

rznrh-value layer. denoted by A I .
10

The curve of relative parameters for different neutron energy and

dfferent materials can be found in relative books.
Neutron
Shielding Calculation
- -The neutron shielding calculation of reactors is a complex problem.
It is necessary to use complex code and computer for getting satisfactory
results.
The shielding calculation of radionuclide is only discussed here
from which the normal procedure of shielding calculation can be
understood.
For hydrogenous materials whose thickness is not less than 20 cm,
for example, water, paraffinum and polyethylene, the B, can take as 5.
For lead B, = 3.5 and for iron B, = 2.6.
The shielding thickness, which can make the neutron tluence rate
reduce to cp, (m-2 s-'), can be calculated from following equation
-

--

---

- --

-Z,d

vr=vrOBne

< VL

(3.3 - 46)

Therefore

where
d = thickness of shielding layer, cm
C, =macroscopic removal cross section of shielding material, cm-'
A =activity of radionuclide of neutron source, Bq
y = yield of radionuclide neutron source, ~ q - ' s-'
B, =buildup factor of neutron
q =area occupancy factor
r = distance from interest point to source, cm.
Example
Using special automobile to transport one Po-Be
neutron source whose activity is A = 3.7 x 10" Bq. The source is put into a shield tank made by paraffinum. Requiring dose equivalent rate at
the position which driver sits on is below 2.5 pSv h-'. How many
thickness is the paraffinum shielding needed.
Solving From Table 3.3-12 getting Ay = 2.5 x lo7 s-'. From
Table 3.3-5 cp,= 1.97 cm-2 s-' for 2.5 pSv / h. From Table 3.3-8 get-

ting the macroscopic removal crcss section of paraffinum 1,=0.118

cm-'. Let B, = 5 and q 1 .
From Eq. (3.3-47)

Example A 23!?u-~e neutron source is put at the central of a

water bucket, shown in Fig. 3.3-3. Requiring the neutron fluence rate
on the water surface of top is loss than 5.91 cm-2 s-'. How many depth
is the water bucket needed.
Solving From Eq. (3.3-47)

Neutron Source Characteristic cf Radionuclide

Table 3.3-12
name

radiorcacrlon
nudlde ! type

Halflife,
TI

m a x ~ m u m- avcragc

MeV

Na-Be

I
I
1

'%a

15 Oh

(.?,XI)

60.d

Sb&

12%b

Po-Be

'

"90

(up)

' 138 4d

2"~a

(a,n)

1620a

Ra-Be

neutron

neutron concomitant
spmrum
gamma

I energy of , energy of , ycld y,

neutron, neutron,
x 10~s-'

,
1

'

rad1a:ion

MeV

- Ba-'

0 83

3.51

3 . 7 6 ~10'

(a)

(b)

5.14

1.33 x 10'

(a)

(b)

0.029

10 87

4.2

67.6

0.103

(c)

(d)

13.08

4.0

405

155

(c)

(b)

Pu-Be

'

( a .

87.753

11.3

4.5

54.1

11.29

(c)

(d)

PU-~e

(a,=)

243%

10 74

4 1

43 2

4 39

(c)

(d)

Am-Be

432a

11 5

4.5

541

<2J8

(c)

(4

"'.Am

(as)

1
1
1
I
I
1
I

(a) rnonoenerge~ic

(b) very strong

(c) continuous

(d) very low

From Table 3.3-8 getting macroscopic removal cross section

Z, = 1.103-'. From Table 3.3-12 getting Ay = 1.6 x IO-~S-'.Let B, = 5
and q = 1. Then

1 x 1.0772 x lo6. Solving above t w o e q u a and Q 2= 7

d
tions in terms of graphic solution method, the d value can be gotten
d = 56.5 cm
According to the attenuation of neutrons in materials many
attenuation curves of some shielding materials have been drawn. From
these curves the materials thickness needed can be looked up directly.
Materials often Used in Shielding Neutron While any material
and its thickness is chosen to be used for shielding material the protection characteristic, construction property, stability and economic cost of
material must be considered sytheticly from optimization principle.
The optimum combination of shielding materials is that there is a
certain amount of elements with atom number above medium and an
amount of light element, especially hydrogen. The hydrogenous amount
of some materials often used is given in Table 3.3-1 3. If an amount of
'9
and 6 ~isiadded in shielding material the thermal neutron can be
effective absorbed and the capture gamma radiation can be decreased,
therefore, the dimension of shielding layer can become thin.

Let Q , = e0.103d

Table 3.3-13

Hydrogenous Amount of Some often Used Shielding Materials

Material

Chemical
composition

;
~.

-~

Water
Paraffinum .Polyethylene
Polyvinyl chloride
Organic glass
Gypsum
Kaolin

*2O
C,p22

'

9 2 % polyelhylene - 8 % B,C

(CH?)n
(CH2CHC1),
(C4H802)n
C a S 0 4 *2 H 2 0

Hydrogenous
amount
atom
. /cm3
6.7 x loZ27.87 x
7.92 x 1 02'
4.1 x loZZ
5.7 x loZ2
3.25 x 10"
2.42 x lo?'
7.68 x 10"

AI,O,

- 2Si0, . ZH,O

(CH,)-+B,C

The shielding materials often used are as follows.

Water
Water contains a lot of hydrogen. It is a very good kind
of neutron moderator. The thermal neutron capture cross section of'
hydrogen is 332b and the energy of capture gamma radiation is 2.2
MeV. The hydrogen contained in shielding. to moderate the neutrons.
can capture the thermal neutrons in shielding. The water has no construction characteristic. It is often filled in a variety of container and
made up of water doors and water boxes.
Concrete
The normal concrete density is 2.3 g / cm3. I t is mixture of many elements shown in Table 3.3-14. It contains light element,
heavy element and a certain amount of moisture content. Therefore, it
has better shielding characteristic for neutrons and gamma rays. The
concrete possesses good construction characteristic and is often used of
for fixed shield. But when it is used for long term the moisture content
can be lost, therefore, the protection characteristic for neutrons will be
reduced.
Table 3.3-14

Element

Element Composition of Concrete,

c1;
x lo2' atom cm-)

,
Carbonaceous
concrete
--- -- - -I
3.0%"
5.5%Q
8.0%~
-

-.

.
.

Silanccous

concrete 5 . 0 % ~

The density of concrete consisted of elements listed in table is 2.3 g cm-3

3 moisture content

Paraffinum
It contains a lot of hydrogen, its cost is cheap and
easily forming. It is good moderator of neutrons. But while air temperature is higher it is easily soften and out of shape. While air temperature
is low it shrink and crack easily. Its construction characteristic is not
good. I t has not fire resistance and is burnable. Its protection characteristic for gamma rays is poor. Therefore, it is often used with other mate-

rials.
Polyethylene
It contains plentiful hydrogen. It is better protection material for neutron. It is easy processing and shaping, but it is easy
s o f ~ e nin high temperature. It is often used with mixing with other construction material.
Clay
It contains larger water and is very cheap material. In order to use fully its protection characteristic, some times the neutron generating assemblies are built in basement.
Lithium and boron
The thermal neutron absorption cross section of lithium and boron is 940b and 3837b respectively. The gamma
radiation released after the neutrons are absorbed by lithium is very less
and can be ignored. Although 95% capture events of boron release 0.47
MeV gamma radiations, they are shielded easily. Without special requirement the boric acid or borax with cheap cost is used. While requiring to decrease the shielding volume the B,C,which contains higher
amount of boron, can be used. The lithium borate can be chosen for
special case of requiring low yield of gamma radiation.

L-,

ul

*
V

;2

In

0 %

cu

O ru

V1

FI

w.2

i'

+-.a*
a

w Ccu
n k w

fission

7rays

-J

(scattering)

slow neutron

compound nuclei
in excitated state
radioactivite nuclei

1
$particks

inelastic scattering
Y rays

prompt fission
-frays

capture
"rays

decay
y rays

brems strablung

(If Be, =H exist)

(absorption)
Compton scattering

photoeleciric effect eleciron pair

production

I
A

A
neutron
7

recoil electrons photoelectrons positron electron

brems strablung -

annihilat.ion radiation

Fig 3.3-2 ionization radiation released in reactors

water.

neutron
source

Fig 3.3-3 Schematic of Z39Pu-Besource

in water shielding

0.319-10
0.367-10
0.394-.I0
0.420--10

0.630-04
0.660-09
0.700-03
0.738--00

0.6d1-09
0.672-09
0.713-09
0.752-00

0.412-09
0.432-01
0.456-09
0.483-09

0.631-09
0.661-09
0.701--09
0.740-09

0.400-02
0.100-01
0.100-01
0.100-01

0.980-01
0.105.1-00
0.115.(-00
0.125.1.00

0.307-10
0.318-10
0.328-10
0.338-10

0.557-09
0.576--08
0.691-09
O.GI3-09

0.567-03
0.587-09
0.665--09
0.624-09

0.365-09
0.377-09
0.389-09
0.401-09

0.558-09
0.577-09
0.596--09
0.614--09

0.(00-02
0.100-02
0.400-Q2
o.(OO-02

0.820-01
0.860-01
0.900-01
0.910-01

0 . 6 8 8 - 11
0.108--10
0.170-10
0.256-10

0.104-03
0.179-09
0.297-09
0.462--09

0.106-09
0.113-09
0.303-09
0.410-01

0,676-10
0.117-09
0.194-09
0.302-09

0.101-09
0,180-09
0.298-09
0.463-04

0.600-02
0.]2i)-O1
0.200-01
0.340-01

0.110-.01
0.~00,-01
0.360--01
0,630-01

0.357-11
0.338--11
0.170--11
O.47G-ll

0.112-10
0.200-10
0.356-10
0.612-10

0.112--10
0.200-10
0.356-10
0 611-10

0.600-03
0.120-02
0.200-02
0.34d-02

0.110-02
0.200-02
0.360-02
0.630--02

0.121-11
0.171-11
0.269-11
0.440-ll

0.154-11
0.233-11
0.386--11
0.851-11
O.ll4--10
0.204-10
0.362--10
0.622-10

0.600-04
0.120-03
0.200-03
0.340-03

0.110--03
0.200-03
0.360-03
0.630-03

0.117-11
0.122-11
0.112-11
0,122-11

0.127-11
0.106-11
0.969-12
0.101-ll

0.742-11
0.132-10
10.235-10
0.399-10

0.600-05
0.120-0.1
0.200-04
0.340704
0.916-11
0.685-11
0.526--11
0.421-11

air

1 dry I

0.150.-11
0.230-ll
0.387-11
0.650-11

,,

releronco

0.156--11
0.237-11
0.393-11
0.662-ll

bone I lnuscle
Kthigbone)
.-0.287-10
0.214-10
0.159-10
0.120-10

0.145-ll
0.120-11
0.111-11
0.120-11

tipproximati

-0.129-11
0 109-11
0.103-11
0.114-11

AE.IMIV

0.110-0i
0.200-04
0.360-04
0.630-04

E./M=V

0.687-00
0.730-09
0.775-09
0.817-09

0.017-09
0.638-09
0.868-09
0.876-09

0.115-09
0.199-09
0.330-09
0.612-09

0.122-10
0.221-10
0.394-10
0.677-10

0.124-11.
0.224-ll
0.402-11
0.701-11

0.146-12
0.241-12
0.415-12
0.714-12

water

0.831--09
0.601-:09
0.701-09
0.740-09

0.E58--09
0.677-04
0.695--09
0.614-09

0.104-09
0.179-09
0.297-09
0.462-09

0,115-10
0.202-10
0.357-10
0.612-10

0.280-I1
0.112-11
0 4 - 1 1
0.694-11

0.484-11
0.571-11
0.296-11
0.281-11

nylon

Appended table 3.1 Kerma factorof neutron in somesubstances f k , G y . c m 2

.

0.523-09
0.618-09
0.682-01
0.615-09

0.462-09
6.418-08
0.493-01)
0.609--09

0.853-.10
0.148-09
0.246-09
0.382-09

0.906-11
0.164-10
0.242-10
0.503-1O

0.811-12
0.166-11
0.286-11
0.620-ll

O.lO6-12
0.178-12
0.308-12
0.525-12

organic
glass

. ..

I . .

0 0 -1 OOS'O
00 ( 09P'O
00-1-02P.O
00-I-OGC'O

80-ZSI'O
80-8r1.0
eo-crr'o
80--811'0
80-111'0
80--2Cf ' 0
80-821.0
Po-021'6

00-1
00 1
00 1
00-1

0Lr.o
osr'o
OEE'O
OIE'O

80-911'0
80-211'0
80--601'0
PO-SOI'O

0 0 - 1 OGZ'O
00 -fOLZ'O
004-052'0
00 IOEZ'O

00 1-011'0
0 0 CSGI'O
o o i su1.o
00-1 SLI'O

0 200 -1.00
0.200 -1- 00
0.200~l~00
0.200 k 0 0

0.100-bod
O.lU0 1.00
0.200 I - 00
0.200 t o o

0 100 boo
0. I00 k 0 0
0.100-1-00
0.100 1-00

0. IUO 1-00
0.100 1-00
0.100'1-00
0.100 1 0 0

0,400-01
0,400-01
0..l00-0I
0.400 - 0 1

0.100--01
0.400-01
0.100-01
0.100-01

A E./hlcV
ninn

reference

dry air

I
water
I

I nylon

organic
gloss

con t 'd

80-955'0

6 0 - 8RG fl

GO-OZR'O

60-lIC'0

6 0 - 15K'O

00-lCS'0

RO-ZOS'O

8 0 - 01S'O

I 0 4 DciC 0

l OSC'0
I oct n

I 0 I OLC'O

I0

10

A71V/".7

--

cont'd

CHAPTER 4 RADIATION PROTECTION OF

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT AND REACTOR
4.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The nuclear power plant have had large scale development since the
first demonstration nuclear power plant came out in 1954. There are
over 10 kinds of reactor used for electric power a t the moment, the more
mature reactor of which is pressurized-water reactor (PWR), boiling
water reactor (RWR), graphite-gas reactor, graphite-moderated
water-cooled reactor and heavy-water-moderator reactor. The light
water reactors (PWR and BWR) constitute majority in world nuclear
power plant at the moment.

4.1.1

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

The nuclear power plants makes use of nuclear energy released
from the fission process of nuclide to generate electricity. F o r different
kind of reactor the relative systems and equipment of nuclear power
plant are large different.
The PWR nuclear power plant consists of the nuclear reactor, primary cooling system, secondary cooling system and other auxiliary systems. Fig. 4.1-1 gives the principle flow chart of the main systems in nuclear power plant.
The nuclear reactor is important equipment in nuclear power plant.
Meanwhile, there are sustaining chain fission reaction in reactor, hence
it is a radation source also. There are certain amount of nuclear fuels
loaded in reactor. The heat energy released from fission process in nuclear fuels is removed out off the reactor by the coolant which flow
through the reactor and then the coolant is fed into the steam generator.
The primary loop system consists of reactor, main circulating
pump, pressurizer, steam generator, relative line pipes and valves and
auxiliary equipment. The cooling water with high temperature and high
pressure is pumped into reactor, after absorbing the heat energy released
from the fission process in nuclear fuels the water flow into the steam
generator. The heat quantity is transferred to the feed water of secondary cooling system in steam generator. Then, the coolant is pumped into reactor by main circulating pump. Such circulation forms one closed
circulating loop.
-223-

The equipment of pnmary cooling system are put into the reactor
containmellt by concentrated way. The containment is a large concrete
building with about 30 m in inside diameter and about 60 n~ in height.
Its function is to enclose the main equipment with raciioactive matters to
prevent the radioactive matters diffusing outside. Even while the most
serious accident occurs in nuclear power plant the radioactive matters
are still enclosed safely in the containment and then the accident d o not
affects the environment.
The secondary cooling system is the device which can transfer the
heat energy to electricity. It consist of moisture separator, steam turbine,
condenser, condensate pump, and feed pump. The feed water of secondary cooling system absorbs the heat quantity of primary cooling system
and then become into steam, finally the steam come into the steam turbine and the motor is driven to generate the electricity. Because the reactor is a strong radiation source the coolant which flows through the reactor carries certain amount of activity. Especially while the fuel failure
occurs the activity level of primary coolant is very high. Hence the
coolant flowed off from reactor is not suitable for feeding the steam turbine directly, therefore PWR nuclear power plant has two loops. The
building of the secondary cooling system for nuclear power plant is similar to the building of steam turbogenerator for normal power plant.
Besides the two cooling systems, there are chemical and volume
control system, reactor safety system. fuel handling system, waste processing system and other systems in nuclear power plant.
4.1.2
RADIATION PROTECTION LIMITS O F NUCLEAR
POWER PLANT
Dose Limits of Occupational Workers About basic limits with
regard to occupational workers exposured, the rules of 60-th publication of ICRP have been described in Chapter 3. The limit of uniform exposure of whose body is of 0.02 Sv / a. I n practice the exposure received
by occupational workers is far more lower than this limit. The annual
average dose equivalent of occupational workers of countries is 4.1 mSv
in recent ten-odd years. The regulation of our country stipulated that
under normal operation conditions the per caput effective dose equivalent of all occupational workers must be controlled below 5 mSv / a.
Dose
-Limits of Public Under Normal Operation Conditions The
basic limits with regard to public, the rules of60-th publication of ICRP

is of 1 mSv, it is only half of natural radiation. B u t the authorized limit

proposed by environmental protection department and the design rarget

value proposed by management department of nuclear industry is far
more lower than this value. The authorized limits and design target values for several countries are given in Table 4.1-1 and Table 4.1-2
respectively.
Authorized Limits of Public Exposured Under
Normal Operation Conditions

Table 4.!-1

Country
-

USA
UK

-- -

- --

-- - ---

Germany

Sweden
Table 4.1-2

Dose equivalent limit, mSv

/ a (mrem / a)
whole
b
o
d
0.25
~
(25)
-- --thyroid gland 0.25 (25)
-other
organ
0.25
(25)
-whole body 0.17 (1 7) -- .- --- -- thyroid 1.0 (100)
--wasre gas: whole body 0.30 (30)
waste
liquid: whole body 0.30 (30)
-- ------ ----waste gas and liquid: thyroid gland 0.90 (90)
whole body 0.50 (50)

7'

---.

--

Design Target Values o f Public Exposured Under

Normal Operation Conditions

Dose equivalent limit, mSv / a (mrem / a)

waste gas: whole body 0.05 (5), skin
0.15
--- ---USA
I and particulate: any organ 0.15 (1 5)
waste liquid: whole body 0.03 (3), any organ 0.1 5 (1 5)
-UK
effective dose equivalent 0.25(25)
Germany
- whole body 0.10 (lo), thyroid gland 0.30 (30)
Sweden
whole body 0.10 (10)

Country
-

(r

--

--

The relative standards of our country stipulates that the effective

dose equivalent of any public induced from the radioactive substances
released from one nuclear power plant to environment must be less than
0.25 mSv / a.
Release
Limits
In order to make the exposure undergone by pub---

lic be less than the authorized limits or design target values the effluent
amount of radioactive substances must be controlled. But the effluent
amount is relative to the weather, the geographical features and other
factors. Many countries stipulated general some control values for convenience of management, as known in Table 4.1-3.
Radioactive Effluent Limits of PWR Nuclear Plant

Table 4.1-3

Country
USA

gaseous effluent, GBq i

c
7
(
noblc gas
, I plus
particulate

liquid effluent, GBq

1 2.46x106

exception

3.7~10'
1 . 8 5 ~ 1 0I~
- --2.22x106
7.4~10'
j 1.11 x lo6 j 5.55 x 10'
; 7 . 4 los
~
j 2.59 x 10'

---____2

France

---I

Germany

3 . 7 10'
~

'

3~

3~

1.85 x 10'
1.48~10~ I.IIXIO~
1.48~10'
1.11~10~
1.85~
lo2 1 7.4
7.4~
10' 1
'

1.85~
lo2

The relative regulation stipulate that the effluent amount of gaseous

and liquid effluent is controlled as following values for PWR nuclear
power plant in our country.
gaseous effluent:
noble gas
2.5 x 1 0 ' ~ ~ q
I
7.5 x 1 0 " ~ ~
particulate (T1 >8d)
2.0 x 1 0 " ~ ~
2

liquid effluent:
1.5 x 1014Bq
other nuclide
7.5 x 1 0 " ~ q .
Dose Limits of Public Under Accident Conditions Strictly speaking, any accidents which induce a large amount of exposure for public
are allowed of no appearance, so ICRP has not regulated for this. But in
order to give a reference to site assessment, to define design-base accident or emergency condition many countries stipulate the public dose
equivalent limits under accident conditions, as shown in Table 4.1-4.
3~

Table 4.1-4

1
I

Public Dose Limits Under Accident Conditions

Personal dose q l u v a l e n ~limils. S v
-

Country

who!e body

Collective dose equivalent iimib. man

-...a

lhyroid

whole body

- Sv

- ----

thyroid
.~

~
p

Canada
- -- - -.
Germany
-- - USA

--

0.25
0.05
0.25

-.---

Finland

0.1 5

-.

x lo4
-1-

- ----

- -

lung 0.30 i
1

' bone

2.50
0.15
3.OO

marrow 0. I0 '

0.30

external radiation
o f s k i n 0.90

The relative standards of our country stipulate that while one large
accident occurs the effective dose equivalent received by any public must
be controlled below 5 mSv and by thyroid below 50 mSv, and while one
serious accident occurs the effective dose equivalent received by any public must be controlled below 0.1 Sv and by thyroid below 1 Sv.

RADIATION SOURCES IN NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

The nuclear reactor is the device of generating nuclear energy in nuclear power plant. Hence it is one heating source, and at the same time,
one radiation source with radioactive high level. The radiation emitted
from reactor can be classified as primary radiation and secondary radiation. The radiations of fissionable nuclide products generated at fission
and after fission are primary radiations. The radiations induced by the
interactions between primary radiations and materials are called secondary radiations. Neutrons and gamma rays are the radiation with
strongest penetrating power. The neutron and gamma ray sources are
only discussed here.
4.2

REACTOR BLOCK
Under Normal Operation Conditions Under normal operation
conditions the main neutron source is of fission neutron, and the main
gamma source is of prompt gamma rays emitted at fissions and delayed
4.2.1

gamma rays released from fission products.

1. neutron source
One fission of ' 3 5 ~ released about 2.5 fission neutron in average, which carry about 5 iMeV energy. For one
PWR with 900 M W electric power the prompt fission neuucn strength
is 3 bout 4 x loZ0 MeV i s o r 2.0 x lo2* n / s, and the neutron strength
in unit volume is about 1.3 x 10'; MeV / (s cm3) or 6.5 x 1012 n / (s
crn3). The energy range of fission neutrons is from eV to 10 MeV, but the
energy carried by neutrons above 14 MeV is less than 1OO/ of the total
energy. Normal the 14 MeV is considered as the upper limits of fission
neutron energy. The neutron spectrum distribution from 0.025 eV to 17
MeV can be expressed as follows
a

N(E) = 0.484 sh-expt

- E)

(4.2 - I )

where E in MeV.
The other neutron sources include delayed neutrons, neutrons of
activation products and photoneutrons. The delayed neutrons are released during the fission products are decaying. The delayed neutrons released per fission are 0.0158 neutrons, and its energy is very low. When
the water is used as the coolant the neutrons of activation products are
the 1 MeV neutrons from 1 7 are
~ decaying, which are generated from
17
O(n, p) 1 7 reaction.
~
2. gamma radiation sources
The fission per 2 3 5 releases
~
8.1
photons, which carry the energy 7.25 MeV, and the energy range is from
10 keV to 10 MeV. F o r one PWR nuclear power plant with 900MW
electric power, its heat power is about 2600MW. The strength of prompt
gamma radiation is
2.6 x l o 9 x 3.1 x 10'' x 7.25 = 5.84 x lo2' MeV / s
The core volume of such a reactor is about 31m3, therefore the strength
of prompt fission gamma radiation for unit volume is about 1.89 x 1013
MeV / (s cm3).
The fission products is the mixture of gamma emitters whose
half-life are from below 1s to few million years. The 6.65 MeV gamma
enerm of " 5 per
~
fission is released after 1s of fission, and above
three-fourth of this energy is released in 10-~s.
The other gamma radiation sources include thermal neutron capture gamma rays, fast neutron inelastic scattering gamma rays, gamma
rays of nuclear reaction products, gamma rays of activauon products,

annihilation radiation and bremsstrahlung radiation. The amount and

energy of these gamma radiation sources is very lictle. But capture
gamma rays and inelastic scattering gamma rays can be produced in
shielding. and the energy of capture gamma rays is from 6 MeV to 8
MeV, so when calculating the shielding these gamma rays must be considered.
Reactor Shutdown
After reactor shutdown the main radiation
sources are gamma radiation released from fission products and
activation products.
1. gamma radiation of fission products
Normally, the energy of
this gamma radiation is divided into seven energy groups:
---

- -- -

--

rz

.-

--

0.1-0.4 MeV
0.4-0.9 MeV

0.9-1.35 MeV
r 4
1.35-1.80 MeV
r5
1.80-2.20 MeV
r6
2.20-2.60 MeV
r7
> 2.60 MeV.
The Table 4.2-1 gives the dependence on time of gamma radiation
strength of groups after shutdown for one reactor, whose power is 1
MW and operation time is one year.
2. activation products
The materials (steel, water, zirconium
and aluminum) in reactor will be with activity under neutron irradiation.
Some parts, for example, fuel assembly, control rods, coolant and
moderator, will be removed outside reactor, but some parts will left in
reactor. The nuclear reactions often encountered are as follows: 160(n,
p) 16N, 180(n, y) 190, " ~ a ( n , y) 2 4 ~ a ,2 7 ~ l ( na, ) 2 4 ~ a ,5 6 ~ e ( n ,
p) 5 6 ~ n ", ~ ( n ,y) 5 9 ~ e 5, 8 ~ i ( np), 5 8 ~and
o 5 9 ~ o ( ny), 6 0 ~ o .
Reactor Accident While reactor accident occurs, partial fission
product will be released outside reactor.
1. noble gases
The noble gases released mainly is K r and Xe.
When the fuel elements are melted all of the K r and Xe release from elements. Exception several nuclide, for example, lJ3xe, 1 3 5 ~ e3, 5 r, ~
the half-life of other nuclides is very short in fission active gases, but as
long as the fission activity gas can be detained for several hours the effects of inert gas can be greatly reduced.
r
3

q~"i1
X X X

h h h

-1 9

X
L

X
L

??I-"

Gk
Lld

XIX

CI; - n n h

Table 4.2-3

Radioactive Level of Spent Fuel Storage

and Transportation Container
lnmtory GRq (CI)

UO, Fuel

Posltwn

To d

Ga D

UO, Fud pdkt

I

Rdabrc to mrc (%)

Gap T o d

Corn'

(I) afier reactor shutdown by M m n

( 2 ) c a l ~ b y 2 / 3 o f w r c a s s m b t i c s . I/3ofthandeclybytbroc&ys,

I/3ofthcm 150dap.

(3) calculaLcd by 1 / 2 of core arumblics, 1 / 3 of than decly by 6 day* 1 / 3 of them 160 days.
(4) 7 fud aoscmblics/ c o n w a , decaying by I SO days.

(5) one fuc! ascmbly is conudcrd, d s a p n g by 3 days.

The amount of fission product in coolant is relative to the cladding

materials and operating mode of reactor. Fot light water it is normally
assumed that there are cladding failure of 1% of fuel elements at rate
power, but in practice there is only 0.0 1 % fuel cladding failure.
Auxiliary Loops The radioactive concentration in liquid of auxiliary loops is relative to the purity power of the purity equipment (desalting tower and filter) and the stay time of liquid in storages.
4.2.3 STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION O F SPENT FUEL
The radioactive substance exist mainly in the fuel elements. Speaking of the radiation level, besides the reactor core the next are the spent
fuel storage and container of the fuel transportation. The radioactive
levels of spent fuel storage and container of the fuel transportation are
given in Table 4.2-3.
4.2.4 WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEMS
The activities of radioactive wastes are list in Table 4.2-4.

Table 4.2-4

Radioactive Wastes of PWR Nuclear Power Plan:

Systcrn

Waste
~

urilication system of primary

.-

Swcilic act~vityGBq / rn'

--

--

--.-

. --

cooling sysl.crn

---- -

--

- - --

--

~~

wet ion exchange resin

--

3.7 x lo3-1.85 x 10'

-

--

filter unit

- -- - --

. -. - -

- - ---

1.85 x 10'-1.85 x 10'

concenlrated

IIIJUILI

waste

---

of evaporator,

Liquid wastc vw tmcnt

3 7 x 10-'-3 7 x 10'
residual sulphur, resln

~~-~

high elXciency filter

waste gas and ventilation

i---I

activated carbon filter

- ..--

~
10'
-3 . 7 10-'-3.7~

waste paper, working clothes

Operation

3.7 x 10-'-3.7 x 10'

scrapped rnetailic pzrls and components

7 4 x 10-'-7

4 x 10-I

3.7 x lo0-3.7 x 10'

---

rod (after one year), start-up neutron source.,

11x10'
fuel assembly and space platc

4.3 RADIATION DETRIMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

The radiation detriment of nuclear power plant inciudes the exposure on occupational workers and public and effects on environment
4.3.1

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURES
The occupational exposures are relative to radiation level in plant,
type of work in production and operation in doing.
Radiation Level in Nuclear Power Plant
The zoning in
containment is given in Fig. 4.3-1, and the radiation levels in
containment under normal operation are given in Table 4.3-1.
The radiation levels of main equipment are as follows.
1. reactor vessel
After shutdown in few days the exposure rate in circular gap between reactor and primary shield near the highest of reactor core is 9-1 2
R / h which is induced by activation of carbon steel wall of reactor vessel and heat shield materials. The exposure rate at bottom of reactor vessel is 0.4-1.5 R / h. The exposure rate near the collecting water pit is
0.08-0.15 R / h. In addition, the neutron detectors arranged in this zone
are become into strong radiation source by activation. The exposure rate
on surface of detectors is up to 2-5 R / h.

'ON
"%

2. steam generator
After shutdown the exposure r.ate of steam generator surhce is
10-100 m R / h. But because of the sediment of impurity in primary
water the hot spot of strong activity is formed at local places. It is indicated by measuring the washer of manhole cover plate that main
o 6 0 ~and
o their exposures are abou: 80% of total
nuclides are 5 8 ~and
exposure.
3. main circulation pump
After shutdown the exposure rate on surface of main circulation
pump is about decades mR / h. But there are some hot spot a t some
places.
4. line pipes of primary loop
After shutdown the exposure rate on surface of line pipe of primary
loop is about from decades mR / h to hundreds mR / h. Because of deposit of suspended matter the exposure rate on the top of pipe section is
larger than that of the top of pipe section. There are some hot spot a t the
bend and the interfaces between two pipes.
5. mixed bed column
The mixed bed column is one equipment of chemical control
system, used for purifying the water of primary loop. The equipment arrangement is given in Fig. 4.3-2, and radiation levels of equipment and
rooms are listed in Table 4.3-2. The second measurement of plant B is
obtained under partial fuel cladding failure.
Spent Fuel Element Operation After shutdown in three days the
exposure rate at 1 meter from the light water reactor fuel assembly is
about lo5 R / h. While the spent fuel assembly is stored below water 4
meters the exposure rate is 1 R / h. The exposure rate is less than o r
equal 10 mR / h a t the upper of loading mechanism.
Occupational Exposure In Nuclear Power Plant The statistical
data publicized by N R C of USA in 1981 give the exposure data about
the PWR, shown as Table 4.3-3. From the data in this table it is can be
seen that average rate power per reactor is increased year by year, average number of workers and average collective dose equivalent is increased year by year also but the average dose equivalent per worker reduce some, down to about 5 mSv / a.
--

Plant A

6.45 X10-'-1.29 X10-8

(0.026-0.006)

First

6.16 X lo-'

(0.02)

5.16 (23)

I Second

Plant

'I'hi1-6

1.29X 10-'.-3.1 X 10da

(0.00&-0.012)

I3

Exposure rate, mC/(kg - h) (R/h)

Table 4.3-2 Radiation Level of Mixed Bed Column

hlIeas11ring
point
Measliringposition

N 0.

Onsurface of ion

( exchange column
Corridor for valire
operation

Entry (uf mixed

bed coliimnin
corridor for valve
operation

a Upper of column.
b Uown ofcolnn~n.

4(3)

1w1

619

613

20

26

1974

1975

0.0076

0 . W

0.01

(0.0111)

(0.0101)

[0.76]

(0.681

11.0)
0.007 10.7)

0.01

0.026 [2.6]

--

0.015 [1.5]

-l l ) ]

(1.0~

0.022 12.81

0.008 10.61

0.01

[1.00]

242.66 (242661

6.78 (6781

6.101 [610]

4.29 14291

3.96 [396]

4.80 [4M]

0.0062

0.0066

0.0066

0.0066

0.0079

--

doss.

(0.621

[O.Ii6]

(0.661

[0.66]

10.791

11.01

0.013 (1.31

0.012 (1.21

0.008 [O.Ej

0.008 10.81

0.01

Dose
sqriivalent
per tinit
eloctric
enemy
S v/@l W a)
[rern/(hi W a) ]

[(i.oi)]

(n) tlie vnlue ill the brackets is t h e renctor n i ~ o l l for

~ r w o r k e r n n n l l ~ of
r msasi~rabledoseand annrral collective
(L) tho vnlue of roillld Lrncketv is relative t.o t h e corresponding value of pointed renctors in (a) brnckets.

1101

214.37 (211371

167.13 (167131

696

138.07 [I38071
134.69 1134091

4t1'237

18287

729

3.18 [318]

3.31 [331]

66.27 166271
82.68 [8268]

7.83 17831

4.64 (46i]

93.99 [9399]

614

686

924

18249

729

1919

--

37.08 (20.83)
13708 p m 3 ) l

8.07 [ w ]

(0.0082) [(0.82)1

6.84 [684]

27.28 (10.99)
[B28 (1099)l
18.44 (9.12)
I1844 (012))

(0.008)

[(0.8)]

Avernge
dobe
equivalent
per man
S v [rem]'b'

1.66 11661

4vernge
collective
dose
equivalent
per reactor
Svlrem]

6.6l (3.63)
[ 6 a (=a1

Tote1
collective
dose
equivalent,
mnn S v
(man rern J'"'

p
p
p
p
p

38828

26720

19840

1978

.I2

20876

17346

699

17688

485

9697
419

787

(377)

(228)

(447)

(161)

9110

13326

6824

3770

(1885)

676

633

12

2544

1912

399

4.16

(1340)

979

349

(406)

(464)

1079

349

(Mw)

Average
r a t e power
per reactor

1973

6(3)

4(3)

1970

1072

4(3)

reactor"'

N ~ u n b e rof

1969

Annnct-

r
Total
Average
rnlmber of nrimLer
workers
of
Total
for
workers
electric
e
energy m e ~ s t ~ r ~ l l per
reactor
(hlW . a ) dose(k"

Table 4.3-4 Collective Dose Equivalent

Distribution by Type of Work in
Production in PWR Nuclear Power Plant(%)
I

1 Typeof workin production

I

,
i

PWR

Normal operation

Routine maintenance

1 24.7

Special maintenance

i 34.1 ,

12.9

Inservice spection
Waste treatment

15.1

Loading and unloading

1 12.6

The distribution of collective dose in PWR by type of work in production is glvzn in Table 4.3-4. The 20%-25% of dose is received during reactor operation. The other 75-805G of dose is received duriilg reactor shutdown.

4.3.2 EFFECTS O N ENVTROSMENT

The effeccs on environment discussed here point to the exposure on
public due to release little rzdioacuve substance.
Effulent of Nuclear
Power Plant
The radioactive substances re- --leased from nuclear power plant to atmosphere include the fission gases
(Kr and Xe), activation gases ( I4C and 4 1Ar), I, particulate and 3 ~ ,
and to water area include fission production, activation production and
'11.
1. radioactive substances released to atmosphere
For PWR nuclear power plant the activities of noble gases, I, 3~
and particulate released to atmosphere for generting unity electric energ y (GW(e) a) are listed in Table 4.3-5. There are not integral data
about particulate nuclide component, but its components are almost
same as the liquid effluent, including decades nuclides of fission products and activation productions. Unless the fuel cladding is greatly failure, in general, there are main activation products. The activity mainly
o 6 0 ~ ~ .
come from the decay of 5 8 ~and
2. radionuclides released to water area
For PWR nuclear power plant the activities of 'H and other substances released to water area for generating unity electric energy
(GW(e) a) are listed in Table 4.3-6. The other nuclide components are
listed in Table 4.3-7. The main corrosion products in effluent are 5 8 ~ o
and '%o, next, are "Cr and fission products 1 3 4 ~ s1, 3 7 ~and
s 13'1.
Collective
Dose Equivalent
of Public Under normal operation
---conditions the gaseous radioactive substances are very little, then the exposure received by public can not be measured. Assessing the effects on
environment of liquid effluent is more difficult than that of gaseous
effluent. Because the site conditions are different, one model can not be
used for calculation of different sites.
-

- -

--

p
-

Table 4.3-5 Radioactive Substances Released

to Atomsphere for Unity Generation Output
J
I

i Radioactive

substances

Averagereleasing quality f o r unity generation output.,

BGq/GW(e) a
(Ci/GW(e) a)

1975

1976

i Fission gas

I
I

401598
1 (10554)

1977

5.772
(0.156)

1979

1975-1979
average

569430
(15390)

Particulate

1978
I

1.258

' (0.034)

1.554

1 (0.042)

;
i

1.85
(0.05)

1.295
(0.035)

2.146
(0.058)

The values in table a r e t h e average value f o r PWR nuclear power plant in

world-wide, but only t h e value of "C is t h e average value of Germany.

Table 4.3-6 Radioactive Substances Released

to Wat,erArea for Average Unity
Generation Output. of PWR
Nuclear Power Plant.
Averagereleasing quality f o r unity generation o u t p u t
GBqlGW (e) a (Ci/GW (e) a )

Ii Radioactive
. .
I

substances

1975

1976

1977

1
-

"H

1
1

Nuclide

1 except3H

'

1979

1975-1979
average

32967
(691)

29970
(810)

37962
(1026)

125.80
(3.40)

74
(2.0)

183.59
(4.97)

52847.1
38661.3
(1428.3) ' (1044.9)
145.04
(3.92)

1978

309.69
(8.37)

39960
(1080)
305.62
(8.26)

'

4.3.3

RADIATION ACCIDENT O F hiUCLEAR POWER PLANT

.According to the probabiliry of accidenr, serious exrent o r detriment on public there are different classification methods in countries for
possible occurring accidents of nuclear power plant. The accidents are
classified as four kinds in China.
I . anticipated operational occurrences
All operational processes deviating from normal operation which
are expected to occur once o r several times during the operating time life
of the plant and which, in view of appropriate design provisions, d o not
cause any significant damage to items important to safety nor lead to accident conditions, and d o not cause radioactive substance to release
greatly to environment.
2. unlikely accident
The probability is less. If the relevant engineered safety features did
not function as per design intent this accident could lead to release of
unacceptable quantities of radioaeiive materials to environment. While
this accident occurs the dose received by individual of public wiil exceed
0.25 mSv, but and any individual of public will not exceed 5 mSv.
3. severe accident
The probability of this accident is expected to be infrequent. Some
of the engineered safety features do not function, and lead to release of
unacceptable quantities of radioactive materials. While this accident occurs the dose received by individual of public will exceed 5 mSv, but any
individual of public will not exceed 0.1 Sv.
d. maximum credible accident
This is a conceivable accident which leads to release of radioactive
materials in large scale and to produces serious sequence on environment. The probability of this accident is extreme little. This accident is
used for radiation protection assessment in site selection. For PWR the
maximum credible accident is core meltdown in large scale.
4.4 PREVENTION MEASURES OF REDUCING EXPOSURE
RECEIVED BY OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION WORKERS

CONTROL BY ZONING
T o permit effective control over personal access to radiation areas
and to limit the spread of air or surface contamination. the building of
4.4.1

nuclear power plant must be divided into controlled areas, supervised

areas and unsupervised areas. Site personal might receive doses in excess
of three-tenths of the annual dose equivalent during the anticipated
working- period in controlled areas. The radiatiori levels in supervised
areas should be such that it is most unlikely that the annual exposure
willexceed three-renths of the annual dose equivalent limits. The radiation levels in unsupervised areas shall be such that it is most unlikely
that the annual exposure will exceed one-tenths of the annual dose
equivalent.
To organize the operation of the controlled area in an effective way,
this area is divided into zones based on radiation and radioactive contamination levels (dose rates and surface or airborne activity concentrations). The greater the radiation or contamination level of the zone, the
greater is the operational control required to be exercised over the access
of individuals in order to ensure compliance with individual annual exposure limits.
Zoning The methods of zoning for countries are different. The
general practice is to divide the controlled area of nuclear power plants
into three or more radiation and contamination zones. The zone classification can be seen in Table 4.4-1
Control by Zoning To minimize the radiation dose incurred by
site personnel working in the controlled area, and the spread of contamination, the layout of the controlled area shall be such that personnel do
not have to pass through areas of high radiation to gain access to an
area of lower radiation, not through areas of high contamination to gain
access to an area of lower contamination. The radiation areas, especially
the areas whose dose equivalent is larger than 25 pSv / h, must be with
significant sign. F o r high radiation areas prohibited to come into the
door must be lock.
At the entrance to a controlled area, or the interface between contamination area and uncontamination area the charge rooms must be
set. If necessary, at the interface between different contamination areas
sub-change areas must be set.

Table 4.4-1 Zone Classification

According to French Regulations
,

Classification
of zone

Monitored zone

2.5-7.5
(0.25-0.75

' Controlled

zone
GREEN

Controlled zone
YELLOW
Controlled zone
ORANGE

I
I

Controlled zone
RED

Doseequivalentrate
(whole-body exposure, 2000hr/a)

li S

v/h
mremlh)

DAC

'
0.1-0.3

The layout and ventilation of the main change room shall be such
as to prevent rhe spread of contamination from the controlled area to
the uncontrolled area. Within this room, a barrier shall clearly separate
the clean area from a potentially contamination area. The capacity of
the main change room has to be large enough to meet requirements for
work during shutdcwn periods and allow also for temporary personal
from outside contractors.
Provision shall be made in the main change room for requirement
by which to detect the external contamination of persons and
equipment. The exit from the area shall be monitored or guarded to ensxre that personal and equipment can only leave when a clearance signal
is received from a body contamination monitor o r when permission is
granted by the radiation protection personal.
In addition to radiation monitors, the main charge room shall be
provided, a t the minimum, with following:
a. personnel decontamination facilities (showers and sinks).
b. clean clothing and the necessary storage for it.
c. contains for contamination clothing.
SHIELDING
Properties
of Reactor Shielding In shielding design the reactor
shielding design is more complex. It has the properties as follows:
a. complex radiation sources.
F o r example, large activity, wide
energy range. There are neutrons, gamma rays and secondary gamma
rays of neutrons, especially, after neutrons are absorbed in shielding materials the secondary gamma rays can be produced. The type, activity
and spectrum has large different for reactor in operation and shutdown.
b. different shielding requirements.
F o r example, it is requires
that prevent equipment from damaging of irradiation, from activating of
materials and from heating of shielding materials in technology. In radiation safety, according to the frequency and the occuqanncy time gained
to access to the requirement for personnel, it is defined for different radiation levels and made the shielding design zone by zone.
c. complex shielding design.
According to different objectives
and requirements the different form shieldings are adopted, for example,
integral shielding, partial shielding and shadow shielding. The pipe line
penetration, especially local weak place induced by ventilation tubes
passes through shielding wall, must be considered. The local high radia4.4.2

A
-

tion places induced by streaming effects of gaps, the secondary gamma

rays produced in shielding layer and shielding heating must be considered also. For the entrance the special shielding forms must be adopted.
d. different shielding materials.
Based on different radiation
sources different materials are selected. F o r reactor block the steel and
water are often used for shielding maierials. F o r cooling systems and
auxiliary systems the concrete is often used.
Shielding
--of PWR
Nuclear
Power Plant I n shielding design of
-- - - PWR nuclear power plant the different forms and materials are adopted
for different systems.
1. shielding of reactor block
The reactor block shielding is called as primary shielding also.The
pipe lines and equipment of primary cooling system are arranged round
the reactor. While the reactor in operation these equipment are with
stronger radioactivity themselves and can not be accessed to. Therefore,
the reactor block shielding function is to prevent these equipment and
secondary coolant from activating and to ensure that the radiation levels
outside shielding are lower than that of equipment themselves.
The reactor block shielding consists of multiplex steel-water layers
in vessel and circular concrete of about 2 meters in thickness. Multiplex
steel-water layers are core space plate, core cylinder, heat shielding, vessel and the water layers among them.
Besides protection aim for these shieldmg there are consideration in
engineering, for example, the heat shielding can be used to prevent mechanical properties from change induced from extreme neutron
irradiation, to reduce the heating in concrete, to prevent the equipment
outside primary shielding from activating.
2. primary cooling system shielding
The shielding of the primary cooling system is called as secondary
shielding also. The secondary shielding includes the wall, surrounded the
primary cooling loop, which supports the crane, and the operation floor
of concrete over the primary cooling loop. The secondary shielding includes the concrete construction also.
The important radiation source is 16N.The aim of the secondary
shielding is to reduce the radiation of 16N to safety level, so that the
personnel can come into the containment under operation in full power
for necessary inspects and maintances. The secondary shielding has such
function aiso that personnel may d o the routine works continuously
--

outside the containment under operation in full power. Because the

containment thickness has certain thickness (one meter), therefore. when
reactor melts and radioactive substances of large quantity come into
containment it can make prevent surrounding public from excessive exposure.
3. shielding of fuel transportation
The shielding of fuel transportation is to prevent personnel from
excessive exposure in processes of unloading, fuel transportation and fuel storage. The shieldings are water in unloading cavity and in spent fuel
storage pool, the wall of unloading cavity, transportation passage and
spent fuel storage pool and the metal transportation container. While
unloading the upper space of reactor the vessel are filled with water. The
thickness of water layer is to ensure that the exposure rate on surface of
water layer is less than 2.5 mR / h.
4. shielding of auxiliary building
The auxiliary building arranges with equipment, for example, chemical and volume control system and waste treatment systems. Their radiation levels have large difference. These equipment must be shielded
respectively to ensure that during operation period for adjacent equipment the personnel may come into this process room to make necessary
maintenance.
5. movable shielding
The movable shielding is used for the maintenance. The measuring
results indicate that the scattering rays are 15% - 44%, its average value
is 38%. Hence, using simple movable shielding may significant reduce
the dose received by personnel.
4.4.3 VENTILATION
As far as the radiation protection is concerned, the primary objective of the ventilation system is to control the radioactive airborne contamination of the working environment in order to keep the radiation
exposure and the intake of radionuclides as low as reasonably achievable
for occupationally exposed persons and to ensure that appropriate limits
are not exceeded. Other objectives of the ventilation system not necessarily related to radiation protection are:
a. To ensure employee comfort by providing air at suitable conditions.
b. To protect the plant structures and to enable the impaired func-249-

tioning of equipment by controlling the temperature and humidity of the

ambient air as appropriate.
General Principle
of Ventilation Design Tn order to reach the objectives of radiation protection the following measures are often
adoptcd.
1. air change
There must be enough air change rate in working areas and process
rooms to ensure environment conditions for workers can come into the
working area and for making the equipment under normal operation
conditions.
2. control of air flow direction
In general, the air flow in the ventilation system should be directed
from regions of lower airborne contamination to regions of higher contamination. The pressure in areas with airborne contamination shall be
lower than that in adjacent cleaner areas. A slightly negative gauge pressure is maintained in the contamination rooms and related buildings t o
permit control and monitoring of discharges of contaminated air.
3. control of air flow model in working areas
The air feed holes and air exhaust holes must be arranged reasonably. Considering the possible occurrence of hot and mechanical influence, if necessary, the local exhaust may be add to ensure however the
contamination sources take place anywhere the contamination matter
should be teken away. N o dead angles exist.
4. closed-loop recirculation
In some areas it may be desirable to have closed-loop resirculation
including filters, dryers and coolers, as appropriate, with only a smail
controlled-flow discharge.
5. purification
According to need the air released to environment should be made
to decay, filter and remove iodine. When the radiation level in air
reaches the regulated level it can be released.
6. minitoring and control
The air released should be monitered. If necessary, the small controlled-flow discharge is used to reduce the radioactive matter released
to environment.
Ventilation for PWR Nuclear Power Plant The primary ventilation systems of PWR nuclear power plant are as follows:
1. ventilation of reactor block
- - - - - --

- - --

It includes two parts of control rod drive mechanism ventilation

and reactor sump ventilation. The reactor ventilation is aimed at removing the heat away to control rod mechanism and ionization chambers in reactor sump at normal operation condition.
2. containment ventilation
It includes containment purification system, containment cooling
system, containment air control system and containment purge system.
The containment purification system is a recirculation system in
continuous operation. It exhausts the air from containment down, and
makes the air pass through high effciency filter and remove iodine, then
feed the air to the upper of containment operation plateform. In this
way, the iodine and particulate in containment can be kept at certain
level.
The containment cooling system is a recirculation system in continuous operation. It exhaust the air from upper of containment and feeds
related rooms after cooling.
The containment air control system is to eliminate the hudrogen in
upper of containment under loss-of-coolant accident to ensure that the
concentration of hydrogen in containment is lower than the explosion
limit. There is a hydrogen recombiner which can make the hydrogen become into water.
The containment purge system is used in reactor shutdown. It is
started up before the persons come into containment to clear the
containment and exchange the air in containment.
3. ventilation of auxiliary building
The aim is to remove the heat away released from the equipment, to
make the working area at certain temperature and to keep that the contamination level in working area is lower than certain limits. This is a
non-recirculation system. After filtering and cooling (or heating) the incoming wind is fed into low contamination, and then is exhausted from
high contamination area, After filtering (if necessary, removing iodine) it
is fed into stack to release.
4. ventilation of spent fuel buildmg
The cleaning air is fed into the upper of fuel pit shielding slab where
the workers d o some operations, then the air come into the upper of the
pit through the slab gaps, the air is exhausted from the upper of pit and
after filtering the air is fed into stack to release.
5. temporary ventilation

The air flow reguiating dampers or connection tubes can be set on

ventilation tube to connect with the soft tube for ventilation.
One movable auxiliary ventilation system can be used. This system
includes one air exhaust fan, high efficiency filter and activated carbon
filter. The air released from this system can be directed to rooms, in this
way, the equilibrium of ventilation sysem can not be distorted.
MEASURES F O R R E D U C I N G ACTIVITY O F RADIATION
SOURCES
The occupational exposure of persons in nuclear power plant largely comes from the maintanence. The main radioactive sources are 5 8 ~ o
o
from reaction
and 6 0 ~ in
o primary cooling system. The 5 8 ~comes
" ~ i ( n ,p), however, the Ni exists in many alloies, especially in Inconel
of steam generator. The 6 0 ~ iso produced from the activation of 5 9 ~ o .
The 5 9 ~aso one kind of impurity (content less than 0.2%) exists in
Inconel and stainless steel. In addition, the 5 9 ~iso the main composition (content up to 50% or more) of surface harden material of wear-resisting parts in main pump, control rod drive mechanism and valves. In
the initial term of reactor operaction the exposure contribution of 5 8 ~ o
and 6 0 ~are
o almost same. Because of long half-life of 6 0 ~ otherefore,
,
after several years of operation the exposure of 6 0 ~ iso dominant.
Hence how to reduce the content of corrosion products included 6 0 ~ o
in primary cooling system has important significant for reducing
occupational exposure.
To reduce the content of corrosion products in primary cooling system the following measures can be adopted.
a. Selecting the primary cooling system materials to reduce the
radioactive corrosion products, espceially the formation of 6 0 ~ oas, low
as possible.
b. Selecting resonably the operation condition (controlling the P H
value of coolant) to reduce the deposit of corrosion products a t the
equipment and pipe line.
c. Flitering the coolant to seperate the corrosion products from the
primary cooling system.
d. Decatanminating to the systems to remove the deposited corrosion products away from the system.
Selection of Materials I n the primary cooling system of PWR, the
main sources of Co are the pipes made by Tnconel-600 in steam genera4.4.4

-252-

tor and surface harden matelals. The contacting area between the
coolant and stainless steel is very little, therefore, the contribution of
stainless steel for Co content in corrosion products is not large.
While looking for subtitute materials, it must ensure that the corrosion resistance and wear resistance is better than that of original materials, or at least not less than that of original materials.
Controlling the PH Value of Coolant
To control the reactivity
there is boric acid in coolant. To control the PH value of coolant the
lithium hydroxides is added in coolant. In general, the PH value of
coolant lies in range between 4.5 to 10.5. If regulating the concentration
of boric acid and lithium hydroxides the PH value is controlled between
from 6.8 to 7.2, then the generation and deposit on surface of equipment
of corrosion products can be reduced, hence the radiation level in whole
system can be reduced.
Filtering Filtering off corrosion products in coolant will reduce
the radiation level.
Decontamination
The decontamination can be classfied as
decontamination of devices and whole system. The devices decontaminated are steam generator, main pump and control rods and core
monitering meters taken out from reactor. For whole system
decontamination the following requirements must be satisfied:
a. effcacious removing off the radioactive deposited matter on surface of equipment of primary cooling system,
b. corrosion actions on system for deconmination reagent must be
as small as possible,
c. waste produced in decontaminating processes must be as little as
possible, and radioactive impurity in waste liquid can be seperated by
ion exchange resin,
d. decontamination can be made under reactor loaded (boron content in coolant is 2000 ppm),
e. decontaminant is with good heat stability and radiolysis
stability.
4.4.5 PLANNING, ORGANIZATION AND TRAI'IUXING
To reduce the occupancy period of workers in radiation areas, it is
necessary to work out a well-conceived plan for maintance, to make
strict organizing and trainning for maintance workers. For radioactive
maintanence jobs, the following things must be done in advance: work-253-

ing out the job precedure, stipulating the time needed for jobs, estimating the abnormal cases appeared possibly and emergency measures
adopted, defining the necessary measures of reducing the occupational
exposure.
While working in strong radioactive areas the working time of
workers must be limited, if necessary, the workers take turns, the wcrkers must be trained in advance, for example, emulating operations in
models to make them skilfully master the operations and shorten the
operation time as possible.
On the protection measures of reducing occupational exposure of
workers, besides mention above, it is important for making careful design to systems and careful arrangement to requirement and raising the
reliability of equipment in fabrication so that the frequencys of
maintanence and exchange of equipment can be reduced and, hence, the
maintanence time can be reduced.

PROTECTION MEASURES OF REDUCING EXPOSURE OF

PUBLTC
There are many measures that can be used to reduce the exposure of
public. Some of them are adopted in design stage, some of them are
adopted in operation of nuclear power plant, some of them are adopted
after the accident occurs. These measures concern waste treatment,
safegear and emergency protection actions. The siting and multibarrier
design which prevent releasing of radioactive substances are only dtscussed herein.
4.5

4.5.1 SITING
The site of nuclear power plant must be satisfied with requirements
of nuclear safety and radiation protection to ensure that under normal
operation conditons and under accident condttions the individual dose
equipment and collective dose equipment are lower than the regulated
limits.
While knowing of one assessing site if suitable for building power
plant the following effects on nuclear safety and radiation protection
must be considered.
Effect of ExternalEvents
on PlantIn general, the radioactive
- risks induced by external events should not exceed that induced by internal accident. Hencc, it must make full investigation for effecting of'
--

-254-

external events on plant. That is to collect the data of occurrence frequency and severe extend, to analyze its reliability, precision and integity and to define the design basis for external event by suitable methods..
For one external event (or combination of events), its reference value selected as design basis should ensure the integrity for structure, systems and parts which are relevant with chis event and important function to safety, and still do not lose its function. If recommended measures can not defend the plant from destroy of external events it is necessary to consider that this site is not suitable for building the plant.
The following aspects need to work out design basis for main external natural events.
a. Floodwater
The definition of floodwater is any abnormal
high level or overflow of river, flood-relief channel, lakes or seashore.
These include river floodwater induced by precipitation and thaw,
windstorm tide induced by hurticane, tsunami or seiche induced by
earthquake and the floodwater induced by burst of a dyke, ice raft block
and landslide.
b. Defect of geologrcal structure
It includes breakage on earth
surface,faults, landslide, mud-rock flow, snow slide, and caverns in
soluble rocks, mine, oil well, gas well and water well which can induce
sink, subside and swell of earth.
c. Earthquake
It is necessary to understand seismic activity,
earthquake formation and relation between both, and to define the
ground motion about earthquake design basis vibration.
d. Tornado and typhoon.
e. Events of effect on long term released heat. These events include
dry season water flow rate, lowest water level, and duration of lowest
water level of cooling water source, and insufficient water supply of
cooling water induced by river block, reservoir empty and ship collision.
f. Other natural events. For example, volcano activity, sandstorm,
rainstorm, hailstone and thunder and lightning. If these events can effect
the safety of plant it is necessary to define the relevant design basis.
The following aspects need to work out design basis external
man-induced events.
a. Aircraft crash. Including impact, explosion and firing.
b. Chemicals explosion. Including fabrication, treatment, storage,
transportation and usage of explosive, ammunition, chemicals and liquid or gaseous fuel. In addition, the missiles generated in explosion
-255-

should be considered.
c. Fires. Including the fires generated by adjacent enterprises,
chemical plants, storage devices or oil and gas lines, and the fires of
brush, forest and transportation accidents.
d. Other man-induced events. There are devices which storage,
fabricate, transport or treat the matters with poison corrosion or
activity.
Effect of Site Characteristics
and Environment Characteristics on
-Radioactive Substance Migration For design and siting of plant, the
effecting of effluents on environment, organisms' habits and public must
be considered. The plant should ensure that under the conditions of
maximum credible accidents and disadvantage diffusion it does not bring about unacceptable exposure to public.
Effecting of environment characteristics on radioactive substance
are mainly dispersion of atmosphere, surface water and subterranean
water.
a. Atmospheric dispersion. The region meteorological characteristics, meteorological data of site, and terrain and landform must be investigated. These data should observe on-site and the observation data
must be with one year. Building an atmospheric dispersion mode of
effluent is used to calculate diffusion factors of short term and long term
to access effecting of effluent on public.
b. Dispersion of surface water. To access the dispersion characteristic of surface water, the water body position, water body size, water
body form and its changes with time must be investigated. The following
aspects must be investigated also: the flow rate of river, lake flow and
sea flow, silt content in water body, water inlet of water supply system of
user. The dispersion characteristic of water body must be studied on
these bases to determine the migration mechanism of radioactive matters
in water body, and to access the effecting of liquid effluent on public
through the surface water.
c. Dispersion of subterranean water. To access dispersion characteristic of subterranean water in site, the following aspects must be investigated: non-saturation bed and water-bearing bed of stratum, water
level isohypse and its changes with water level and meteorological
phenomena, the direction and velocity of subterranean water motion,
the utilize of subterranean water resources, the ways of persons contacting with subterranean, the hydraulic relation between the surface
--

.--

--

water and subterranean water.

In addition. the following aspects must be done: investigating physical and chemical characteristics of soil layers and rocks in site which are
related with dispersion. building the model described mechanism of the
radioactive nuclides pass through the water-bearing layers, defining the
ways of the public receives the liquid effluent exposure, accessing the exposure received by public under accident conditions.
Population Distribution and Resource Utilization To reduce the
collective dose equivalent of public under accident conditions, to decrease the property loss and to evacuate public organized from contamination areas, the site of plant should be selected at the region where the
population density is low in and is far from factories and mines and
population centuries. The non-residence quarter should be set round
the plant, and surrounding the non-residence quarter the limiting region
should be set.
The non-residence quarter should be administered under plant. In
general, the activities which are not relative to plant operation, should
be limited. The activities, which are necessary in non-residence quarter,
should not effect on plant operation absolutely, and should be governed
under controlling of plant. The railways, highways and waterways are
permitted to pass through the non-residence, but under accident conditions the plant should has power to control these traffic devices to protect the public.
The limiting re@on is limiting development area. Population
growth and investment in construction should be given controlling, to
make that the population and assets in this area is lower than that of
surrounding areas, so that to reduce the effects of accidents of plant.
The data of present and programing population distribution should
be collected. The population should include permanent population and
transient population. The food and drink habits should be investigated
for different resident group (for example, ages, nations, village and city
resident), to access the ways for the radioactive matters come into body.
The utility of earth and water resources should be investigated for site
area. The investigation contents include the area of cultivated land and
grazing land, kinds of products, industrial used water and public water
supply. Especially, the directed and undirected ways of contamination of
food chains should be paid attention to.
~

4.5.2 MULTIBARRIER O F PREVENTING RELEASE O F

RADIOACTIVE MATTERS
T o prevent radioactive matters release to environment, in general,
the multibarrier is considered in design (see Fig. 4.5-1).
The fuel itself can keep large part of fission products
Pellet
-.
Fuel
-.
-generated by nuclear fission in inside of pellet fuel. Under normal operation conditions, only partial fission gases and volatility matters release
from inside of pellet fuel. When the uranium nuclei near surface for few
micrometers in depth fission the fission fragments can recoil from the
surface.
Fuel Cladding T o prevent the escape of radioactive fission products and chemical reactions between fuel and coolant the pellet fuels are
usually put into the tubes which are as cladding. These tubes can bear
certain pressure. The fission gases and volatility matters released from
pellet fuels under normal operations may be held up in gaps between
tubes and pellet fuels. Adopting the zirconium alloy as the cladding, the
permeability quantity of 'H is only 0.013% - 1 % of content of 'H in
fuel.
Primary Cooling System Whole cooling system, including vessel,
pump, steam generator, pressurizer and their connecting pipes, consists
of a closed system which can bear certain pressure. In this way, released
fission products are held up in the cooling loop even in cladding failurz.
Of course, because coolant loop is a high pressure loop it is not avoidable that there is small coolant leaking to containment and secondary
loop, but this leakage is very small.
Containment- In general, while designing the containment the accident factors, for example, temperature and pressure generated in
loss-of-coolant accident, earthquake, hurticane and fragments flew
from inside and outside of containment, are considered. The volume of
PWR containment can relax pressure rising in loss-of-coolant accident.
In addition, there is spring system in containment. This system can make
the steam released in accident condense to reduce the pressure in
containment.
- --

--

4.6 RADIATION MONITORING OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

T o discover in time the abnormal radiation events, to ensure the radiation safety of workers in plant and public, and to access the exposure
received by occupational radiation workers and surrounding resident,

the radiation monitoring to workers, working areas and environment

must be made.
4.6. i

WORKING AREA MOhTITORING

There are neutron radiation monitoring and gamma radiation monitoring for working area monitoring. But large parts of them are continuous monitoring of gamma radiation. While gamma exposure rate is
over present value the monitoring system can give alarm signal to prevent of workers from exceeding exposure.
The measurement points of area monitoring in PWR nuclear power
plant are given in Table 4.6-1.
According practice arrangement there may be some areas needed to
make area monitoring. On monitoring areas mentioned above, some
areas of them need one and more detectors. Centre control room should
set monitoring point, and the measured range is 0.1 - lo4 mR / h.
4.6.2 EFFLUENT M O N I T O R N G
There are two aims for making monitoring to effluent: providing
full data explains that release quantity is lower than release limit under
normal operation conditions and when abnormal release occurs the
monitoring assembly can give alarm signal in time to adopt necessary
protection measures, providing some information tell if reactor system
and waste treatment system are under normal states.
About radioactive effluent monitoring, the Safety Series NO. 46
published in 1978 proposed one recommendations. The monitoring
programs of airborne effluent of plant in that recommendations is as follows.
a. The typical monitoring system for nuclear power plant includes
continuous measurement of the noble gases and continuous sampling of
13'1and particulates. The periodic measurement of the samples of 13'1
and particulates in the laboratory is, in general, considered sufficient
and will be more accurate for low release rates.
b. Normally, only those mixtures of radionuclides and specific
nuclides that are named in the authorization are routinely monitored.
However, it may be necessary to carry out periodically a detailed analysis of the overall radionuclides composition. Additional monitoring may
be required for special nuclides such as 3~ and I4c.

Table 4.6-1 Listing of Area Monitoring

in P W E Nuclear Power Plant
XG.

Position

Range
mC/(kg h )

(mR/h)
--

1.0

Containment

1.1

Core instrument a r e a

2.58X10-"-2.58

(0.1><104)

1.2

Charge-discharge floor

2.58 X10-6-2.58

(0.1 X104)

1.3

2.0

Auxiliary

2.1

S olid waste storage area

2.58X10-"-2.58

(0.1-lo4)

2.2

Control panel area of

waste encapsulation station

2.58 X10-6-2.58

(0.1-10")

2.3

Control panel area of

radioactive waste

2.4

Residual heat removal pump

and exchanger area

2.58 X 10-6-2.58

(0.1-10")

2.5

Maintanence building of
radioactive compound

2.58 X 10-"-2.58

(0.1-10")

2.6

Radiochemical lab.

2.58X10-"-2.58

(0.1-10")

2.7

Sampling station a r e a
of primary water

2.58 X10-5-2.58

(0.1-10")

2.6

Air exhaust fllter

2.58X10-6-2.58

(0.1-10")

3.0

Turbine building
2.58X10-"-2.58

(0.1-los1)

2.58 X10-"-2.58

(0.1-lo4)

2.58 X10-5-2.58

(0.1-10")

Worker access port

(containment side)

3.1
8

area

Evaporator of chemical
waste liquid reproduction

4.0

Fuel building

4.1

Fuel storage a r e a

4.2

Operation area of fuel

transfer flask

5.0

Other a r e a

5.1

Equipment decontamination

c. Any accident in a power reactor may involve the release of large

quantities of noble gases. The continuous measurement of such gases required for normal operating conditions must also be adequate for the
detection of accidental releases, and therefore, the measurement instruments must have a sufficiently wide measuring range.
d . Because of the different characteristics of the radionuclides that
may be discharged to the atmosphere, several types of monitoring are
required. Continuous monitoring is necessary for the noble gases, and
continuous sampling for radioiodines and tritium and for particulates.
For the direct monitoring of effluent release under normal operating
conditions, continuous measurement of ' k r and of 13'1at the stack is
generally considered to be sufficient, For the nuclides sampled on a continuous basis, periodic measurements in the laboratory are necessary for
3 ~ I4c,
,
12?, I3'I, the actinides and other beta/gamma-emitting
particulates.
e. Such a monitoring system must also satisfy the requirements for
alarm monitoring in case of an accidental release.
For liquid effluent, several requirements are in principle similar to
those of the monitoring programs for airborne effluent.
In general the various types of liquid effluents produced are collected. according to their radioactive and chemical characteristics, in separate tanks and basins, and treated, as necessary, before discharge to the
environment. The radioactive waste waters are then discharged on a
discontinuous (batch) basis, to a pipe or canal which leads to a body of
water.
The discharge of any such batch can be carried out only under appropriate control which ensure that the authorized discharge limit will
not be exceeded. This requires taking of a representative sample of each
batch and measuring its radioactivity content before discharge. Then the
representative samples of each batch are made into composited sample
in order of week, month or season and the composited sample is analyzed for its nuclides .
In addition, the continuous monitoring instruments must be set at
end of discharge pipe or mixing well for discovering the abnormal
discharge in time and giving the alarm signal to adopt necessary measures.

Suitable environmental monitoring equipment shall be provided.

This equipment shall be able to detect any significant increase of radiation above background. Monitoring shall include the measurement of
external radiation, airborne particulate and iodine concentrations and
deposited activities, either by continuous measurement or by integration
over specified periods of time.
Under normal conditions, main aim of environmental monitoring
of nuclear power plant is providing full data prove that the environment
round the plant is satisfying environmental quantity standard, and to estimate public exposure produced due to nuclear power plant operation,
at least to be able to estimate upper limit of this exposure.

CHAPTER 5

RADTA'TION PROTECTION
MONITORING

To estimate and control the radiation exposure level of working

areas and environment, the measurements for radiation and radioactive
matters are called as radiation monitoring. The radiation monitoring includes the accessment according to relevant stipulations of recommendations of ICRP and government authorities.
The radiation monitoring is main means for checking executive
cases and knowing if protection devices are safety and reliable. Efficient
radiation monitoring is helpful for discovering accidental omens as early
as possible to adopt protection measures. Hence, radiation monitoring is
very important in radiation protection.
5.1

RADIATION MONITORING BASIS

Some changes induced by interactions between radiations and matters, including physical, chemical and biological changes, and
concomitant appearing secondary phenomena become into the basis of
radiation dose measurements. In addition, thermoluminescence
detectors, glass phosphors and chemical method are often used in dose
measurements.

5.1.1 IONIZATION METHODS USED T O MEASURE X AND y

RAY DOSE
Free air ionization
Standard Measurement Methods of Exposure
chambers are used to measure the exposure of gamma rays and cavity
ionization chambers are used to measure the absorbed dose.
1. Free air ionization chambers.
The free air ionization chambers can be used to measure the exposure and exposure rate accurately. Fig. 5.1-1 is a schematic diagram of a
free air ionization chamber. The diaphragm F is used to limit the cross
section a of incoming beam of X or y rays. The rays, which inject from
F, pass through air plate ionization chamber, and then come out of hole
0. A is the high voltage electrode. B, and B, are protection electrodes.
The electric potential of B, and B2 is close to that of electrode B. A
group of protection wire is arranged in equal space between the electrode A and B to make an uniform distribution of electric potential dif-265-

ference between electrode A and B. The perpendicular distance from

edge of X or y ray beam to electrodes. the distance L , from front edge
to entrance of X and y rays and the distance L, from back edge of electrode B to exit of rays is at least larger than the average range of secondary electrons in air to keep that the secondary electrons can not impact
with the electrodes and to satisfy the electron equilibrium condition. In
this way, all ion pairs produced in volume between protection wires and
electrode of A, B are generated by the secondary electrons released from
X or y rays in measuring volume. The measuring volume is proportional
to the electrode length L and the cross section of beam at the center of
the volume. Because the area of beam changes with square of distance
from radiation source, and the exposure is in inverse proportion to
square of this distance. Hence, the total charges of one sign ions produced by the secondary electrons, which are generated in the measuring
volume, is Q = X a, L p. The X is the exposure of X or y rays at the
injecting diaphragm F, unit of exposure is C kg-'. a, is the cross section of injecting diaphragm, its unit is m2. L is the length of collection
electrode, its unit is m. p is air density under normal condition, its unit is
kg m-3. Hence, the exposure at injecting diaphragm can be expressed
by following equation

Substituting p = 1.293 kg
can be obtained

mP3 into Eq. (5.1-I), following equation

In practice, measurement results obtained from above equation are

needed to correct for following factors: ray decrement between diaphragm and collecting volume, loss of ion pairs induced in ion combination process and scattering of injecting radiation. Considering all of factors, accuracy of exposure measured by free air ionization chamber is in
1O/o .
The free air ionization chamber under atmospheric pressure has
been become as the standard device of measuring exposure. But the energy range of X or ;i rays is limited from 50 kev to 3 MeV. While the ene r u is higher than 3 MeV, because the electron range is longer, to satisfy

the electron equilibrium condition it is necessary to build one very large

free air ionization chamber o r one ionization chamber filled with high
pressure gas. But there is diff~cultyin technology. While measuring the
X o r 7 rays with energy below 50 keV, because the air absorption is very
severe the measurement error is larger. A t present, the exposure
measurements of X o r :, rays with higher energy almost use cavi~y
ionization chamber.
2. Cavity ionization chamber.
Assuming one beam of uniform X o r y rays expose the solid medium (see Fig. 5.1-2). There is a small cavity A fill with gas in the solid
medium. The dimension of the small cavity is so small that the electron
equilibrium condition can be satisfied. Then, if the small cavity is not
present the relation between the absorbed dose Dm (J kg-') of the medium (m) a t the cavity position and the ionization produced by secondary electrons in gas in cavity (g) can be expressed by following equation

where
q,=charge produced in cavity gas of unity mass by secondary electrons, C kg-'
S m.g =average mass collision stopping power ratio of matter m to
--

S m.a

gas g.
equals ratio of average enerm imparted to unity mass me-

dium m to average energy imparted to unity mass gas in cavity by secondary electrons respectively, i.e.

Eq. (5.1-3) is called Bras-Gray formula. This formula is a basic

formula in dose measurement. I t is suitable for any medium and any gas
filled in small cavity. As long as knowing the value of sng and W,/ e,
the absorbed dose a t relevant position can be calculated according to
Eq. (5.1-3) by measuring the ionization charges q, in cavity.
The cavity ionization chamber schemed in Fig. 5.1-3 is constructed
according to Bragy-Gray principle. When assumption conditions men-

tioned above are satisfied the Eq. (5.1-3) may be rewritten as follows

where
D, = absorbed dose of wall matter of ionization chamber a t the cavity position
s",R =average mass stopping power ratio of wall matter to gas in
cavity for secondary electrons.
From Eq. (3.3-18) in Chapter 3 and Eq. (5.1-5), following equation can be obtained

Obviously, the cavity, which is used to measure the exposure, can be filled with any suitable gas, as long as the parameters in Eq. (5.1-6) may
be known. The most ideal case is using air-equivalent ionization chamber, that is to say, the wall matters and the gas in cavity are equivalent
with air. Then the Eq. (5.1-6) can be simplified as follows

In this case, air-equivalent ionization chamber is equivalent with

free air ionization chamber, i.e. with Eq. (5.1-1).
In practice, it is quite difficult to require that the wall matter is
completely equivalent with air. But under certain condition it is possible
to make approximately equivalent.
Under first degree approximation condition, the relation between
S"',g in Eq. (5.1-6) and effective atomic number and atomic weight of
relevant matters is as follows

Substituting above relation into Eq. (5.1-6). and assuming that the gas
in cavity is air, then

If the wall of ionization chzmber is made from the low z materials

c

(z< 30), for example, carbon and aluminum, then (-)w / (-)
z 1 in
A n
A
above equation. If the energy of gamma rays is in such range in which
the Compton scatter between the gamma rays and wall of ionization

chamber is dominant, then (-)a1' cn

P

"cn

/ (---)w
P

z 1 in Eq. (5.1-7). There-

fore, the difference of result obtained from Eq. (5.1-7) and Eq. (5.1-1)
is very small, i.e.

At present, the graphite ionization chamber act as the standard device to measure X and y rays exposure for all country in world. The
measurement accuracy of the kind of these ionization chambers for
measuring the gamma ray exposure of "CO is better than 0.7%.
5.1.2 NEUTRON DOSE MEASUREMENT
The neutron dose measurement, in the same way as gamma ray
dose measurement, is based on the ionization effects of secondary charged particles produced from the interaction between neutrons (or
gamma rays) and materials. But there are many kinds of secondary particles (for example, a particle, proton and photon) produced from
interaction between neutrons and materials, and the changes of
interaction cross section with neutron energy are quite complex. The radiation weight factor for different energy neutron have larger difference.
Therefore, neutron dose measurement is more difficult than gamma ray
dose measurement.
Measurement of Neutron Absorbed Dose Using cavity ionization
chamber to measure the neutron dose is still the more accurate method
in neutron absorbed dose measurement. But the range of secondary
charged particles (for example, photon) due to interaction between

neutrons and materials is v e r - short. In practice, it is impossible to make

that the dimension of ionization chamber is less more than the range of
the secondary charged particles. Hence, it is necessary to use uniform
medium ioni~ationchamber, i.e. the wall of chamber and the gas in cavity are with the same atoms. In this way, the wall of chamber and gas in
cavity have the same mass energy transfer coefficient for injection
neutrons, and have the same mass collision stopping power for secondary charged particles. If using the uniform medium ionization chamber,
the neutron dose in tissue can be measured directly, i.e.

where
q,

= ionization

charges produced in unity mass tissue equivalent gas

in cavity, C kg-'.
The other parameters are same as above.
In practice measurement. to separate the neutron dose and gamma
ray dose in mixed field of neutrons and gamma rays, the twin ionization
chamber construction is used. One ionization chamber does not contain
the hydrogenous materials, then it is not sensitivity to neutrons. Other
ionization chamber contains hydrogenous materials then it is sensitivity
to neutrons and gamma rays. Therefore using the reading difference of
both of ionization chamber the absorbed dose of neutrons and gamma
rays can be measured.
If using the proportional counter to measure the neutron dose, the
pulse amplitude discrimination technique can be used to eliminate the effects of gamma rays.
Neutron Dose Equivalent Measurement In radiation protection,
it is necessary to measure the dose equivalent in Sv. In principle, first,
the neutron doses of different energy neutron are measured, by using the
cavity ionization chamber, second, these doses are multiplied by relative
radiation weight factors, and final the products are assumed. The result
is the required dose equivalent. If the neutron spectrum distribution is
not known, one special neutron detector, which can display the neutron
dose equivalent value without relation with the neutron spectrum distribution, is used. The operation principle will be discussed briefly.
When neutron beam acts on the organism, according to neutron
energy En and relevant radiation weight factor w, the dose equivalent

transfer factor f, in tissue of unity neutron flux for different energy can
be calculated. The relation between f, and neutron energy En is shown
in Fig. 5 . 1 4 . Therefore, as long as the neutron spectrum a,, is known,
the dose equivalent can be calculated by following equation

But, in practice the neutron spectrum is not known. It is necessary

to regulate the instrument respondency in certain energy range to make
that the detecting efficiency q(E,) of instrument is proportional to f,. In
this way, the neutron number, N,, detected by detector in radiation field
is proportional to neutron dose equivalent H,.
According to this principle. there are two methods for measuring
the neutron dose equivalent. One is using the recoil protons produced in
hydrogenous materials by neutrons, that is to say, the neutrons are detected by recording the proton. Other is that after fast neutrons are
slowed in hydrogenous materials, the LY particles which are produced by
6
the nuclear reactions (for example, '?B(n,cr) ? ~ and
i
Li(n,a) 3 ~ ) are
,
counted. The BF, counter and LiI, ZnS(Ag) scintillator belong in this
kind of detectors.
The neutron dose equivalent meters fabricated by latter method are
described herein. One slow neutron detector is positioned at the center, a
layer of thermal neutron absorber (for example Cd o r plastic contained
B) with small holes enclose the detector. A thicker layer of hydrogenous
material enclose the absorber. Incoming neutrons are subjected to
slowdown, become into thermal neutron, and then recorded by the
detector. Because the slowing-down layer is thicker and there is absorber in it, therefore, the detector has the higher efficiency for neutrons
with higher e n e r e , and has the lower efficiency for neutrons with lower
energy. Suitably regulating the thickness of slowing-down layer and the
hole area opened on the absorber, the energy respondency can coincide
with changing tendency of neutron dose equivalent transfer factor f,
with neutron energy En.In this way, the detector can reach to tissue
equivalent. and measure the dose equivalent value in Sv directly. The
dose equivalent meter can be formed into sphere shape or cylinder
shape.
5.1.3

OTHER MEASUREMENT METHODS

Application
-of-. G-M Counter in Dose Measurement As one kind
of sensitive radiation detector. t h e G-M counter have been used widely.
But the respondency of G-M counter has n o direct relation with absorbed dose D or exposure X. However, suitably selecting the wall materials of counter o r adding some shielding or filter outside the detector,
then the respondency of counter can be proportional air absorbed dose,
air Kerma or exposure.
Assumption that a beam of X or y rays with energy E, inject on to
the G-M counter, photon flux rate is q and counter detecting efficiency
for photon is q, then the counting rate is
n=q0q
(5.1 - 10)
Assumption the exposure rate of the position which the counter is
at is X , the mass energy absorption efficiency of X or y rays in air is
(pen
/ p),, and the bremsstrahlung radiation can be ignored, then from

the Eq. (3.3-1 8) in Chapter 3 and Eq. (5.1-10) following equation can
be obtained

From the Fig. 5.1-5, for the G-M counter fabricated by different
cathode materials (Al, Cu, Pb) its detecting efficiency is almost proportional to photon e n e r a in certain energy range, that is to say, the ratio
of q / E, in Eq. (5.1-1 1) is approximately a constant. In addition, the
mass enerzy absorption coeficient of gamma rays in air is
approximately a constant in cenain energy range. Hence, Eq. (5.1-1 1)
can be rewritten into

where

Under the conditions mentioned above, K, and K, is approximately a

constant, that is to say, exposure rate and air absorbed dose rate is
roughly proportional to counting rate of counter. In this way, the exposure rate and air absorbed dose rate can be defined from the measured
munting rate.
The respondencies of different cathode materials for X or y rays of
unity exposure are shown in Fig. 5.1-6. From the Fig. 5.1-6, it can be
seen that the deviation between the reading of Cu cathode G-M counter
and its average value is in i 5% for energy range 0.5 MeV to 2.5 MeV.
This result can satisfy the requirement of accuracy for radiation monitoring. In the mean time, because the photoelectric effect between the injection photons and cathode materials is dominant in low energy range,
the counting rate for unity exposure rate and unity air absorbed dose
rate sharp rise with energy E, decrement. Hence, the G-M counters are
scarcely ever used to measure the radiation field of low energy X or y
rays. But if the G-M counter has been calibrated priori with a radiation
source whose spectrum is the same for the spectrum of radiation field to
be measured, and then the results obtained by using that G-M counter
to measure the relevant parameters of radiation field to be measured are
reliable. In addition, adding filtering foils on the outside of detector, the
respondency of detector for low energy range can be improved, shown in
Fig. 5.1-7.
The dead time of G-M counters are larger, they are not suitable for
operation in high radiation field. If operating in high radiation field, the
counting loss is quite severe, so the "Block" phenomenon occurs. But,
because the sensitivity of G-hi counter is high and construction is simple, it can be fabricated into portable monitoring of low level dose.
Therefore. it is widely used in radiation monitoring at present.

When the atomic number of scintillator is closed to air effective atomic

number, then the dependence of the ratio in Eq. (5.1-17) on energy of
rays is very small. For most of the elements in inorganic scintilators, its
atomic number are more larger than that of air (Z, =7.64). Hence, the
change of respondency of inorganic scintilators with energy of photons
is very large. But for organic scintillators, which consist of hydrogen and
carbon can be considered as air-equivalent in large energy range. It can
be seen from Fig. 5.1-8 that for NaI(T1) scintillator there is no flat in
curve, and for anthracene scintillator the curve is flat between 0.2 MeV
and 5 MeV. In practice works, the organic scintillator can be used to
measure exposure, Kerma and absorbed dose.
Comparing with G-M counter, the advantages of using
scintillation detector to measure dose are high sensitivity, and useful for
field monitoring of low dose.
Film Dosimeters
The film dosimeters are mainly used to measure
-the personal dose of X or y rays. When charged particles pass through
the nuclear emulsion, they interact with silver bromide grains. The
change takeplaces and forms latent image on nuclear emulsion. After the
nuclear emulsion is developed, the silver bromide grains formed into latent image on nuclear emulsion are reduced to silver atoms, and then the
color of nuclear emulsion changes into black. According to blacking degree of nuclear emulsion the dose level can be judged. The blackness of
nuclear emulsion can be measured by lumious densometer or
nigrometer. Let I, express the lumious intensity injected on the nuclear
emulsion, and the I express the lurnious intensity transmitted through
the nuclear emulsion. The larger the dose, the blacker the emulsion, and
the smaller the I, therefore, the ratio of I, to I can reflect the dose level.
Normally, the logarithm of ratio of I, to I is defined as the blackness,
i.e.
-

10

S = lg-

I
The respondency relation between the blackness of emulsion and exposure is shown in Fig. 5.1-9. The measurement range of the film dosimeter is the dose range relevant with BC section in Fig. 5.1-9.
The films with different sensitivities have different measurement
range. There are some differences in e n e r u respondency for different
film. In normal case, the film respondency to photon energy below 100
-275-

keV is many times higher than that to hizh energy photon. T o improve
the film energy respondency, normally, a layer metallic filter (for exarnple. C u , Cd, Pb, Sn and Al) covers outside film, to decrease the film sensitivity for low energy photons.
The inadvantage of film dosimeters is that the latent image formed
on the film is easily affected by surrounding temperature and humidity.
In high temperature and high humidity, the latent image can decline, so
that the result are not correct. The maximum advantage of film dosimeter is that the treated films can be kept in files, if necessary it can be renewed to access and to compare.
GlassDosimeters
The glass dosimeters are made by using the
- -principle of photoluminescence. The fluorescent glass is made of phosphate of alkali metal glass o r alkaline-earth metal glass in which is added slight silver metaphosphate. According to the atomic n u m k r of
compositions contained in glass, the fluorescent glass can be classified as
high z glass (for example, Ba glass) and low z glass (for example, Li
glass).
Under action of radiation, the electrons produced by radiation in
fluorescent glass come into the conduction band, and they are captured
by some deeper traps. This kind of traps is the Ag ions doped into the
glass. After capturing the electrons, the Ag ions become into sub-stable
state and ~ g that
+ ~forms the luminous centers. When the fluorescent
glass formed luminous center is exposed under the exposure to
ultraviolet rays with wavelength 465 nm, the captured electrons transit
to excitation state, and then transit to ground state with emitting the
fluorescence. I n certain dose range, the concentration of luminous
centers is proportional to dose subjected by glass. Hence the fluorescent
intensity can be used to measure the dose subjected by glass.
The respondency of fluorescent glass is poor for low energy
photons, for example, shown in Fig. 5.1-10, because the glass contains
the composition with high atomic number, especially for Ba glass.
Hence, when glass is used in low energy photon radiation field, it is necessary to add metallic filter (for example, Sn, A1 and Cd) with suitable
thickness to improve energy respondency.
'O'A~,therefore it can
The fluorescent glass contains the 6 ~ i . '9,
be used to measure the thermal neutron dose.
The measurement range of fluorescent glass is wider (104Gy 102Gy).The fluorescent intensity can be measured repeatedly. After high
.-

peaks can not very high and very low. For LiF, the better temperature is
about 200 C . Tn practlce there are several peaks for many
therrfloluminesence elements, the peak used in measurement is called as
main peak. For LiF, the 5-th peak is used in measurement.
The special instrument is needed to measure the luminous intensity
of thermoluminesence elements. For one given thermoluminesence element, at the same heating temperature the different areas are relation to
different dose. Therefore, to measure the integral intensity of luminous
peak under main peak, i.e. to measure the area of luminous peak under
main peak, can determine the dose. This method is called as integral
method. In addition, the dose can be defined by measuring the peak
height. This method is called as the peak height method. But the consistence of heating speed for thermoluminesence element must be controlled, because the height of luminous peak depend on the heating speed.
The thermolurninesence dosimeter can be used to measure the dose
of X, y rays, electron beam and fi rays with higher e n e r a . When using
thermolurninesence element CaF,, CaSO, to measure the photons with
low energy their thermoluminesence respondency has large energy dependence. In this case, it is necessary to use the filtering method to improve the energy respondency. For LiF, Li,B,O,(Mn) and B e 0 because
they contain low z materials only, and their effective atomic number is
closed to air and tissue, their energy respondency dependence to photon
i
'9 is contained in
is smaller. If certain quantity 6 ~ and
thermoluminesence materials, then they can be used to measure the
neutron dose.
The thermolurninesence dosimeters have wider measurement range.
For LiF the range is from 5 x I O - ~ GF~o.r Li,B,O,(Mn) the range is
from
Gy to 10, Gy. But the respondency of LiF is non-linearity
over 5 Gy. The sensitivity of thermoluminesence element is high, its volume is small, and they can be used repeatedly. Its accuracy is high. The
effects of environment changes on measuring result are small. But some
thermoluminesence elements can decline under normal temperature, for
example, the dose value can decline about 50% at the end of first month
after radiation. In addition, the thermoluminesence elements are taken
reading through heating, so the irradiation information stored in them
disappear immediately, therefore, they can not be taken the reading repea tedl y .

for

"'
lo-"

4.8X102

i n first.
month,100/,

I
many

in three
monthe?, 1VX

G y t h e r m a l nelitrons (3.7 ~,101 thernir\l nor~tronp/cni')l o lo-" a y Y r n y ~or '"'(!n.

i n first. horlr,200/,,
thentii;6peryear

(1) I ~ i m i n o r i s c ~ ~ i n n t ri tayt i o of

T h e r n i n l neirt.ron
reapndency

Decline

L n e r g y respondoncy
N K e V /"To

.I. rnye of ''To

(relative t o LiF)

c er~sitivity

,,

N~lrnlrdl.of lr~niinoris
pon k

l ' o m ~ ~ r n t i of
~ rrn'nin
e
I r ~ n ~ i n peak
o ~ ~ s('(.:I

W n v o l e n ~ t t of
i
nitsxinir~ml r ~ n ~ i n o ~ ~ s
pen k(lO-lOrn)

E f f e c t i v e ntomic
nrlm tmr

'~l~ern~olr~minexence
element

5.2

DOSAGE MONJTORING

5.2.1 INTRODLJCTION
Jn the system of dose limitation, the dose equivalent and other relevant quantities H ~He
, and H,,,,
provide the scale for accessing thc
damage made by radiation to body. Hence, the first task of monitorings,
which are to search the safety conditions to be satisfactory, provide
enough data to estimate the exposure workers by using those quantities
expressed the basic limits. However, the average dose equivalent of one
organ or tissue and the intake of radionuclides can not measured
directly in practice. I t is necessary to estimate them according to that
quantities which can be measured direct. Therefore, the measured results
must be linked quantitatively the values to be estimated through
mathematical model.
Due to the scale and properties of radiation protection have large
difference under different cases, therefore, that the radioactive areas of
rector building are divided into different zones has the practical
meaning. In this way, on the one hand the controlled extent can be
sim~lified,on the other hand it is easily to make plan which is economy,
and in the mean time which does not reduce the safety standards.
The properties of radiation monitoring are as follows. The
radioactive level of medium monitored is very wide. The different sensitivities of monitoring instruments are required. The low level radioactive
measurement and microanalysis. The subjects monitored are complex,
for example, air, water, living beings, soils,foods and surface of body.
There are many interfluence factors in measurement. Hence, many kinds
of relevant technique, for example, sample collection, sample treatment,
measurement and analysis, are needed. In addition, the automatic monitoring and data processing systems are needed also.
The radiation protection monitoring can be classified as individual
dose monitoring, working area monitoring and environmental radiation
monitoring. According the different aims the individual monitoring and
the the working area monitoring can be classified as routine monitoring,
operational monitoring and special monitoring. The routine monitoring
is relative to continuous jobs. The operational monitoring is for providing relevant data with one job. The special monitoring is used in practical existent abnormal case o r doubtful case which may occur.

INDIVIDUAL DOSE MONITORING

The individual dose monitoring is the monitoring of practical dose
received bv person. It includes individual external exposure monitoring.
skin contamination monitoring and inside body contamination monitoring.
Individual External Exposure
Monitoring
The individual exter-- --.
nal exposure monitorin is aim at accessing, recording and controlling
the dose equivalent value received by personnel, or measuring and estimating the dose of exposured personnel when accident occurs. The individual monitoring is for such personnel which receive the dose that may
to be higher than 3 / 10 of the dose equivalent limit.
Under external exposure. assuming that the simple protection
measures have been taken, and the persons can not take the radioactive
source by bare hands, then when the activity of radiation source is lower
than following values the individual external monitoring may consider
not to make. For y radiation source (all of its /I radiation has been
shielded) the value is 50 MBq MeV, for /I radiation source (with or
without y radiation) with energy Em,> 0.3 MeV the value is 5 MBq,
and Em, <0.3MeV, the value is 50 MBq.
The basic means of individual dose monitoring is using personal
dositmeters. The personal dosimeter is worn on the place of body surface where the measurement result is representative of dose received by
whole body or local tissue as possible. For personal dosimeter, following
requirement must be satisfied. Its energy respondency is well, its direction dependence is small, it has suitable measuring range, its
measurement result is reliable, the dosimeter's volume is small, its weight
is light, its structure is solid, and it is worn easily.
In individual dose monitoring the selection of personal dosimeter is
based on the kind of radiation field, radiation energy, dose range and
environmental conditions. For /I, X and y radiation field, normally, the
ionization chamber type personal dosimeters, film dosimeters and
thermoluminescence dosimeters are used. For neutron radiation field,
the nuclear emulsion dosimeters and albedo neutron dosimeters are
used. For the monitoring of persons worked in high dose areas, the
dosimeter can give the dose value in time. and must have alarm indicator
with sound and light. For neutrons, the induced radioactivity of hairs
and metallic foil in clothing of exposed workers can be used to define the
5.2.2

--

neutron dose of local part of exposed workers. Using whole-body counter to measure the induced radioactivity inside man body can define the
whole body dose received by personnel. Under large dose exposure, the
chromosome aberration analysis has important meaning.
For the personal dosimeter worn on surface of personnel body, if
there are tissue equivalent materials with thickness 10 mm o r 0.07 mm
covered on the detecting element, and this assembly has been calibrated,
then the result measured by this dosimeter can be considered as deep
personal dose equivalent H,(10) or as shallow dose equivalent HJ0.07).
These two quantities can be considered as reasonable estimation of effective dose equivalent H E o r deep dose equivalent index H,,, o r shallow dose equivalent index H,,, under relevant exposure condition.
When large exposure accident occurs only, it is necessary to estimate in more detail absorbed dose received by organ or tissue. In this
case to measure and to access the exposure received by parts of inside
body, it is necessary to d o mock-up experiments to define radiation
fieid distribution.
Skin Contamination Monitorings
Skin contamination is one
source of external exposure of man body, in the mean time, the
radioactive materials contaminated skin can transfer into inside body to
induce internal exposure. The surface contamination of skin is determined by using surface contamination monitor.
The measurement results are accessed by using the derived limits of
surface contamination. If the contamination levels do not exceed these
limits, normally, it is not necessary to estimate the radiation dose induced by contamination. If decontamination is difficult o r initial level of
contamination is very high, it is necessary to estimate the dose equivalent, although this estimation is not very accurate. If estimated dose
equivalent value has been exceed 1 / 10 of relevant limits, then this value
must be recorded into personal dosage file.
Inside Body Contamination Monitorings Normally, the following personnel need make inside body contamination monitoring.
1. The personnel of contacting large amount of radioactive gaseous volatility materials, the personnel of operating contained tritium
and other luminous materials, and the personnel which may breathe in
oxidate of tritium.
2. The personnel which are engaged in natural uranium treatment
and riched uranium treatment and nuclear fuel fabrication.
p
.
p
p

pp.-p---p-p-

3. The personnel which are engaged in plutonium and other

transuranium clement treatment.
4. The personnel which are engaged in production of large amount
of radionuclides.
When the monitoring results of working areas indicate that the personnel may intake large amount of radioactive materials or are in doubt
whether the personnel may intake large amount of radioactive materials
it is necessary to make special monitoring.
There are three kinds of method for inside body contamination
monitoring. One is to estimate the accumulative quantities of radioactive
for tissue through outside body measurement. Second is biological test,
i.e. measuring the radioactivity of sample of man body discharge matters
and saliva, perspiration, blood and hair, estimating the accumulative
quantities inside body or in tissue from this measurement. The final is to
measure radioactivity content in whole body, lung and thyroid gland
directly, and it is the most suitable method to estimate the inside body
contamination of nuclides which emit the gamma rays. Normally, the
whole-body counter is used.
Frequency of inside body contamination monitoring is depend on
retention time of intaken radioactive materials in body and detector sensitivity. The design of monitoring time interval and monitoring technique must be able to detect the all of main intaken radionuclides or
large part of them.
For accessing inside body contamination, to establish a kind of
model is necessary. The quantities measured in inside body contamination monitoring are in contact with the relevant secondary limit through
this model. In order to establish this model, not only is it necessary to
consider the radiological characteristics of radioactive materials and
metabolize law in body of them, but also it is necessary to consider the
intake mode of radioactive variation with time.
Once the relation mentioned above is established the reasonable
accessment can be made for results of inside body contamination monitoring.

5.2.3 A R E A MONITORING
The area monitorings include the external exposure level monitoring of 0, y and neutron in working area, surface contamination monitoring in working area and the airborne rahoactive material concentra-283-

tion monitoring in air.

External
Exposure Monitoring of Working Areas
Before any
--new radiation device is delivered i t is necessary io estimate the level of
external exposure radiation field induced by sourcc term in working area
to provide basis for working out the design project of routine monitoring. The frequency of routine monitoring is depend on anticipated
change of radiation environment. But if the change of radiation environment is slow, then it is only necessary to make periodic o r temporary
test a t preset observation point, in this way, the change of radiation level
can be fully reflected. If the radiation field is more stable it is seldom
necessary to make routine monitoring of working area. If the radiation
field changes easily, the change rate of radiation field is quicker and the
severe extent of change can not be predicted, then one alarm system is
needed. This alarm system is set in dose measurement room o r working
area, and is worn by personnel.
The working out of project of operational monitoring is depend in
large extent on seeing if the radiation field in working area keeps constant throughout. Under constant condition, normally, it is enough to
make a tour of inspection for radiation level of the area in which the
personnel are working. If operation itself may induce the obvious
change of radiation field it is necessary to d o a series of continuous
measurement for operational site during operational process.
The instruments used for monitoring of external exposure radiation
field in working area are fixed o r portable radiation monitors. The
detectors used for these types of instruments, normally, are ionization
chambers, G-M counters and scintillation counter. The requirement of
fixed monitors is able to give the alarm signal automatically when the
radiation level exceeds the preset value.
However, because the characteristics and level of radiation in working area variate with space and time, and the active modes of personnel
in working area either can not be predicted o r are difficult to understood
exactly, hence the measurement results used to derive the exposed dose
of personnel is very difficult. Therefore, one simplified assumption must
be introduced.
In order to safety and convenience, it is assumed that the personnel
is a t the point where the radiation level is highest in working area during
whole operating time. In this way the upper limit value of exposure of
personnel can be defined, the advantage is that as long as this upper lim---p..ppppp-

it value is fBr lower than relevant limit, then it is not necessary to limit
the activity of personnel iil working area, and to limit stay time of per-

sonnel in working area. In practice, in such working area the exposure of

personnel will be far lower than tne relevant dose limit.
If i t is too difficult to keep the dose equivalent in working area at
enough low level, then it is necessary to estimate dose disu-ibution in
working area and to divide the working area into different zones, or
even to limit the time closed to some radiation level area at a times.
During monitoring of operational process, the accessment work is
often to define one special working time interval. In this time interval the
exposure of' any individual can not exceed one level.
Surface Contamination Monitoring in Working Area The main
aims of surface contamination monitoring in working area are preventin8 contamination dispersion, checking up contamination control is
failure or not and the rules of operation are violated or not, the surface
contaminations are limited in certain area and below certain level, and
io provide the data for working out the project of individual monitoring
and air monitoring, and rules of operation.
The contamination monitoring of working area where the
radioactive materials may leak slowly can be realized through checking
up the surface contamination of the filtering bag, working shoes, glove
and clothing pockets. Although the method mentioned above neither
can detect little amount of isolative occurred contamination events, nor
can estimate quantitatively surface contamination level, it can give indication of contamination level.
For the area where the radioactive contamination occurs easily, in
order to prevent that personnel bring large amount of radioactive materials out of working areas it is necessary to set the contamination monitor at change room and exit of working areas, to be able to detect contamination accident. In some cases the monitoring results of operational
process are of advantage to avoiding and limiting the contamination
dispersion during operational process.
The main radiation kinds needed to monitor the surface contamination are a and p radioactivity. Their monitoring methods can be classified as direct measurement and indirect measurement.
The indirect measurement may use wipe method. It is mainly used
for the surfaces which is inconveniently for direct measurement or for
the monitored surface near which there is strong radiation background,
~

-285-

therefore the direct measurement can not be made. Sometimes in order

to test the contamination extent of surface initially the indirect
measurement can be used also.
1: must be noticed that in order to obtain the result it is necessary to
select the measurement method and instrument correctly. In order to
make the results reliable it is better to calibrate the instrument by using
standard source which has the same nuclides with the monitored
nuclides before measurement, and to make the geometry conditions
same with calibration. The detectors used for contamination monitoring
are G-M counters and scintillation counters.
The relation between surface contamination and exposure of personnel is quite complex. At present, the derived limits about surface contamination are arbitrary in some extent. In order to access the
measurement result of surface contamination, it is necessary to make
them in contact with the derived limits of surface contamination. If the
level of surface contamination in working areas is lower, or more lower
than relevant derived limit, then it is not necessary to make other form
contamination monitoring. The derived limits of contamination for
radioactive materials are listed in Table 3.2-3.
Air Contamination Monitoring It is necessary to make monitoring to air contamination for following cases: operating large amount
of radioactive materials, the leakage of radioactive materials is possible
and there are severe contamination in working areas. By this way, the
extent of air contamination can be understood. the quantities of
radioactive materials breathed in by personnel can be estimated in some
cases and the leakage accident of a system or a part for reactor can be
judged.
The mode of air contamination monitoring in most common is to
use the air sampler. The air sampler is often set at the place which can
represent the breathing zone of personnel. In order to detect unexpected
air contamination it is necessary to set continuous monitoring devices
which can sample and measurement continuously, and once the concentration exceed the preset value the monitoring devices can give the alarm
signal.
The air contamination monitoring includes the radioactive aerosol
measurement in air and radioactive gases measurement in air.
1. radioactive aerosol measurement.
Because the derived air contamination of aerosol is very low, the

concentrated method is used to coilect the aerosol. Because the concentration of i~atural-born radon. thoron and their daughters is rrlore higher than derived air concentration of art~ficialradionuclides, the air sample, which has just been collected. contains lot of radon's anci thoron's
daughter which conceal the radioactivity of artificial nuclides to be
measured very easily. In order to measure the contamination of the artificial radionuclides it is necessary to separate the artificial radionuclides
from the natural-born radionuclides. A t present the following methods
are used: decaying method, energy discrimination method, false coincidence method and cc / ,!? ratio method. The decaying method is easily
realized and used widely.
The decaying method makes use of the characteristic of short
half-life for the daughters of radon and thoron. The sample is laid up
for 4 days after sampling the short half-life daughter of radon and
thoron can rough be considered to decay away. I n this way, measured
concentration after 4 days is the concentration for long half-life artificial radionuclide aerosol.
2. radioactive gas measurement.
The air in reactor building can produce the radioactive gases 41 Ar,
'%, 190due to neutron activation. Once the accidents of reactor occur the fission product gases I , 3 5 ~and
r
13'xe can be discharged.
Surrounding of heavy water reactors there are 3 ~ Hence,
.
the concentration of radioactive gases in air must be monitored. The measurement
methods of radioactive gases should depend on physical and chemical
properties of radioactive gases. F o r /I radioactive gases, gas flow
ionization chambers, thin window proportional counters o r G-M counters, and scintillation counters with thin plastic scintillators are often
used.
3. accessment of results of air contamination monitoring.
For accessing the results of air monitoring, it is necessary to understand the physical and chemical properties of contamination materials,
and the air sample can represent the breathing in level of personnel in
how much extent. Normally, some simplified assumptions should be
made. In practice, some simplification have been implied in ALI and
DAC.
In some cases, routine operations can induce regular air contamination. In this time, it is necessary to make detail investigation for air in
different stages of operation and a t the point whicn can represent the
-287-

breathing zones of personnel, and then the intake quantity of personnel

is accessed for one whole operational period. Tf operational period mentioned above is the typical represent of normal operation for considcrable long time, then the total intake quantity for one person in corresponding time can be estimated.
Tf the air contamination sources are local, and they variate with
time, even sampler close by the breathing zone of personnel the intake of
personnel may not be given. Hence, the representative of sample collected by site sampler is depend on air sampling rate, characteristic of grain
selecting and action of personnel in area in large extent, It is necessary to
compare the long term monitoring results between personnel sampler
and site sampler, or through other detail investigation, and then to estimate the representative of sampler. In this way, one derived limit of relevant site sampling can be obtained. If this comparison has not been done
yet, then the suitabie method is assuming that the breathing in quantity
of personnel is higher than about one order of magnitude for site monitoring result. It is notice thzt this simplification is not accurate. This
method is suitable for accessing long term and average results, but it can
not used to access the short time and single measurement results. Because the difference of result between the personal sampler and the site
sampler has two or three orders of magnitude. Therefore, the
measurement results of site sampler in short time can not be used to derive the personal possible intake. As one replacement method, it is to set
investigation level. Such investigation level must be enough low, so that
some noticeable abnormal cases can be detected, but such investigation
level should set at certain level to voide often to reach this level under
normal cases. For the materials with low derived air concentration,
choice of investigation level may be defined according to the reachable
measuring sensitivity and possible existing (natural or artificial)
radionuclide concentration in air.
5.2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORTNGS
The environmental monitorings is one important link for protecting
the environment. Either it is basis of accessing effects of radioactive
work on environment, or the accidents and hidden perils can be discovered. The environmental monitorings include background servey, routine monitoring in operation and accidental servey. The items of environment monitoring are air, water and soil contamination monitoring,
-288-

radionucl~demonitoring in animals a n d plants, a, D. y contamination

test on ground surface and gamma radiation monitoring in
environment.
Routine
Monitoring
The aims of routine monitoring are under.standing contamination extent to environment. contamination laws and
contamination tendency, estimating the dose equivalent commitment
and collective dose equivalent of individual of public and accessing the
detriment and far-reaching influence induced from contamination, testing the efficiency of waste management and providing the scientific basis
for the measures of waste management.
The design of routine monitoring program includes the range of
monitoring, arrangement and number of monitoring point, sampling
and sampling frequency, sampling kinds, analyzing methods, nuclides
measured and analyzed and quality assurance.
The general effluents for one plant are gas, aerosol and liquid.
There are two methods for measuring effluents of plant. One is direct
measurement, i.e. detectors are immersed in effluent o r closed by the
dischare pipe. Other is to measure and analyze the emuent after sampling. Ordinarily, the activity of a and is measured, sometimes the
gamma spectrum is measured to define the concentration of gamma
radionuclides. I n sampling measurement, it is necessary to make the
sampling with representative. According to different cases the sampling
can be classified as continuous sampling, periodic sampling and special
sampling.
Emergency Monitoring The aims of the emergency monitoring
under accident conditions are discovering the discharge quantity of
harmful materials in time, getting quickly the data about the range and
extent of environment contamination t o take the emergency measures,
to reduce the detriment, to estimate the dose of public and to access the
detriment of accident to environment a n d public, getting the scientific
data of dispersion and transfer for harmful materials in environment.
The emergency monitorings mainly include building the monitoring
and the alarm system of environmental contamination accidents, tracing
discharged harmful materials, pre-accident
measurement and
post-measurement,
monitoring of contamination tendency and
accessment of accidental detriment. F o r emergency monitoring, there
must be plan, preparedness and organization in advance, it must have
idea of type and scale of possible occurring contamination accidents and
-

- --

compositions, quantities, influence range and extent o f discharged harmful materials for plant. The instruments must be simple, reliable and portable as possibie, and are often maintain to make them in normal operation state. The techniques and methods are the same as that of routine
monitoring in many aspects. But quick respondency is required for
emergency monitoring, there are different in some aspects for
measurement techniques and methods.
Radioactive
Background Servey of Environment The radioactive
background servey is mainly for understanding the background level of
harmful materials (included natural background, nuclear materials
discharged by other enterprises near by the plant) and its change law before operation of plant to provide the basis for accessing the effects of
after operation on environment.
Besides investigating relative data of design for plant itself, the contents of environment background investigation include natural environment (for example, terrain, landforms, water sources, hydrology,
water quality, meteorological phenomena, living beings), its utilization
(irrigation, aquiculture, herding and cultivation) and society conditions
(resident distribution, dietetic custom and waste discharge conditions).
Sometimes to obtain the data of dispersion and transfer for waste gases
and waste water in environment, the dispersion experiments of atmosphere and water body in environment.
The objects of environmental background investigation include air,
water, terrestrial and aquatic animals and plants, soil, water body properties, precipitate and foods. The harmful materials investigated include
radionuclides, gamma radiation field and the non-radioactive materials
which are relation to plant itself. The measuring methods and instruments used in environment background investigation should have
enough sensitivity to ensure that the background levels of harmful materials can be measured accurately.
The time of environment background servey a t least lasts one year,
and the samples collected must be retained to use later.
In environment background investigation the radioactive analytical
instruments used in laboratory are cx counters (often used are ZnS(Ag))
scintillation counters, windowless or thin window gas flow proportional
counters, silicon barrier detectors and nuclear track detectors, low background a and
measuring devices and low background gamma
spectrometers.
--

-- --

--

The data of environment background investigation is the important

basis for accessing the result of routine monitorin_e.
Quality
Assurance of Radiation
Measurements
To make the
--.
- measurement results of radiation measurements reach tc certain accuracy, to reflect practical radiation level of' environment, the strict quality
assurance is necessary. The quality assurance must be executed ehroughout the whole process of environment monitoring, including sample collection, transportation, storage, treaunent, operation, purification,
measurement, data processing and result explanation. Quality control
measures, which are relative to measurement in laboratory, are simply
introduced herein.
1. New installed or maintained measurement devices must be adjusted, tested and calibrated.
2. For main characteristics of measurement devices used in routine
measurements, they should be routine tested.
3. Standard sources and instruments used in test and calibration
must be correctly use according the accuracy class.
4. The testing results of characteristics of measurement devices
must recorded in the quality control fils, and drawn on the quality diagram. When the testing value fall out of outside of controlling limit
which is corresponding to three times standard deviations, or fall out of
outside of controlling limit which is corresponding to two times standard deviations for two times continuously, the reasons must be checked,
an re-calibrated must be done.
5. To discover the system uncertainty produced in measurements
and analyses of laboratory the contrast between native laboratories and
this laboratory must be done.
6. The measurement conditions and quality control conditions (for
example, standard sources, calibration of measurement instrument
characteristics, testings, maintains, fabrication of reference sourcesj
must be recorded and kept properly.
7. The personnel of engaging in measurement should have relevant
knowledge and technical level for measurement devices and
measurement methods. and is trained and examined periodically.
Environment Quality Accessment
The environment quality
accessment is a important content of environment protection jobs, and
sometimes is a important means of environment management jobs. The
environment quality accessment is a quantitative description of good
-

~- -

--

and poor environment quality. Its aim is to master the law of environment quality change, to recognize the positions and roles of environment
factors in man-induced environment, and then to provide the reliable
basis for protecting the environment.
The exposure pathways to persons are variety for radioactive materials discharged to environment by plants, shown in Fig. 5.2-1 and Fig.
5.2-2. In these pathway, there are one pathway o r two pathways that
are more important than other pathwav. Such exposure pathways are
called as "critical exposure pathwayN. The nuclides discharged to environment by plants are variety, but there must be one or two nuclides
whose detriment to body through critical exposure pathway is more important than that for other nuclides. Such nuclides are called as "critical
nuclideN.The dose equivalent produced by the nuclide through pathway
for public is different. There must be one group of public whose exposure is higher than that of other group of public due to their occupation,
living custom, residence position and age. This group of public is called
as "critical groupN.T o get reliable data a n d to access easily, while working out the discrimination program it is necessary to consider the critical
exposure pathway, the critical nuclides and the critical group.
For accessing effects of radionuclides discharged to environment on
environmental quality. O n the one hand is to estimate individual average
dose equivalent and dose equivalent commitment, and on the other hand
is also to estimate the collective dose equivalent and dose equivalent
commitment for whole exposed groups a n d to compare to relevant dose
limits. Therefore, it is necessary that the exposure pathway to body after
radionuclides discharged to environment are described approximately
by one model which is constructed by some reasonable assumptions.
The accessment model should characterize the physical and chemical
properties and states of radionuclides to be discharged, transportation
ability and dispersion ability, the exposure pathways and characteristics
of food chain, and the intake characteristic and supersession characteristics of body for radioactive materials.

Efficiency

(%)

'-

/ -anthracene,thickness Ocm
- - anthracene, thickness 2cm j
anthracene,thickness Ocm

0. J
b)

ic-:

;,I-'

!
1

!Go

photon energy, MeV

Fig 5.1-8 relative energy response for s c i n t i l l a t o r s

(Ail of the curves a r e normalized a s 1 a t 1 h4eV)

Fig 5.1-9 relationship between film

blackness S and exposure

CHAPTER 6

RADIOACTIVE WASTE
TREATMENT

6.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The discharging to environment of radioactive materials of nuclear
power plants, especially the environmental contamination induced by
such discharge, is one of the important contents for accessing the safety
of nuclear power plant.
The radioactive waste treatment system can collect, treat, storage
and pack the waste by suitable means to avoid affecting the generation
output or utilization ratio of nuclear power plant. This system can reduce the radioactive materials, discharged to environment or plant, to
least. These radioactive wastes can induce over risk for health of public
or personnel.

6.1.1

PRINCIPLES O F WASTE TREATMENT

First, it is necessary to reduce the waste production quantities and
radioactive concentration as possible. This requires to ensure fuel cladd n g for integrity and primary system for leak tightness as most as possible. In order to satisfy the requirements mentioned above, following
measures are used: using zirconium alloy cladding, using
corrosion-resistant materials to fabricate the equipment, pipes lines and
valves, adopting leakless and testing leakage measures, Setting introduction leakage pipe lines in the parts which may produce the leakage, setting tight containment.
Second, the wastes which have been produced must be collected and
controlled to avoid dispersion of radioactivity. For these aims, setting
collection systems of wastes, classifying the wastes according their kind,
property, and rahoactive level.
Final, the wastes which have been collected should be effectively
treated. After treating the waste waters and waste gases should be utilized circularly as possible. For the wastes to be discharge and stored,
their volume should be reduced as possible. Before discharge, the
rahoactive levels must be measured, the radioactive levels of wastes
must coincide with discharge standard.
The waste management is in close relationship with design, fabrication and operation of nuclear power plant, every stage must be paid
-399-

great attention to. Fig. 6.1-1

tieatment.

is the principle diagram of waste

6.1.2 FUNCTTONS O F TREATMENT DEVICES

The functions of waste treatment devices are as follows. First,
wastes are collected and then are stored, to make the nuclides with short
half-life decay for reducing their radioactive levels. The wastes are
treated bv different methods for different property wastes, to reduce
their volumes. The radioactive levels of wastes are measured. For the
wastes which can be used repeatedly they are fed to relevant systems and
used again, for the wastes which can not be used repeatedly, they are
discharged. but the activities of wastes to be discharged must be coincide
with relevant standards.

6.2

CLASSTF'ICATION AND SOURCES OF WASTES

CLASSIFICATION O F WASTES
According to the physical states of wastes, they can be classified as
liquid state waste, gaseous state waste and solid state waste. Hence, the
waste treatment devices can be classified into liquid emuent treatment
systems, waste gases treatment systems and solid waste treatment systems.
The liquid effluents are utilized again or discharged to river. The
gaseous wastes are discharged to atmosphere and the solid wastes are
stored by loading into drum.
6.2.1

WASTE SOURCES
Radioactivity Sources During the reactor operation of nuclear
power plant, large amount of radioactive materials produced by nuclear
fissions are the main sources of radioactivity for nuclear power plant.
Besides these sources, capture reaction of neutrons form certain quantities of transuranium elements and activation productions of structural
materials. These processes make the reactor become into one huge
radioactive source. Table 6.2-1 lists the radioactivity accumulated quantities at the end of equilibrium circulated life for one PWR with 1000
MWe power.
6.2.2

Table 6.2-1

Equilibrium Radioactivity in Core of One PWR with

1000 MWe Power

-4

Activlty (3.7 x 1 o ' ~ B ~ )

Radioisotope

Flsslon products:
isotopes of K r

5030
595

r a r e e a r t h elements;

1110

isotopes of Xe
isotopes of I

Fp

Total quantity of fission products

other

--

I Actinide elements

Neutron activation products

Total

1 1970
361 1

12.9
15597

While the fuel element claddings are integrity, the fission products
and the transuranium elements are closed in the fuel element claddings.
While fuel failure, a part of fission products may come into the coolant.
After the structural parts of reactor are corroded, the activation products of structural materials may come into coolant also. In addition,
when the impure atoms in coolant pass through reactor core, they can be
activated by neutron irradiation. When fuel failure is 1 % for PWR nuclear power plant with 1000 MWe the concentrations of fission products
and activated corrosion products in coolant are listed in Table 6.2-2.
The radioactive inventory and composition (without 3~ and noble
gases) discharged to waste water of reactor outside from the coolant system of PWR nuclear power plant is listed in Table 6.2-3. The noble
gases come into primary loop coolant system are about few 1016 Bq per
year, most of them are short half-life Xe and Kr. They decay
themselves, hence the Xe and K r come into waste water are very small.

Table 6.2-2
Radioactive Concentration of Fission
Products and .4crivated Corrosion Products in Primary
Coolant of PWR Nuclear Power Plant with IOOOMWe
Radioisotope
~

---

us
36%

noble

ssm

36

in

10.73 a.

1 . 1 0 lo-'
~

..

Kr

1.18 hr.

3bKr
;:'XC

produccd

concentration
(3.7 x 1 0. " /~ I)~
---..

-~

87

gases

half-lifc
-

--

76.31 min.
5.29 d.

~~~~

--

0.87 x
1.74 x lo-'
~

.----

--

2.19 d.

:i3"~e

1.16x lo-'

~--

-~

..

1 .97 x 1 0-3
-

135mXe
54

fission

15.6 min.

0.1 1 x lo-' .

- -

17 min. .-

;:"xc

2 : n~

~-

activated

1.2 x

2.2 x lo-5
-

::FC
~

155.1 d.

60
27C0

Table 6.2-3

3gsr
-.
.
--.

;;I-

- -

1.8
x ~...
---.

--

- --

5.26 a.

1.1 x

Quantity

Radio-

(3.7 x 1 0 " /
~ a)
~

isotope

91
- --

8.1 x

Radioactive Inventory Collected in Waste Water of

PWR Nuclear Power Plant

Radioisotope

-~

--

71.3 d.

27C0..-

product

~-

2.567 hr.

58

corrosion

0.36 x lo-'

--

312.5 d.

~~

:$In

--

.
-

Quantity

(3.7 x 1 0 " /
~ a)
~

1361
53

2.62
1.12
22.2

--

:Z6cs

91 1
88

:?CS

182
~~

92
3gy

92r

5.10
1.75

z r

1.1 1

Total radioactivity

140
-.

56

Ba

: y ~ a

G'CC

2.10
2.17
8.23

30969

Besides the fission products and activated corrosion products the

primary coolant itself and some impure elements contained in coolant
czn produce the radioactivity by neutron irradiation. The main nuclear
reactions are ~ 6 ~ ( n , p ) ~ %
,6~i(n,a):H
.
and i0~(n,2a):H.The gamma
ray energy of : 6 is
~ very high (Ey= 7.1 MeV), but its half-life is very
short (T! = 7. Is), it disappears quickly after discharging to reactor out2

side. The radioactive energy of 3~ is more small, but its half-life is very
long. The quantities and sources of 3~ in primary coolant of PWR nuclear power plant are listed in Table 6.2-4.
Table 6.2-4

Yield Per Year in Coolant for PWR Nuclear

Power Plant with 1000 MWe Power
3~

Source
tri-fission

Yield (3.7 x 1 0 " /~ a)

~

110
10

combustible poison rods

-.

control rods
B in coolant
7,Li(n,na):H reaction
;Li(n,rx);~reaction
D(~,?)?Hreaction
Total

!
I

i
I1
I

-.

110
560
11
6
I
1108

Liquid Effluents The source of liquid effluent can be classified as

three types.
1. primary loop drainage which can be utilized directly.
The contained tritium water drawn out from primary loop do not
expose to air, but there are certain radioactive level in it. These types of
water includes the water produced in flush or emptying of pressurizer relief tank, the water produced by leakage of containment and seal ring of
main pumps. These waters are fed into boron recycling system.
2. possible reused drainage.
These types of water includes the contained tritium water exposed
to air and water with certain radioactive level. They come from gaseous
waste treatment system, overflow of primary loop drainage tank when
its level is over high, drainage of all devices loaded the primary loop
water. These waters are fed into liquid waste treatment system. They can

be reused or discharged.
3. no longer used waster liquid.
Floor drainage, which is non-radioactive normal water (or washing
water withour detergence), is directly discharged after monitoring. But if
the devices, which enclosed the radioactive water, leak, then the leaked
water is fed into the liquid waste treatmertt system. The detoxicating
water of auxiliary systems and their sampling water are chemical water
with radioactivity. After measuring, if radioactive level of such water coincide with discharge standard, then the water can be directly discharged
or discharged through filtering, if d o not coincide with discharge standard, the water is fed into liquid waste treatment system. The bath water,
washing and the detoxicating water with detergent belong to common
waste water. Such waste liquids are with more weak radioactivity. If
their radioactivities coincide with discharge standard after measuring
then they are directly discharged. Otherwise, they are fed into
radioactive liquid waste treatment system.
Waste Gases 'The waste gases can be classified as two types.
1 . hydrogeneous waste gases.
These hydrogeneous radioactive gases (fission gases) come from
discharged gases and purge gas of containers of primary loop water and
the storage tank of primary loop drainage. All of these gases are fed into
gaseous waste treatment system.
2. oxygen-containing waste gases.
They are produced from starting the storage tank and primary loop
vent system under atmospheric environment. The later may be contaminated unexpectedly by radioactive gases. These waste gases are directly
fed into stack and discharged to atmosphere.
Solid Wastes Most of the solid wastes come from waste treatment
system mentioned above. These wastes can be classified as three types:
a. waste resins.
b. concentrated liquid after vaporing.
c. failure filter element of filter.
The parts and tools contaminated and protection devices on site are
belong to solid waste.
All of these wastes are transported to solid waste treatment system
under biologic protection conditions, and then stored.

6.3 WASTE TREATMENT

LIQUID WASTE TREATMENT

All of liquid waste will be treated by a certain treatment system.
Liquid waste treatment system consist of boron recovery system and
waste liquid treatment system.
Boron Recovery System The operational schematic of this system
is shown in Fig. 6.3-1.
Thc main functions for boron recovery system are storage, ueatment and monitoring of drainage for liquid wastes of primary loop.
The system can realize following functions in order:
a. pre-storage of drainage.
b. monitoring of physical properties.
c. decontamination of drainage.
d. degasification.
e. temporary storage with decontamination monitoring function.
f. separating two kinds of solution by vaporing method: the water
which satisfies the water quality requirement. Concentrated boron acid
solution.
g. storage of above products before possible utilization.
Waste Liquid Treatment System The operational schematic of
this system is shown in Fig. 6.3-1.
This system has following functions:
a. storage.
b. monitoring.
c. treatment.
d. discharging to river.
Methods of Waste Water Treatment There are many methods for
treating radioactive waste water, the effective in practice and widely used
methods arc following kinds.
1. storage for decay.
This is a simple and convenient and effective method which is suitable method for radioisotopes with short half-life. For example, the storage time for several days can make the radioisotopes of I except 1311
and 12'1 decay away. But this method needs many large volume storage
tanks, and the treatment effectiveness is not obvious for long half-life
radioisotopes, using limitation is more larger.
2. vaporization.
This is a kind of frequently used effective method. The
6.3.1

decontamination factor of radioactivity for this method can reach 1000

and over. The vaporization efficiency is mainly depend on the quantity
of entraiqment of waste water carried by the secondary steam. Hence for
easily bubbly waste water the decontamination efficiency is slightly low.
Table 6.3-1 lists the decontamination factors for vaporing waste waters.
Concentrated multiples of waste waters can reach few decades to few
hundreds. The small concentrated liquid has concentrated large amount
of radioactivity. Normal the concentrated liquid is treated by
solidification to make it transport and storage easily. Most of nuclear
power plant use the cement or chemical coagulant to solidify the concentrated liquid after vaporing, i.e. the cement or chemical coagulant is put
into the drum loaded the concentrated liquid. and then it is enclosed until it harden naturally, and treated as solid waste.
Table 6.3- 1

Decontamination Factors of Elements

for Vaporing Waste Waters

type of waste water

ordinary waste water

Decontaminating, washing
clothes and shower water

Boronated wasre water

clcrncnt

CsandNd

Mo

others

1o3

1o4

lo4

lo4

lo4

1 02

102

10'

10'

10'

lo3

lo3

1o2

lo3

lo3

I
1

1
1

3. ion exchange.
The ion exchange is common method for purifying the waters. I t is
effective for removing radioactivity in low salt water. Strong acid and
strong base type ion exchange resin have good effectiveness for removing radioactive I, Sr, Ni and Fe, but their removing power falls
small short of for Sr, Na. M o and Y. The decontamination factors of
ion exchange resins often used in different conditions are listed in Table
6.3-2.

Table 6.3-2
Decontamination Factors of' Mixed Bed (IT,OH)
Ton Exchange Resins in Different Conditions

1I

Waste water type

coolant
condensate
-clean waste liquida
filthy waste liquidb
-

positive
ion
negative
ion- - CS. ~d
- ---- - 10
10
10
---103-- !
103-10
-I
I
102
102
10
10
I
1
-

--

.
-

--

a. radioactive waste liquids which contain small chemical materials.

b. radioactive waste liquid which contain large chemical materials.

The reproduction effectiveness of the resin, which has been absorbed the radioactive materials, is more poor, long term irradiation can
make its absorption capacity reduce, and processing the radioac"~ivereproduction solution is a complex process. Therefore most of resins used
to treat the radioactive waste liquid do not reproduce. After failure the
resins are treated as the solid waste.
4. filtering.
The power of removing radioactivity for filter is limited. On the one
hand, the filter can not remove the radioactive materials solved in water,
on the other hand, the particulates of activated corrosion products,
which do not solve in water. are very small and are hardly removed.
Therefore, the filter of the waste water treatment system plays a auxiliary part in waste water treatment, for example, preventing breakdown
resins from flowing away to ensure the normal operation of evaporator
and resin beds.
The operational experiences indicate that the ion exchange resin bed
has good filtering function. Its removing power is far superior to that of
normal filters in filtering suspended solid micro particulates in water. In
many conditions it can have both ion exchange and filtering function. In
normal condition it consists of following devices: one pre-bed filter
which has fine mesh to ensure suspension for stay. One post-filter which
is used to stay the break down resin carried in following liquid from
demineralizer.
5. degasification.
The function of degasification is removal the radioactive gases carried in waste liquid. The degasification is made in steam. The separated

radioacuve gases are cooled and then fed into the gaseous treatment system. The waste liquid is cooled and then fed inro temporary storage
rank.
.
.
.
of Waste Water with Tritium Tritium can not
Control Discharge
separated by the methods mentioned above. Normally, the contained
tritium water produced in light water nuclear power plants is not
treated, and directly and in controlling discharged to environment by
choosing advantageous discharging conditions. Most of the tritium produced in nuclear power plant is discharged to water system, therefore, it
is necessary to choose the rivers and oceans which have larger diluting
power and to discharge the contained tritium waters to them with strict
controlling to make the tritium concentration of water systems and residential areas is lower than the relevant standard.
~

6.3.2

WASTE GASES TREATMENT

Generally speaking, the normal procedures for waste gases collected
are monitoring, treating with some choices and then discharging.
Sources of Waste Gases The main sources of radioactive gases in
PWR nuclear power p l a y a r e the process gases discharged from the
pressurizer, pressure reducing tank, volume control system, degasifier
unit and temporary storage tank. When the fuel failure ratio is higher,
the radioactive concentration in gas can reach few 3.7 x loi0 Bq / 1. But
the total volume of this gas is not large, about few cubic kilometers. The
other sources of radioactive gases are gas of containment ventilation and
auxiliary building ventilation, the gas discharged from radioactive liquid
tank and working box, the gas discharged from main condenser spray
system, the gas discharged from steam generator blow down tank and
the gas of turbine building ventilation.
The radioactivity of former three kinds of gas is induced by the
leakage of coolant. The later several kinds of secondary loop gas are
with radioactivity only when evaporator tube failure occurs, and the
primary loop coolant leaks to secondary loop. According to different
cases the gas treatment devices are set respectively.
The containment gas treatment system must specially be paid great
attention to. Besides it can normally purge the radioactive gases in
containment, meantime it is a part of whole engineered safety features of
reactor. When the loss-of-coolant accident occurs, it is together with
the safetv spray system to prevent radioactivity dispersion outside. The

radioactivity discharged from containment appears as noble gases,

radioactive aerosol, the steam of iodine and organic compounds of iodine.
Treatment
of Process Waste
Gases The gases introduced from the
devices mentioned above are fed into the buffer tank of gaseous waste
treatment system, and then fed into decay tank under pressure of 1 MPa.
The waste gases are stored for 60 days to 100 days to make the short
half-life radionuclides decay away over 99.9%. After decay, the
radionuclides in waste gas is mainly : : ~ r and 133Xe. Generally speaking, it is safe& to discharge waste gases decayed through the stack by diluting in controlling. After coming into atmosphere, the Z3xe decay
away rapidly.
The 85
,,Kr, produced during nuclear power plant operation, need
treat. The suitable method for treating : S r is absorption by using activated carbon under low temperature.
Treatment of Exhaust Air for Radioactive Building Normally
two methods are used to treat rahoactive aerosol and iodine in exhaust
air of building. The high efficiency filter is used to remove the aerosol,
and the activated carbon is used to remove the iodine.
The structure of high efficiency filter used in radioactive building is
similar to that of super-air-filter used in electronics industry. The glass
fibre is used as the filtering medium. This medium can remove 99.97%
and over of particulates whose diameter is larger than 0.3 pm. The activated carbon has good absorption function to iodine steam. In
radioactive building, a part of iodine exists in form of organic compound. The absorption ability of activated carbon is more poor to organic iodine. Usually, the absorption characteristic of activated carbon
is improved by using the method of macerating the activated carbon by
using the iodine. The stable iodine macerated on the activated carbon is
replaced with the radioactive organic iodine absorbed in air, therefore
the absorption ability of activated carbon is enhanced.
In order to improve and maintain characteristic high efficiency filter
and activated carbon filter, and to lengthen their using period, usually, it
is necessary to set demister separator and prefilter to reduce the air
humidity and to remove a part of impurity of large grain in air in front
of high efficiency filter and activated carbon filter. Fig. 6.3-2 is typical
schematic diagram of gaseous treatment system for nuclear power plant.
. --

---

--

,,

6.3.3 SOLlDWASTETREATMENT
Kind. Quality and Radioactive -Level
of Solid Waste The main
sources of solid-waste are failure resins and failure filter elements of
coolant-purification system and waste water purification system, and
solidification matter of evaporation residue. The radioactive level of
these solid wastes is very high. During nuclear power plant operation, a
small amount of solid waste, whose radioactive level is more high, is
produced, for example, some activated component, probes of
instrument. and parts in reactor. The other kind of solid wastes are contaminated matters, for example, contamination clothes, tools and articles of protection use. The volumes of these contamination matters are
more large, but their radioactive levels are not high. Table 6.3-3 lists the
main kinds and quantities of solid wastes produced per year for one
PWR nuclear power plant with 1000 MWe power.
Treatment of Solid
Wastes For the loose solid wastes, normally,
-the method of' compression and the putting into the drum is used. There
is a room in which the solid wastes are filled into the drum in nuclear
power plant. The loose solid wastes are pressed into special drum by solid-waste press. In this way, the volume of solid wastes can be reduced,
and it is for transportation and storage. The combustible solid wastes
can be burned and become into carbon to reduce their volumes.
One nuclear power plant produce about 10 m3 failure resin. Its activity is about (1 1.1-14.8) x 10'' Bq / kg. Usually, the failure resin is
stored for about one year in storage tank and water, its activity is reduced by decaying method, and then the failure resin is dewatered and
put in metallic -or concrete drum. To ensure the safety of transportation,
the failure resin is concreted by adding bonding agent and catalytic
agent. After sealing of the drum, the drums are transported to solid
waste vault by using isotope transport vehicle with shield. For the solid
wastes with high radioactive level the treatment method is similar to that
mentioned above.
-- -

--

--

-- -

Table 6.3-3

S olid

Waste Quant,ity Produced

fo'r One Typical PWR Nuclear
Power Plant with lOOOMWe Power

Quantity came
Stored quantity come
into solid waste
from solid waste
treatment system
treatment system ;
(m3/a)
, Volume
Activity
(m3/a)
(3.7 XlO'OBq/s)
I

Kind

j failure resin
i

!
'i

evaporation residue
filter

failure

/ elements
other I
low
compressible
i level 1
1 solid )
non
( wasbe compressible
;

:
:

70.6

11.1

I
I

28.1

28.1

6.4 RELEASE S T A N D A R D
6.4.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Before operation of nuclear power plant, the operating organizauon must submit the discharge limits of gaseous and liquid effluents to
national nuclear safety department to gain the approbation. When submitting these limits, the operating organization must follow the national
relevant laws and replations, and stipulations.
The approved limits are stipulated by using the dose equivalent
rate. But for the effluent limits, the approved limits are expressed
through the activity of the radionuclides discharged in one year. The operating organization must work out the measures of controlling
discharge to ensure coinciding these limits for effluent discharge and for
"ALARA" principle.
Some exact measurement must be made before discharge to understand the activity of emuent to be discharged exactly as much as
possible.
6.4.2 COMPOSITION O F EFFLUENT
The radionuclides discharged to environment are fission products
and activation products in primary loop of nuclear power plant.
90
Fission Products ' 3 7 ~and
s
Sr appear in form of solid, the former half-life is 30 years and the latter half-life is 28 years. The isotopes
of Xe, K r and I appear in form of gas, they mainly short half-life
radionuclides, but the half-life of 8 5 ~isr longer, its half-life is 10
years. The tritium gas is the product of tri-fission, it passes through the
cladding materials by diffusion and then appears in water of primary
loop. The half-life of tritium is 12 years, and it is difficult to treat it.
Activation Products
After the corrosion products of stainless
steel are activated, the following isotopes are generated: 6 0 ~(T!
o = 5a),
7

5 4 ~(T!
n

= 280d)

and 5 9 ~( T
e I =45d). The activation of Ar existed in
-7

air produces the

41

Ar ( T I = 2hr). The activation of oxygen in water of

Z

primary loop produces

(T 1

= 7.1s).

this materials is the main radia-

tion source under reactor operation. Because its half-life is very short.
its effects disappears when reactor shutdowns. The activation of Li and
B resolved in water produces the tritium also.

The radionuclides mentioned above will appear in effluents in nuclear power plant. The basis of working out release standards is the inherent characteristics of these radionuclides, for exampie, emitted ray
lund, energy and half-life. These standards have regulated the maximum limits which can not be exceeded by the concentration of these
radionuclides in air or water.
EFFLUENT MEASUREMENT
Measurement on Storage Tank First, stirring the effluent to make
it homogenization, and then sampling the specimens and measuring.
These measurements include: total P activity measurement, measuring
activity of tritium by using the liquid scintillation detector, quantitative
analyzing radionuclides in effluent by using the gamma spectrometer.
Measurements at Discharge Port The aim of these measurements
is to monitor the effluent radioactive concentration. The monitoring instruments are with alarm device for abnormal condition.
During discharging the liquids, the P and y activity are measured.
During discharging gases, the fl activity in gas filtered is measured using
the difference ionization chamber installed in stack.
6.4.3

RELEASE STANDARD
To reduce the exposure of public, the country all over the world
have regulated the strict release standard. According to different site
conditions, climatic conditions and other reasons, the different design
aim values of release when the nuclear power plants are designed. For
liquid waste discharge and gaseous discharge, it is necessary to regulate
that the concentrations of radioactive products in air or in water can not
exceed the concentration limits.
Release Standard of Liquid Wastes France law regulate that the
radioactivity concentration in water must be lower than lo-' Ci / m3 if
the liquid wastes are discharged to river. This value is the mixed value
for radionuclides. France health department requires that every nuclear
power plant must consider the effects of deposition on earth in the range
of standard mentioned above. For example, for CHOOE nuclear power
plant, the limit of liquid waste discharge is lo-' Ci / m3.
Gaseous Waste Release Standard After- waste discharge, the limit
Ci / m3. For those interof radioactivity concentration in air is 3 x
esting radionuclides, for example, 13'1,its limit of concentration in air is
6.4.4

6 x lo4 Ci / m3. From safety consideration, France health department

requires that the radioactivity concentration of atmosphere surrounded
the CHOOE nuclear power plant can not exceed I0 Ci / m3
Relevant Standard about Solid Wastes
In site. the storage of
drums can not induce that the personnel is subjected to detnmental
dose. For transportation, France relevant standard regulates that the
maximum exposure rate at one meter from container is 10 mR / h.
-

--

6.4.5 RELEASE ACCESSMENT

Taking generating units with 900 MWe power of PWR nuclear
plant as example estimates waste discharge quantity. This estimation is
dependent on the operational conditions and transient conditions. There
is 8000 m3 water which passes through boron recycle system. In addition, the radioactivity of primary. loop is dependent on fuel failure rate
also.
Annual Discharge Quantity of Liquid
The radioactivity
dischareed to river is 10-20 Ci/ a, including the Cs, Sr in it. The
discharge quantity of tritium is 1700 Ci / a.
The volumes of wastes are as follows:
drain
300 m3 / a
chemical waste liquid
600 m3 / a
floor drains
600 m3 / a
common waste water
1200 m3 / a
Annual Discharge
-Quantity of Gases The main composition of
e . total radioactivity in gas discharged to atgas discharged is 1 3 3 ~ The
mosphere is about 20000 Ci / a, 0.2 Ci is 13'1 in it. In addition, there is
500 Ci and over of tritium formed by steam.
Annual Discharge Quantity of Solid The volume of solid wastes
loaded in metallic or concrete drum is about 50-100 m3/ a. After six
months, the average activity is 10 Ci / drum.

7
1

Fig 6.1-1 Flow pl-inciple diagram of wastes

in nuclear power plant

delny ,decay filter,

-~ r e - s t o r a g e

r,

Fig 6.3-1 Operational principle diagram

of boron recycle system

1 boric acid
i storage I
boron

water

sparatlng
boron from
water 1
monitoring (evaporation)-

r-

&
storage

c,

~eutilization

,R,P

collection

1
temporary

degasification

ua*bq

~ossardmoa88%q 6 B m

q n ~ qmerp rqanai
?nam?ear? p!nbn molJ
rna)sKs lor?oo;,
amnloA pna TwKmaqJ morj
rn-sds a1363ai no1oq morj