Tectonics and Metallogeny of Mainland Southeast Asia

Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
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Tectonics and metallogeny of mainland Southeast Asia A review

and contribution
Khin Zaw a,, Sebastien Meffre a, Chun-Kit Lai a, Clive Burrett b, M. Santosh c, Ian Graham d, Takayuki Manaka a,
Abhisit Salam a, Teera Kamvong a,e, Paul Cromie f
a
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
Center for Paleontological Research and Education, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand
School of Earth Science & Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China
d
School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
e
Indochine Mining (Cambodia) Ltd., 454 Street 2003, Sang Kat Kakab, Khan Dong Kor, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
f
Anglo American Exploration (Australia) Pty Ltd, PO Box 475, Como 6152, WA, Perth, Australia
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 5 July 2013
Received in revised form 23 October 2013
Accepted 23 October 2013
Available online 11 November 2013
Keywords:
Southeast (SE) Asia
Gondwana
Tectonics
Metallogeny
Phanerozoic
a b s t r a c t
The Southeast Asia region is endowed with a diversity of mineral resources, notably porphyry-related skarn,
epithermal and sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits. Formation of these deposits was associated with a
long and complex tectonic history of Gondwana supercontinent break-up, arc magmatism, backarc basin
development, together with arccontinent and continentcontinent collisions that created the present-day
mainland SE Asia. This paper summarizes historical and current SE Asian geological research and ore deposit
studies. Here we present a new tectonic and metallogenic model for Phanerozoic mainland SE Asia. From this
model, we conclude that incipient arc/backarc basin magmatism is the key to the formation of many important
ore deposits in the Truong Son and Loei fold belts, the two major metallogenic belts in mainland SE Asia. In
addition, Triassic to Cenozoic arccontinent and continentcontinent collisions have led to the formation of
many sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits in the Sukhothai and the Sibumasu terranes. Oblique Cretaceous
to Recent subduction along the AndamanSunda trench was responsible for gold and coppergoldmolybdenum
porphyry and epithermal mineralization along the KawlinWuthoMt Popa arc in Myanmar in the north and the
Sumatran volcanic arc in the south. We anticipate that the present emphasis on exploring for shallower level
epithermal deposits will increasingly lead to exploration for deeper level porphyry- and porphyry-related
skarn systems in the coming decades.
2013 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
2. Regional geological and tectonic setting
This introductory paper provides a summary of the geology and

tectonics, major ore deposits and the potential for mineral exploration
in mainland SE Asia, which includes Cambodia, Laos PDR, Myanmar,
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra (Indonesia), Thailand, Vietnam and
Yunnan (China). This special issue Tectonics and metallogeny of mainland SE Asia aims at resolving some of the major outstanding tectonic
and metallogenic problems in SE Asia, particularly regarding the timing
and processes concerning the rifting of SE Asian crustal blocks derived
from Gondwana and their amalgamation into present-day SE Asia, as
well as how these processes and their temporal superimposition led
to ore deposit formation. We have tackled these problems from a
wide range of perspectives, notably geochronology (e.g., UPb zircon
and monazite dating), geochemistry (whole rock, mineral and isotope),
structural geology, sedimentology, paleontology, metallogeny, modern
tectonic analogs and regional geological correlation.
2.1. Background
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 62262787; fax: +61 3 62267662.

E-mail address: Khin.Zaw@utas.edu.au (Khin Zaw).
Mainland SE Asia is endowed with a diversity of mineral resources

and consists of a collage of continental blocks or fragments, together
with accreted volcanic arcs/backarc basins. Major fragments,
e.g., Indochina, Sibumasu and West Myanmar terranes, rifted away
from the northwestern Gondwana margin at different periods in the
Phanerozoic, and led to the opening of the Palaeo-, Meso- and
Neotethyan (or Cenotethys) Oceans (Metcalfe, 2011, 2012, 2013). In
this introductory paper, we use the non-genetic term terrane to
describe tectonic units such as block, massif, orogenic belt or microplate,
with each terrane having a distinctive tectonostratigraphic and
magmatic history following Howell (1995) and Burrett et al. (2014).
Throughout the long history of the Gondwana supercontinent
break-up and subsequent mainland SE Asia amalgamation, various
subduction and arccontinent/continentcontinent collisions and
interactions have occurred among these SE Asian terranes and fold
belts (e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Metcalfe, 2011). The associated
1342-937X/$ see front matter 2013 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.10.010
Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530
magmatism, tectonism and metamorphism have generated many

mineralized fold belts at most of the terrane margins, with major ones
including the Truong Son and Loei fold belts (Fig. 1).
The northward-drift and subsequent accretion of these fold belts
and terranes onto the southern Eurasia margin and the amalgamation
of mainland SE Asia have produced multiple episodes of arc magmatism
(e.g., Panjasawatwong et al., 2003; Tran et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2012),
opening and closure of backarc basins (e.g., Phajuy et al., 2005; Fan
et al., 2010) and ophiolitic obduction (e.g., Singharajwarapan and
Berry, 2000; Yumul et al., 2008). These accreted island arcs, ophiolitic
slivers and broad deformation zones delineate the boundaries of the
major continental terranes. In part, these deformation zones or fold
belts represent the sites of former ocean basins or suture zones.
Throughout the journey from NW Gondwana to present-day SE Asia,
complex and multiple tectono-magmaticmetamorphichydrothermal
interactions in and between the SE Asia continental fragments were
fertile breeding grounds for a wide variety of mineral resources.
Major types of mineral resources in the region include sedimenthosted/orogenic gold, porphyry-related copper (gold) skarn, epithermal
deposits, intrusion-related gold, volcanic-hosted massive sulde

(VHMS) deposits, tintungsten, rare earth element (REE) and gemstone
deposits. In addition, there is substantial potential for porphyry copper
goldmolybdenum and iron oxidecoppergold (IOCG) deposits (Khin
Zaw, 2008a,b, 2009, 2012).
2.2. Indochina Terrane
The Indochina Terrane is the largest tectonic unit in mainland SE
Asia (Fig. 1). The terrane borders the South China Terrane along the
AilaoshanSong Ma Suture to the north and northwest. The Truong
Son Fold Belt is located along the northeastern margin of the Indochina
Terrane, and contains mainly Palaeozoic marine volcanic rocks and Early
PermianTriassic granitoids and volcanics (Carter and Clift, 2008;
Lepvrier et al., 2008, 2011). The Tam KyPhuoc Son Suture marks
the boundary between the Truong Son Fold Belt and the highlymetamorphosed Kontum Massif in central Vietnam (Tran et al.,
2014). Recent geochronological studies have yielded a Mesoproterozoic
inherited core (UPb zircon: ca. 1404 Ma; Nam et al., 2001) with Middle
Fig. 1. SE Asia regional tectonic map showing major component terranes and fold belts.
SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; geological map modied after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al.
(2014).
Ordovician (UPb zircon and monazite: 470465 Ma) and Early Triassic
(UPb zircon and monazite: 250245 Ma) metamorphism (Roger et al.,
2007). The inherited zircon cores are similar to those encountered
in many other Phanerozoic SE Asian rocks and may reect crustal contamination by Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks containing Gondwanaderived zircons.
The Loei Fold Belt occurs along the western edge of the Indochina
Terrane with the central part being covered by the thick Mesozoic
Khorat red beds on the Khorat Plateau (Morley, 2012). The Loei Fold
Belt contains mainly Late Permian to Triassic andesiticrhyolitic volcanic
rocks, but older DevonianCarboniferous and Silurian magmatic rocks
have also been recently reported (Panjasawatwong et al., 2006; Khin
Zaw et al., 2007a; Boonsoong et al., 2011). The southern continuations
of the Truong Son and Loei fold belts are intruded by Cretaceous granitoids. The East Malaya Fold Belt and the Sukhothai Terrane are located in
eastern Peninsular Malaysia, and are bordered to the west by the
Sibumasu Terrane along the BentongRaub Suture.
Indochina's original position within Gondwana, and its rift, drift and
collision history, have long been speculative, but it is now shown to
have been close to South China, western Cathaysia, Qiangtang and the
Tethyan Himalayas in the Early Palaeozoic (e.g., Burrett et al., 2014;
Usuki et al., 2013). New geochronological and geochemical studies in
the NWSE trending AilaoshanSong Ma Suture by Lai et al. (2014a,
2014b) suggest that the suture represents the remnants of a branch of
the once vast eastern Palaeotethys (or the AilaoshanSong Ma Ocean),
which may have opened during the Late DevonianEarly Carboniferous
(UPb zircon: ca. 380330 Ma) and closed (along the AilaoshanSong
Ma Suture) between the middle Permian (ca. 270 Ma) and the earliest
Middle-Triassic (UPb zircon: ca. 245 Ma). Continental-rifting of
the South China and Indochina terranes from Gondwana may have
commenced as early as the Early Silurian, as suggested by UPb zircon
dating on alkali rhyolite in Loei (ca. 434428 Ma; Maloney, 2008;
Khositanont, 2008; Khositanont et al., 2013) and turbidites in the
Ailaoshan Fold Belt (detrital zircon: ca. 432438 Ma; Lai, 2012).
2.2.1. Truong Son Fold Belt

The NWSE trending Truong Son Fold Belt is delineated by the
AilaoshanSong Ma Suture in the northeast, by the Late Triassic
Cenozoic Dien Bien Phu Fault in the northwest (Lin et al., 2009), by
the Loei Fold Belt in the southwest and by the Late Mesozoic Dalat
Kratie Fold Belt in the south (e.g., Phan, 1989; Lepvrier et al., 2004).
The Truong Son Fold Belt may have formed as a result of the closure of
the AilaoshanSong Ma branch of the Palaeotethys. The gradual closure
of the AilaoshanSong Ma Ocean (Lai et al., 2014b) produced at least
two phases of continental arc magmatism during the Early Permian in
northwestern Vietnam (UPb zircon: 280270 Ma; Liu et al., 2012)
and the Sepon gold mine in southern Laos (ca. 295288 Ma) (Cromie
et al., 2006a,b; Cromie, 2010), and Early Triassic (UPb zircon: 250
245 Ma; Liu et al., 2012). Recent 40Ar/39Ar muscovite and biotite dating
yields Early Triassic ages (ca. 253247 Ma) for the southwestern
Truong Son granitoids and Middle TriassicEarliest Jurassic ages (ca.
244199 Ma) for the northeastern Truong Son granitoids (Sanematsu
et al., 2011a,b,c). The Middle Permian Western Ailaoshan Volcanic Belt
was an intra-oceanic island arc/backarc basin (Lai et al., 2014b) which
suggests that this Truong Sonwestern Ailaoshan arc occurred as a
continental-based island arc in most of eastern Indochina but as an
intra-oceanic island arc to the north in Ailaoshan. This is analogous to
the modern southwestern Pacic, where subduction is continentbased in New Zealand but oceanic in the Kermadec Islands further
north (e.g., Crawford et al., 2003; Smith and Price, 2006; Straub and
Zellmer, 2012). The accretion of the Indochina Terrane onto the southern Eurasia margin along the Truong Son Fold Belt has been variably
argued to be Early Triassic (UPb zircon: 259245) (Tran et al., 2008)
or pre-Late Triassic (Liu et al., 2012) reecting a complex or possibly
oblique collision history.
2.2.2. Loei Fold Belt

The Loei Fold Belt lies along the western periphery of the Indochina
Terrane, and is bounded to the west by the Sukhothai Terrane along the
JinghongNanSra Kaeo Suture. The belt extends from northern Laos in
the northern part of the belt through Loei Province in Thailand through
Phetchabun in central Thailand to Sra Kaeo in southeastern Thailand
and into western Cambodia. Although geologically distinct and economically important, with signicant magmatism and epithermal gold and
porphyry-related coppergold mineralization, the Loei Fold Belt is
omitted or de-emphasized in some SE Asian terrane reconstructions
(e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008), with little discussion of the nature of
magmatism and mineral potential of the belt. For instance, it has been
stated that the Triassic Loei granitoids were mainly S-type (e.g., Sone
and Metcalfe, 2008; Morley et al., 2011), but our new geochemical studies
show that most of the granitoids are I-type, consistent with the abundance of coppergold mineralization in the belt (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a;
Kamvong, 2013; Kamvong et al., 2013; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014).
The Loei Fold Belt contains multiple generations of successive
arc-related magmatic events separated by periods of exhumation and
erosion (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a). Magmatism may have commenced
in the Early Silurian and extended through to the Late Cenozoic
(Bunopas, 1982; Khin Zaw et al., 2007a). Intasopa and Dunn (1994)
was the rst to report multiple volcanic events during the Loei arc formation. Based on RbSr isochron ages, she identied three main periods
of volcanism, namely during Devonian to Early Carboniferous, Middle
Triassic, and Cenozoic. The Devonian to Triassic volcanic rocks of the
Loei Fold Belt are conned to its northern part, whereas Cenozoic volcanics are to the south in Phetchabun (central part), south to Nakhon
Nayok, with predominant post-collisional Cenozoic volcanic rocks in
the Lopburi and Saraburi areas, south of Phetchabun.
Adding to these previous ndings, recent studies have better
constrained the ages for the Silurian rhyolites (UPb zircon: ca. 434
428 Ma; Khin Zaw et al., 2007a; Boonsoong et al., 2011) and Devonian
Carboniferous arc basalt/andesite (Rb/Sr age: 374361 Ma; Intasopa
and Dunn, 1994; Panjasawatwong et al., 2006), and have further
revealed that the Loei Fold Belt also contains Late Permian/earliest
Triassic and Middle Triassic-arc basalticrhyolitic rocks (UPb zircon:
ca. 254250 and 230 Ma; Khositanont, 2008; Khositanont et al., 2008;
Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014). The Carboniferous rocks of the Loei
Fold Belt are dominated by limestone and volcanogenic sedimentary
rocks in the Chatree District. The age of this mid-Carboniferous sedimentary sequence was determined from rhyolitic siltstone near Wang Pong
that yielded a UPb zircon age of 327 7 Ma (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a;
Salam, 2013). In general, Carboniferous limestone occurs mostly as
small outcrops interbedded with siltstone and sandstone, except west
of Dong Khui where it occurs as thicker sequences of interbedded
siltstone and ne-grained sandstone. The Carboniferous limestone was
intruded and locally metamorphosed to marble by Late Carboniferous
(UPb zircon: 310 8 Ma) hornblende granite (Khin Zaw et al.,
2007a; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014). The Carboniferous sedimentary
sequence is overlain by thick Middle Permian limestone marked by
basal conglomerate, siltstone and shale (Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014).
The JinghongNanSra Kaeo Suture is generally regarded as a shortlived Permian backarc basin (e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). Nevertheless, recent UPb zircon ages of Late Ordovician (ca. 452434 Ma) and
Late Devonian (ca. 377 Ma, Frasnian) arc/backarc basin generated
gabbros (Gibson, 2009), along with Late Devonian (ca. 377 Ma) gabbros
and Late Carboniferous (ca. 315 Ma, Bashkirian) basalts obtained by
Yang et al. (2007) may either argue for a much more ancient Jinghong
NanSra Kaeo Ocean or an earlier OrdovicianLate Carboniferous phase
of backarc basin opening.
2.2.3. DalatKratie Fold Belt
The DalatKratie Fold Belt consists of mainly Triassic to Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks and volcano-plutonic rocks, which are, in turn, overlain by Quaternary intraplate basalts. The belt extends across the region
from Cambodia to southern Vietnam and its granites intrude the

southern continuations of the Truong Son and Loei fold belts. Early
Jurassic and Cretaceous (12575 Ma) granitoids are widely distributed
in the area extending from southern Cambodia to southern Vietnam
through eastern Cambodia (Khin Zaw, unpub. data). The DalatKratie
granitoids are largely coeval with the Yanshanian magmatism along
the southeast China coast, and further petrological and geochemical
studies will reveal whether there is any tectonic link between these
two magmatic belts, i.e., whether the DalatKratie JurassicCretaceous
magmatism is also associated with the west-verging subduction of the
Palaeo-Pacic Plate beneath the South ChinaIndochina composite
terrane (e.g., Thuy et al., 2004). The DalatKratie and Southeast China
magmatic belts may have been closely associated during the Jurassic
Cretaceous, and were later separated by a Cenozoic SE Asia extrusion
as a result of the HimalayaIndia collision (e.g., Hall, 2002, 2011). The
ore deposits in the DalatKratie Belt are most likely intrusion-related
Au systems as auriferous quartzsulde veins are commonly hosted in
granitoids (e.g., Okvau and Snoul in eastern Cambodia and Tien Thuan
in southern Vietnam). Signicant gold mineralization has been discovered at Okvau where a resource of 1.2 Moz Au is delineated (http://
www.renaissanceminerals.com.au/).
2.2.4. East Malaya Fold Belt
The East Malaya Fold Belt is located in eastern Peninsular Malaysia,
and is bordered to the west by the Sibumasu Terrane along the
BentongRaub Suture (Fig. 1). The nature and setting of this fold belt
is controversial. Sone and Metcalfe (2008) and Barber et al. (2011)
considered this belt to be an extension of the Inthanon or Sukhothai
Terranes into Peninsular Malaysia. However, as detailed lithostratigraphic
and magmaticvolcanic correlations are still inadequate, and the East
Malaya Fold Belt contains signicant orogenic gold mineralization, we
prefer to discuss it separately in this paper. The BentongRaub suture
contains Devonian to Upper Permian oceanic radiolarian cherts and
Triassic hemipelagic chert and pelagic sediments, as well as minor
ophiolitic ultramac rocks (e.g., Hutchison, 1975; Metcalfe, 2000,
2001). Apart from the anomalous syenitegabbro intrusions of the
Benom Complex in central Malaysia, the East Malaya Fold Belt is dominated by I-type granitoids (and associated rhyolites) of the East Malaya
Province (e.g., Jaafar, 1979; Ghani, 2009; Searle et al., 2012). Our previous UPb zircon dating suggested that the East Malaya I-type granitoids
were emplaced during the Latest Permian to Triassic (ca. 253230 Ma),
when the main Palaeotethys (with remnants preserved as the Inthanon
Terrane) was subducted beneath the western margin (modern orientation) of the East Malaya Fold Belt (Hotson et al., 2011; Oliver et al.,
2011). This is in good agreement with a recent detrital zircon study
on river sands in the Malay Peninsula, which suggests the existence of
two magmatic suites in, respectively, Late Permian and EarlyMiddle
Triassic (Sevastjanova et al., 2011). Very recently, the Sibu rhyolites in
east Malaysia are dated as Early Permian by UPb zircon (ca. 276 Ma)
(Oliver et al., 2014). This signicantly pushes back the commencement
time of the Andean-type continental arc magmatism in the East Malaya
Fold Belt, and has important implications in terms of regional tectonic
and metallogenic reconstructions.
2.3. Sukhothai Terrane
The Sukhothai Terrane is bounded by the Loei Fold Belt to the east
(along the JinghongNanUttaraditSra Kaeo Suture) and by the
Inthanon Terrane to the west. Regionally, the Sukhothai Terrane
continues southward to the Chanthaburi Terrane in southeastern
Thailandsouthwestern Cambodia (Sone et al., 2012), and probably to
parts or all of the East Malaya Fold Belt (Metcalfe, 2013). To the north,
the Sukhothai Terrane may be linked to the Lincang Terrane in southwestern Yunnan. The Sukhothai Terrane is dominated by thick deep
water sequences of Triassic volcaniclastic rocks inter-bedded with rhyolite and basalt (Barr et al., 2006) and deformed shallow-marine
CarboniferousTriassic sedimentary rocks and I- or S-type granitoids.

Our UPb zircon data on the I-type Lincang rhyolite (ca. 232 Ma) (Lai,
unpub. data) closely match those obtained by Hennig et al. (2009) on
the Lincang rhyolite (ca. 231 Ma) and granite (ca. 229 Ma). These Late
Triassic ages of the Lincang rocks are broadly coeval with our UPb zircon dates for the Chiang Khong rhyolite (ca. 223220 Ma) (Srichan
et al., 2009) and on the Lampang Group peri-arc sedimentary rocks of
the Sukhothai Terrane in northern Thailand (Burrett et al., 2014). Our
new data are in accordance with the suggestion that the Sukhothai Terrane represents a PermianTriassic magmatic arc, which was formed
during Palaeotethyan subduction beneath western Indochina. The
JinghongNanUttaraditSra Kaeo backarc basins may have been briefly opened by subduction roll-back, and were subsequently closed when
the Sukhothai arc collided with western Indochina during the Late Triassic (e.g., Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Metcalfe, in press).
2.4. Inthanon Terrane
The Inthanon Terrane corresponds to Inthanon Zone of Sone and
Metcalfe (2008), which is different from the Doi Inthanon Metamorphic
Complex (Dunning et al., 1995; Macdonald et al., 2010). The terrane is
thought to represent a subduction accretionary complex separating
the Sukhothai and the Sibumasu terranes, consisting of thrust slices of
chert and older rocks from the Sibumasu Terrane. The Chiang Mai Suture in the Inthanon Terrane is now generally regarded to be the suture
zone between the Indochina and Sibumasu terranes (Metcalfe, 2002). It
consists mainly of Middle Devonian to Middle Triassic pelagic radiolarian cherts (e.g., Hara et al., 2010; Ueno and Charoentitirat, 2011) and
Carboniferous to Triassic limestones with warm water tropical
Palaeotethyan faunas. Some of the CarboniferousPermian shallowmarine limestones are found overlying Permian (or possibly older)
ocean island (OIB) basalts (Kamata et al., 2009; Ueno and
Charoentitirat, 2011) and have been interpreted as sea-mounts. The
Chiang Mai Suture is likely correlated with the ChangningMenglian
Suture in SW Yunnan (e.g., Cao, 2004; Wang et al., 2007). Our UPb zircon data on the ChangningMenglian metabasalt yield an earliest Middle Permian (ca. 270 Ma) age (Lai, unpub. data), largely coeval with the
published ChangningMenglian metagabbro (ca. 267 Ma) age (Jian
et al., 2009). The alkali composition of the ChangningMenglian
metabasalt and its association with pelagic limestone also points to an
oceanic island setting. This suggests that after its initial Early Permian
opening (Oliver et al., 2014), the main Palaeotethys, by the earliest Middle Permian, resembled modern-day large oceans such as the Indian or
Pacic oceans.
2.5. Sibumasu Terrane
The Sibumasu Terrane encompasses western Thailand, western
Peninsular Malaysia, eastern Myanmar and northeastern Sumatra
(Metcalfe, 1984, 1996; Barber and Crow, 2003; Ridd, 2009a, b) and is
bordered by the Sagaing Fault and Mogok Metamorphic Belt in the
west in Myanmar and the Inthanon Terrane to the east in Thailand. In
the last thirty or so years, researchers such as Bunopas (1982), Ferrari
et al. (2008), and most Thai geologists have used the term ShanThai
Terrane in the same sense as Sibumasu, although Bunopas (1982) did
not include Baoshan or Sumatra in his original usage. To the north,
Sibumasu is generally considered to include the Baoshan and/or
Tengchong terranes in western Yunnan (e.g., Ueno, 2003). Based on detrital zircon studies in the Malay Peninsula, the Sibumasu Terrane basement has been suggested to be primarily Palaeoproterozoic (1.9
2.0 Ga) (Sevastjanova et al., 2011; Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012).
Recent studies have found that the detrital zircon population of the
Late CambrianEarly Ordovician Tarutao Sandstone in Sibumasu has a
strong statistical resemblance to that of the Ordovician Tumblagooda
Sandstone in Western Australia (Burrett et al., 2014). In addition, visual
comparisons of probability plots of detrital zircons from quartzite clasts
from the Tarutao Sandstone and from quartzite and granite clasts of the
Permian Kaeng Krachan glaciomarine mudstones in Sibumasu have
yielded similar age spectra with those of western- and northern
Australia. Our ndings suggest close geographic proximity between
the Sibumasu Terrane and Australia prior to the Middle Permian. This
is supported by Nd isotope (Dopieralska et al., 2012) and palaeomagnetic
(Ali et al., 2013) evidence, as well as the CambrianPermian Gondwana
faunas which have NW Australian afnities (Burrett et al., 1990;
Metcalfe, 1991, 1994, 2002; Wang et al., 2013), and the Late
CarboniferousEarly Permian glacialmarine diamictites found in
Sibumasu and NW Australia.
2.6. West Myanmar Terrane
The West Myanmar Terrane is located between the Mogok
Metamorphic Belt (e.g., Bertrand et al., 2001; Mitchell et al., 2007;
Searle et al., 2007; Lai et al., 2013) in the east and the Bay of Bengal
and AndamanSunda Trench (or the Sumatran subduction zone) in
the west (McCaffrey, 2009). The eastern boundary of the terrane is
dened by the NS trending Sagaing Fault that divides into splay faults
in northern Myanmar (Bertrand and Rangin, 2003; Kundu and
Gahalaut, 2012), whereas the western boundary is marked by the active
subduction zone west of the Indo-Myanmar Range (Hall, 2002; Steckler
et al., 2008; Bannert et al., 2011; Kyi Khin et al., 2014). The IndoMyanmar Range forms a forearc and mainly comprises ultramac
rocks, pillow basalts, cherts, Upper Triassic ysch and Cretaceous limestone (Mitchell et al., 2010; Bannert et al., 2011). It has been suggested
that Western Myanmar amalgamated with Sibumasu either by collision
in the Late Mesozoic (Mitchell, 1979) or by strike-slip movement in the
Early Triassic (e.g., Barber et al., 2005; Metcalfe, 2009).
The AndamanSunda subduction zone is an east-dipping major,
curvilinear subduction complex that extends from Assam (India) in
continental Asia to the north through the Bay of Bengal to the west of
Myanmar to western Sumatra in the south. This complex subduction
was probably active as early as the Late Cretaceous, as demonstrated
by SHRIMP zircon dating for the Kanzachaung batholiths (94 Ma) in
the KawlinWutho area, west of the Sagaing Fault in northern
Myanmar (Barley et al., 2003). This subduction continued to be episodically active throughout the Eocene to Recent as evidenced by recent
earthquakes associated with the AndamanSunda Trench (e.g., Sieh
and Natawidjaja, 2000; McCaffrey, 2009). This Neogene subduction
was responsible for the formation of the KawlinWuthoMt Popa arc,
or the Central Volcanic Belt, in Myanmar and the Sumatra volcanic arc
in the south, both of which host signicant gold and coppergold
molybdenum porphyry and epithermal mineralization. The two arcs
were probably continuous before the Miocene opening of the Andaman
Sea (e.g., Curray et al., 1979, 1982; Curray, 1989, 2005). The Cenozoic
tectonic history of the West Myanmar Terrane, together with other
contiguous SE Asian terranes, was strongly inuenced by the India
Asia collision (e.g., Tapponnier et al., 1982, 1986, 1990; Aitchison et al.,
2011; Zhang et al., 2012) and indentation/extrusion tectonics
(e.g., Tapponnier et al., 1982, 1986, 1990; Schrer et al., 1990; Otofuji
et al., 2012).
2.7. Sumatra
Sumatra is the largest island in Indonesia and the fth largest in the
world. The island is located at the southwestern margin of Sundaland
north of the Sunda Trench, and is mainly made-up of three parts, the
Sibumasu Terrane in the north, the Western Sumatra Terrane in the
central-west and the Woyla Terrane of Barber (2000) in the southsouthwest. The Sibumasu and West Sumatra terranes are generally
regarded as being separated by the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Line.
Generated in the Miocene by the oblique subduction of the Australian
Plate under the Eurasia Plate, the Sumatra Fault System extends through
the Barisan Mountains from the Sunda Strait in the southeast to Banda
Aceh in the northwest (McCaffrey, 2009).
CarboniferousPermian sedimentary rocks of the Sibumasu Terrane
are regarded as the oldest rocks in Sumatra, although Devonian
Carboniferous rocks have been documented from a borehole in the
Malacca Strait (Koning and Darmono, 1984). The JurassicCretaceous
Woyla Terrane is made-up of volcanic arc fragments and an imbricated
oceanic assemblage (Barber, 2000; Barber et al., 2005). These volcanic
arc rocks are believed to have been thrust over an Early Paleozoic
Mesozoic continental basement and intruded by granitoids. The Sunda
Arc volcanism may have been initiated in the Eocene to Early Miocene.
Dominated by calc-alkaline andesiticdacitic magmatic rocks, this
Eocene to Early Miocene magmatism ceased after the Early Miocene
and recommenced in the late Middle Miocene. Similar to the Eocene
to Early Miocene magmatic phase, the Middle MioceneRecent Sunda
Arc magmatism is also dominated by calc-alkaline andesiticdacitic
magmatic rocks (e.g., Garwin et al., 2005; McCarroll et al., 2014).
3. Deposit types and metallogeny
3.1. Background
The north-drifting journey of SE Asian component terranes was
accompanied by several episodes of continental rifting, arc/backarc
basin development, and collisional events. The associated magmatism,
metamorphism, tectonic deformation and uid ow have been the
major driving forces behind the formation of major mineralized belts
in the region and a diverse range of base and precious metal deposits
in these SE Asian mineralized fold belts, with some of the important
deposit types, shown in Table 1 and summarized below.
3.2. Skarn type
Major porphyry-related skarn type coppergold deposits are found
in the Truong Son and Loei fold belts in Laos and Thailand and along
the Tam KyPhouc Son suture zone in central Vietnam (Fig. 2). These
skarn deposits in mainland SE Asia are further divided into oxidizedand reduced copper (gold) skarn.
3.2.1. Oxidized copper (gold) skarns
Phu Kham coppergold deposit (northern Laos): The Phu Kham
deposit (227 Mt at 0.48% Cu, 0.22 g/t Au, 2 g/t Ag) is one of the most
important and best documented porphyry-related oxidized skarn
deposits in the Truong Son Fold Belt (Fig. 2). The deposit is hosted in
Late Carboniferous to Early Permian volcaniclastic rocks (Backhouse,
2004; Tate, 2005; Kamvong, 2013). The ore-hosting volcaniclastic
sequence is intruded by porphyry units that are spatially associated
with the skarn mineralization. The deposit is divided into two zones,
namely the hangingwall/thrust zone sitting above the Jurassic to
Cretaceous Khorat red beds, and the downfaulted block zone (Tate,
2005). Whole rock geochemistry of the major Phu Kham andesitic
dacitic units indicates a continental arc setting (Backhouse, 2004;
Kamvong, 2013; Kamvong et al., 2014). At Phu Kham, the skarn alteration zone is likely to have formed along/or adjacent to the margins of
the intruding porphyry dykes. The aggregate garnet skarn with later intense quartz and hematite replacement contains the most enriched hypogene coppergold mineralization. Therefore, there is a close
relationship between the prograde garnet skarn and the highest grade
coppergold mineralization (Kamvong, 2013).
Puthep (PUT1 & PUT2) porphyry-related ironcopper (gold)
deposits (northern Thailand): Mineralization of the Puthep (PUT1 and
PUT2) deposits (total indicated/inferred resource of 120 Mt at 0.4%
Cu) (Fig. 2) occurs in fractures and veins, typically centered on at least
two dioritic to granodioritic intrusions. The Puthep intrusions have
yielded Early- to Middle Triassic UPb zircon ages of 248 6 Ma
(PUT1), and ca. 235233 Ma (PUT2). These intrusions have been
10
Table 1
Summary for major gold, coppergold and leadzincsilver deposits in mainland SE Asia.
No. in
map
Deposit
Location
Porphyry related-skarn CuAu deposits

1 Fig. 2
KTL (CuAu)
Laos 19.434N
(Prospect)
103.287E
Terrane/fold
belt
Host rocks/(ages)
Intrusions/(ages)
Alteration minerals and types
Ore mineralogy
Tonnage/grade
Porphyryrelated-skarn
(oxidized)
Truong Son
Limestone, volcanic
and volcaniclastic
rock, calcareous
sedimentary rock
Silicication, propylitic (chlorite,

epidote), phyllic (sericite, pyrite)
Pyrite, chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, galena,
bornite, sphalerite,
molybdenite, electrum
92 Mt at 0.45%
Hotson (2009),
Cu, 0.19 g/t Au & www.panaust.com.au
2.3 g/t Ag
Skarn prograde: garnet; skarn

retrograde: epidote, chlorite,
Pyrite, magnetite,
chalcopyrite, bornite,
pyrrhotite, electrum
No data
Hotson (2009)
Silicication, propylitic (chlorite,

epidote), phyllic (sericite, pyrite)
molybdenite, bornite,
sphalerite, galena,
electrum
Chalcopyrite, pyrite,
magnetite, bornite,
hematite, tetrahedrite,
galena, enargite,
sphalerite,
molybdenite, gold
No data
Hotson (2009)
1 Fig. 2
Bohr Thong (Cu

Au) (Prospect)
Laos 19.417N
103.195E
(oxidized)
Truong Son
Limestone and
calcareous
sedimentary rock
1 Fig. 2
Tharkhek (Cu
Au) (Prospect)
Laos 19.409N
103.238E
(oxidized)
Truong Son
Limestone,
calcareous
sedimentary rock
Diorite, UPb zircon

(290.0 2.9 Ma,
286.9 4.3 Ma,
284.8 2.4 Ma) ReOs
289.4 1.0 Ma)
Diorite, UPb zircon
(285.1 3.4 Ma), tonalite
(281.7 2.4 Ma), granodiorite
(282.4 2.8 Ma)
Tonalite, UPb zircon
(279.6 4.4 Ma,
277.4 2.7 Ma)
2 Fig. 2
Phu Kham (Cu

Au) (Mine)
Laos 18.883N
102.908E
Truong Son
Volcaniclastics and
interbedded
limestone, red bed
siltstone
(CarboniferousE.
Permian) Host
volcanics: UPb
zircon 306 2 Ma
Diorite intrusion, UPb zircon

304 1.5 Ma, 306.2 1.4 Ma,
301 3 Ma, 299 3 Ma; age
of mineralization: ReOs
molybdenite 304.9 1.7 Ma,
304.7 1.7 Ma; KAr resetting
age of 25.3 1.6 Ma,
35.4 1.7 Ma
Porphyry: potassic (K-feldspar,

biotite, magnetite), phyllic (sericite,
pyrite), propylitic (epidote, pyrite);
skarn prograde: garnet; retrograde:
chlorite, epidote, carbonate, quartz,
sericite, hematite; high-sulphidation
with pyrophyllite at hangingwall
zone
3 Fig. 2
Phu Lon (Cu, Fe,

Au) (Prospect)
Thailand
18.1997N
102.143E
(oxidized)
Advanced
argillic
overprint with
possible link to
high S
epithermal system
(oxidized)
Loei
4 Fig. 2
Padan (CuMo)
(Sepon Mining
District)
Thengkham South
and North (Cu
Mo) (Sepon
Mining District)
Laos 17.5N
101.8167E
Limestone
(Devonian)
Volcaniclastics UPb
zircon 359 6 Ma
Rhyodacite
porphyry, mudstone
Diorite and quartz monzonite

porphyry, UPb zircon
244 3 Ma, thermal event:
ArAr feldspar 187108 Ma
Rhyodacite porphyry (Early
Permian)
Prograde: garnet, pyroxene,

wollastonite, K-feldspar Retrograde:
quartz, tremolite, epidote, chlorite,
calcite, sericite
K-feldspar, chlorite, sericite, epidote,
carbonate
4 Fig. 2
Laos 17.5N
101.8167E

Khanong (Cu)
Laos 17.5N
4 Fig. 2
(Sepon Mining
101.8167E
District)
References
240 Mt at 0.55% Backhouse (2004), Tate

Cu, 0.24 g/t Au & (2005), Kamvong (2013),
2.2 g/t Ag
Kamvong et al. (2014),
www.panaust.com.au
Chalcopyrite,
magnetite, pyrite,
bornite, gold
5.4 Mt at 2.4%
Cu & 0.64 g/t Au
Kamvong (2004), Meinert

et al. (2005), Kamvong and
Khin Zaw (2009)
Pyrite, molybdenite,
chalcopyrite, hematite
No data
Cannell and Smith (2008),

Cromie (2010)
(oxidized)
(oxidized)
Truong Son
Truong Son
Bioclastic sandstone, Rhyodacite porphyry (Early

limestone,
Permian)
carbonaceous and
calcareous mudstone,
siltstone and
sandstone
Prograde: garnet, pyroxene, biotite; Hypogene: pyrite,

Retrograde: chlorite, epidote, quartz, chalcopyrite,
hematite, carbonate
molybdenite;
Supergene: malachite,
chalcocite, azurite,
cuprite, native copper
10.7 Mt at 1.8%
Cu (South) and
10.4 Mt at 2.2%
Cu (North)

Cromie (2010)
Skarn/
supergene/
exotic copper
gold
Truong Son
Bioclastic sandstone, Rhyodacite porphyry (Early

limestone,
Permian)
carbonaceous and
calcareous mudstone,
siltstone and
sandstone
Prograde: garnet, pyroxene;

Retrograde: chlorite epidote, calcite,
hematite
25.5 Mt at 3.5%
Cu & 18.2 Mt at
0.76 g/t Au (Au
cap.)

Cromie (2010)
Bioclastic sandstone,
limestone,
carbonaceous
mudstone, chert
Siliciclastics and
Limestone (Wang
Saphung Formation)
(Carboniferous)
No known intrusion
No known alteration
Hypogene: pyrite,
galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite,
molybdenite;
Supergene:
chalcocite, native
copper, azurite, cuprite,
malachite
Malachite, native
copper
Diorite/monzodiorite
porphyry; UPb zircon 242.4
1.3 Ma, laser ArAr biotite
248 2 Ma, 247 6 Ma,
ReOs molybdenite
245 0.9 Ma, younger ArAr
feldspar 164 0.6 Ma
overprint
Potassic (K-feldspar, biotite,

magnetite), phyllic (sericite, pyrite),
propylitic (epidote, pyrite) in
porphyry; skarn prograde: garnet;
retrograde: chlorite, epidote,
carbonate, quartz, sericite
magnetite
164 Mt at 0.53%
Cu & 0.09 g/t Au
4 Fig. 2
Phabing (Cu)
(Sepon Mining
District)
Laos 17.5N
101.8167E
Exotic copper
after skarn
Truong Son
5 Fig. 2
PUT1 (Puthep 1)
(CuAu) (Phu Hin
Lek Fia)
(Prospect)
Thailand
17.4675N
101.867E
(oxidized)
Loei
2.0 Mt at 3.4% Cu Cannell and Smith (2008)
Khin Zaw et al. (2009a,b),

Kamvong (2013), Kamvong et
al. (2014),
www.panaust.com.au
Deposit type
5 Fig. 2
6 Fig. 2
PUT2 (Puthep 2)
(Cu) (Phu Thong
Dieng and Phu
Tham Phra)
(Prospect)
Phu Thap Fah
(Au) (Mine)
Thailand
17.432N
101.760E
(oxidized)
Loei
Thailand
17.3544N
101.653E
Skarn type
(reduced)
Loei
Sandstone, siltstone,
mudstone and
limestone (Wang
Saphung Formation)
(Carboniferous)
Siliciclastics and
limestone (Permian)
Khao Phanom Pha Thailand 16.3

(Au) (Mine)
100.551E
Skarn type
(reduced)
Loei
Felsic andesitic
volcaniclastics
8 Fig. 2
Singto (FeCu)
(Prospect)
(oxidized)
Loei
Limestone,
siliciclastics
(Permian)
(oxidized)
(oxidized)
(oxidized)
(oxidized)
Loei
Limestone,
siliciclastics
(Permian)
Truong Son/
Tam Ky
Phouc Son
Suture
Truong Son/
Tam Ky
Phouc Son
Suture
Thailand
16.261N
101.799E

8 Fig. 2
Khao Lek (FeCu) Thailand
(Prospect)
15.912N
100.787E
9 Fig. 2
Ban Bothong (Cu Thailand
Au) (Prospect)
15.912N
100.787E
9 Fig. 2
Khao Phra Ngam
Thailand
(Cu) (Prospect)
14.897N
100.628E
10 Fig. 2 Frenchman (Au,
Thailand
Cu) (Prospect)
13.9568N
101.8337E
11 Fig. 2
Khe Rin (CuAu

WMo) (Prospect
in Phuoc Son Mine
area)
Ho RayThac
Trang (AuW)
(Prospect in Bong
Mieu Mine)
Vietnam15.500N
107.696E
Skarn type
(reduced)
Vietnam 15.410N
108.434E
Skarn type
(reduced)
12 Fig. 2
Nui Kem (AuZn

Pb) (Bong Mieu
Mine)
Vietnam 15.390N
108.432E
Skarn type
(reduced)
13 Fig. 2
Mengapur (Cu
Au) (Prospect)
Malaysia 3.775N
102.808E
Skarn
(reduced)
Myanmar
22.113N 95.042E
High-S
epithermal
12 Fig. 2
Epithermal deposits
1 Fig. 3
Monywa (Cu)
(Mine)
Loei
Loei
Loei
Truong Son/
Tam Ky
Phouc Son
Suture
East Malaya
Kawlin
WunthoPopa belt
Limestone,
siliciclastics
(Permian)
Volcaniclastics and
interbedded
limestone (Lower
Permian)
Metabasite, marble
Prograde: garnet, retrograde:

chlorite, epidote, carbonate, quartz,
sericite, illite; supergene: kaolinite
Granodiorite: UPb zircon

Prograde: garnet, pyroxene, quartz;
245 3 Ma; Andesitic dyke,
Retrograde: epidote, calcite, chlorite,
UPb zircon 221 5 Ma, ArAr quartz
biotite and amphibole resetting
age of 111153 Ma
No known intrusion
Prograde: wollastonite, biotite;
retrograde: quartz, tremolite,
sericite; KAr age of sericite:
252 5 Ma
Diorite UPb zircon
Prograde:garnet, retrograde: quartz,
209 9 Ma, 213 10 Ma
epidote, chlorite, calcite
magnetite, hematite
36 Mt at 0.43%
Cu
Khositanont (2008), Khin Zaw

et al. (2009a,b),
www.panaust.com.au
Gold, pyrite, bismuth,

pyrrhotite, magnetite,
chalcopyrite
6.4 Mt at 2.19 g/
t Au, 0.14% Cu &
3.9 g/t Ag
Rodmanee (2000), Khin Zaw

et al. (2007b, 2008, 2009a,b,
2011),
www.tongkahharbouur.com
Pyrrhotite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, electrum
No data
Khin Zaw et al. (2007a),

Khositanont (2008)
Magnetite, chalcopyrite, No data

pyrite
Khin Zaw et al. (2007a)
Granitoid porphyry UPb zircon

254 10 Ma, 249 5 Ma,
241 5 Ma
ArAr amphibole age
187 2 Ma
Prograde: garnet, retrograde: quartz,

Chalcopyrite,
magnetite, pyrite
No data

Chalcopyrite,
magnetite, pyrite
No data
Khin Zaw et al. (2007a, 2009a)
Granodiorite UPb zircon

208 10 Ma

Chalcopyrite,
magnetite, pyrite
No data
Granodiorite UPb zircon

203 8 Ma
Prograde:garnet, pyroxene,
wollastonite, albite, biotite;
retrograde: quartz, epidote, chlorite,
calcite, sericite. Illite, smectite
Prograde: garnet, retrograde:
actinolite, tremolite; quartz, chlorite,
epidote, sericite, sphene
sphalerite,
minor molybdenite
No data
Muller (1999)
Pyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
molybdenite, scheelite
No data
Banks et al. (2004), Khin Zaw

(unpub. data)
Pyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, galena,
scheelite,
bithmuthinite,
cassiterite,
arsenopyrite,
molybdenite, magnetite,
scheelite, electrum
Pyrite, sphalerite,
galena, pyrrhotite,
2.3 Mt at 1.8 g/t

Au
Quynh et al. (2004), Lee

(2010)
1.4 Mt at 7.9 g/t

Au

(2010)
Teh and Goh (2010),

www.monumentmining.com
Granite, syenite, granodiorite
Schist, gneiss,
granite, pegmatite,
quartzite,
amphibolite,
Leucocratic dyke (237 5 Ma)
Prograde: Pyroxene, garnet,

retrograde: epidote, chlorite, biotite,
carbonate
Gneiss, schist
No known intrusion
Botite, chlorite, carbonate
Metasedimentary
volcaniclastic rock
Granodiorite (L. Permian)
Prograde: Garnet, diopside,

wollastonite Retrograde: Quartz,
carbonate
Pyrite, pyrrhotite,
molybdenite, stibnite,
bornite, telluride,
bismuthinite, gold
224 Mt at 0.25%
Cu, 0.16 g/t Au,
8.86 g/t Ag &
6.54% S with Fe
& Mo credits
Rhyolite, dacite,
andesite (L.
Miocene)
Dacite porphyry
Strong silicication, advanced argillic

alteration (pyrophyllite, alunite,
dickite, kaolinite, sericite, quartz)
Chalcocite,
digenite, enargite,
chalcopyrite,
covellite, anhydrite,
barite, jarosite,
sphalerite, galena,
chalcanthite
Letpaduang:
Mitchell et al. (2011), Khin
1478 Mt at
Zaw, Unpub data
0.37% Cu,
Sabetaung &
Sabetaung South
213Mt at 0.26%
Cu, Kyisintaung
391Mt at
0.31%Cu
11
(continued on next page)
7 Fig. 2
Granodiorite: UPb zircon

235 4 Ma and 233 3 Ma;
whole rock KAr resetting ages
of 177, 198, 200 Ma
12
Table 1 (continued)
No. in
map
Deposit
Epithermal deposits
2 Fig. 3
Phu He (AuAg)
(Prospect)
Deposit type
Terrane/fold
belt
Host rocks/(ages)
Intrusions/(ages)
Ore mineralogy
Laos 19.467N
103.256E
Low-S
epithermal
Truong Son
Andesite, UPb
Zircon 291.4
2.3 Ma), dacite
(289.8 3.2 Ma),
dacitic breccia
(289.7 2.5 Ma)
Tuffaceous rock,
volcanic breccia,
Carbonaceous shale
(L. Carboniferous)
Andesite, UPb zircon
286 4 Ma) and
volcanic breccias, U
Pb zircon (283
4 Ma)
Volcaniclastics,
rhyolite breccia Host
rhyolite: Ar/Ar
294 1 Ma,
volcanic sandstone,
UPb zircon b247
4 Ar/Ar reheating
age at 206 Ma
Monomict to
polymict andesite
breccias,
volcanogenic
sedimentary rocks
(U. PermianL.
Triassic)
Plagioclase
pyroxene phyric
andesite, UPb
zircon 250 5 Ma
Rhyolite dyke (postmineralization)
Propylitic (epidote, chlorite), phyllic

(sericite, pyrite), argillic (clays)
Pyrite, galena, sphalerite, No data

Hotson (2009)
Dacitic porphyry, UPb zircon

(290.6 3.5 Ma)
Silica, adularia, sericite, chlorite,

pyrite, kaolinite, halloysite
Pyrite, sphalerite,
galena, chalcopyrite,
electrum
32 Mt at 0.77 g/t
Au, 4.9 g/t Ag &
0.12% Cu
Manaka et al. (2007), Manaka

(2008), www.panaust.com.au
No known intrusion
Silica, adularia, sericite, chlorite,

pyrite,
Pyrite, sphalerite,
galena, chalcopyrite,
electrum, stephanite,
arsenopyrite
76 Mt at 0.82 g/t
Au & 7.0 g/t Ag
Manaka (2008), Manaka et al.

(2014), www.panaust.com.au
Post-mineral diorite intrusion,

Ar/Ar age of 188.5 0.3 Ma,
resetting KAr age 124 5,
111 5 Ma
Quartz, pyrite, calcite, adularia,

sericite, chlorite
Electrum, argentite,
pyrite, sphalerite,
galena, minor
chalcopyrite
No data
De Little (2005)
Hornblende diorite dyke,

Xenocrystic granodioritebearing basaltic dyke, hornblende phyric dyke, UPb zircon
244 7 Ma, 238 6 Ma,
221 8 Ma
Silicic, argillic, propylitic and clay and

supergene alteration: Quartz, calcite,
adularia, sericite, chlorite, illite,
smectite
Electrum, pyrite,
sphalerite, galena,
minor chalcopyrite,
acantite
81.7 Mt at
1.18 g/t Au &
9 g/t Ag
containing
3.10 Moz Au,
24.14 Moz Ag
Kromkhun (2005), Salam

(2013),
www.kingsgate.com.au
No known intrusion
Quartz, pyrite, calcite, adularia,

sericite, chlorite
Predominantly pyrite
2.9 Mt at 1.1 g/t

Au & 10 g/t Ag
Khin Zaw et al. (2007a),

www.thaigoldelds.com
Native gold, pyrite,

tellurides, selenides,
minor cubanite,
tennantitetetrahedrite,
arsenopyrite, enargite,
luzonite, covellite
Enargite, luzonite,
native gold, covellite,
pyrite, bismuthinite,
marcasite, proustite,
pyrargyrite
Electrum, sphalerite,
pyrrhotite, galena,
chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite, argentite,
sulfosalts
Electrum, AuAg
tellurides, AuAg
selenides, native gold,
sulfosalts, galena,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite
103.9 Mt at
0.94 g/t Au &
2.68 g/t Ag
Crow and Van Leeuwen

(2005), Henry Wong (written
comm., 2013)
190.72 Mt at
1.31 g/t Au &
12.5 g/t Ag
Sutopo et al. (2007), www.gresources.com (2013), Garwin

et al. (2005)
0.9 Mt at 6.5 g/t

Au
Van Leeuwin (1994), Crow

and Van Leeuwen (2005),
Garwin et al. (2005)
22.6 Mt at
1.35 g/t Au &
17.6 g/t Ag
Van Leeuwin (1994), Crow

and Van Leeuwen (2005),
www.sumatracoppergold.com
3 Fig. 3
LCT (AuAgCu)
(Prospect)
Laos 18.937N
102.884E
Low-S
epithermal to
mesothermal
Truong Son
4 Fig. 3
Ban Houayxai
(AuAg) (Mine)
Laos 18.927N
102.687E
Low-S
epithermal
Truong Son
5 Fig. 3
Wang Yai (Au

Ag) (Prospect)
Thailand
16.366N
100.766E
Low-S
epithermal
Loei
6 Fig. 3
Chatree (AuAg)
(Mine)
Thailand
16.2938N
100.647E
Low-S
epithermal
Loei
6 Fig. 3
LD Prospect (Au
Ag) (Prospect)
Thailand
16.292N
100.633E
Low-S
epithermal
Loei
7 Fig. 3
Miwah (AuAg)
(Prospect)
Aceh Sumatra
4.7214N
96.3616E
High S
epithermal Au
Ag
Sunda arc
Andesitic to dacitic
lavas, tuffs and
breccias of the
Leuping Volcanics
(Pio-Pleistocene)
Pliocene biotitehornblende
rhyodacites
Propyllitic, Phyllic, Argillic and acid

sulfate alteration: quartz, alunite,
barite, pyrite, kaolinite, illite
smectite, chlorite, epidote, rutile,
native sulfur
8 Fig. 3
Martabe (AuAg)
(Mine)
Sumatra 1.5225S
99.0675E
High S
epithermal Au
Ag
Sunda arc
Miocene basaltic to
andesitic ows, tuffs
and breccias of the
Angkola Volcanics
Intrusive diatremes with

associated dacite porphyries
Silicication, argillic, acid-sulfate,

carbonate Vuggy quartz, alunite,
dickite, kaolinite, illite, pyrite, barite
9 Fig. 3
Mangani (AuAg)
(Old Mine)
Sumatra 0.2131N Low to

100.71E
Intermediate S
epithermal Au
Ag
Sunda arc
Andesite (Miocene)
Microdiorite, andesite dykes
Shales and sandstone
(OligocenePiocene)
Acid-sulfate, propylitic Quartz,

adularia, rhodochrosite, rhodonite,
calcite, pyrite
10 Fig. 3
TembangLebong
cluster (AuAg)
Bukit Tembang
Lebong Donok
Lebong Tandai
Lebong Simpong
(Mine)
Sumatra
3.9958 S
103.4472 E
Sunda
Banda arc
Trachyandesite to
andesite lavas and
tuffs, breccias and
carbonaceous shales
(Oligocene to
Miocene)
Propyllitic, argillic, phyllic, acidsulfate Adularia, illite, illitesmectite,

kaolinite, pyrite, chlorite, calcite,
chalcedony
Low S
epithermal Au
Ag
Dacitic to andesitic intrusions

(Miocene)
Tonnage/grade
References
Location
e-
11 Fig. 3
Ojolali (AuAg)
(Prospect)
Sumatra 2.3912S
102.7346E
Low to
intermediate S
epithermal Au
Ag
Sunda
Banda arc
Basaltic andesite,
siltstone, crystal and
lithic tuff (Miocene)
No known intrusion
12 Fig. 3
Way Linggo
(Mine)
Sumatra 5.135 S
104.5439 E
Low S
epithermal Au
Ag
Sunda arc
Andesitic to dacitic
pyroclastics
Porphyritic dacite intrusive
Mogok
Metamorphic
Belt
Sandstone, siltstone
(Eocene) (UPb
detrital zircon
48.7 0.7 Ma)
Marble, calc silicates
Sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits

1 Fig. 4
Kyaukpahto (Au Myanmar
Sedimentary
Ag) (Mine)
22.113N, 95.042E rock-hosted
Kwinthonze (Au
Ag) (Mine)
Myanmar 20.73N Orogenic Au

96.03E
Mogok
Metamorphic
Belt
3 Fig. 4
Modi Taung (Au

Ag) (Mine)
Myanmar
20.352N 96.420E
4 Fig. 4
Meyon (AuAg)
(Prospect)
Myanmar17.26N, Orogenic Au
97.00E
Mogok
Metamorphic
Belt
Mogok
Metamorphic
Belt
5 Fig. 4
Huai Kham On
(AuAg)
(Prospect)
Thailand 17.80N
99.46E
Orogenic Au
Sukhothai
6 Fig. 4
Langu (Au)
(Prospect)
Thailand 6.90N
99.80E
Sedimenthosted Au
Sukhothai
7 Fig. 4
Sepon (Au)
(Mine) Discovery
Main, Discovery
Colluvial,Discovery
West, Nalou,
Namkok E and W
and Vang Ngang
Laos 17.5N
101.8167E
Sedimentary
rock-hosted Au
Truong Son
8 Fig. 4
Bai Go (AuZn
Pb) (Phuoc Son
Mine)
Vietnam 15.443N Sediment107.727E

hosted Au
8Fig. 4
Bai Dat (AuZn

Pb) (Phuoc Son
Mine)
Vietnam 15.434N Sediment107.725E

hosted Au
9 Fig. 4
Ho Gan (Au)
(Bong Mieu Mine)
Vietnam 15.402N Orogenic Au

108.415E
10 Fig. 4
Selinsing (Au)
(Mine)
Malaysia
4.2498N
101.786E
Orogenic Au
Sedimenthosted Au
Truong Son/
Tam Ky
Phouc Son
Suture
Truong Son/
Tam Ky
Phouc Son
Suture
Truong Son/
Tam Ky
Phouc Son
Suture
East Malaya/
Bentong
Raub Suture
Native gold, Pyrite,

sphalerite, galena,
chalcopyrite, tennantite/
Tetrahedrite
6.5 Mt at 0.8 g/t

Au & 4.8 g/t Ag
McCarroll (2010), McCarroll

et al. (2014)
Pyrite
2.2 Mt at 6.9 g/t

Au & 45.3 g/t Ag

(2005), Garwin et al. (2005),
Andrews (2013),
www.kingsrosemining.com.au
No known intrusion
Silicication, sericitization, argillic

alteration
3 Mt ore at 4 g/t
Au
Khin Zaw (2002, 2008, unpub

data), Ye Myint Swe et al.
(2004a,b)
Granitoids (Mesozoic)
Silicication, sericitization, argillic

alteration
No data
Khin Zaw (unpub. Data)
Mudstone, siltstone,
sandstone
Granite and diorite (Mesozoic)
Silicication, chloritization
Up to 3000 g/t
Au
Mitchell et al. (2004)
Slate, phyllite,
argillite, schist, minor
greywake of Mergui
Group
(Carboniferous)
Andesitic tuffaceous
volcaniclastic rocks
intercalated with
rhyolitic volcanics:
Andesite, UPb
zircon 242 Ma,
Rhyolite, UPb
zircon 224228 Ma
Carbonaceous
limestone, dolomite
and minor siltstone
(Ordovician)
Sandstone,
mudstone, calcareous
shale, limestone,
dolomite
(Ordovician
Carboniferous)
Granite and diorite (Mesozoic)
Silicication, argillic to propylitic

alteration
Pyrite, galena,
sphalerite, electrum,
chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite
Pyrite, galena,
sphalerite, electrum,
chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite
Pyrite, galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite, visible gold
arsenopyrite, rare
pyrrhotite, electrum
No data
Zaw Naing Oo and Khin Zaw

(2009), Zaw Naing Oo et al.
(2010)
No known intrusion
Silicication, chloritecalcite
alteration
Pyrite, galena,
bournonite, large
electrum grains
No data
Khositanont (2008),
Khositanont et al. (2009)
No known intrusion
Silicication, dolomitization,
carbonate alteration
Pyrite, stibnite,
arsenopyrite, sphalerite,
galena, chalcopyrite
No data
Wilkinson (2009)
Rhyodacite Porphyry SHRIMP U Silicication (jasperoid),

Pb zircon age 300 2 Ma, UPb decalcication, dolomitization
zircon (PermianCarboniferous)
Pyrite, galena,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
tetrahedrite, malachite,
azurite
4.75 Moz Au for

83 Mt at 1.8 g/t
Au:
Loader (1999), Smith et al.

(2005), Cromie et al. (2006a,b,
2010), Cromie (2010)
Micaceous schist,
gabbro, metabasite
Dacitic porphyry, andesitic

porphyry, granite dyke
Silicication, pyritization
Pyrite, pyrrhotite,
galena, sphalerite,
3.1 Mt at 6.69 g/
t Au (combined
Bai Dat & Bai Go)
Banks et al. (2004), Manaka

et al. (2010)
Graphitic and
micaceous schist,
marble, metabasite
Dacitic porphyry, andesitic

porphyry, granite dyke
Silicication, pyritization
Pyrite, pyrrhotite,
galena, sphalerite,
3.1 Mt at 6.7 g/t

Au (combined
Bai Dat & Bai Go)
Banks et al. (2004), Manaka

et al. (2010)
Schist, orthogneiss,
granite, pegmatite
Granite, pegmatite
Muscovite (greissen)
Pyrite, galena,
arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite
2.0 Mt at 1.9 g/t

Au

(2010)
Siltstone, sandstone,
phyllite
(Carboniferous)
Rhyolite dykes (Unknown age)
Quartz, ankerite, chlorite, pyrite,

sericite
Pyrite, pyrrhotite,
arsenopyrite, galena,
sphalerite, chalcopyrite,
electrum
15.2 Mt at
1.28 g/t
Makoundi (2012), Makoundi

et al. (2014),
www.monumentmining.com
2 Fig. 4
Argillic/sericitic to advanced argillic:

alunitekaolinite, propylitic
alteration: chlorite, calcite
pyroxmangite, rhodochrosite,
actinolite, epidote
Silicication, quartz, adularia, illite,
kaolinite, calcite, chlorite, green
smectite
(continued on next page)
13
14
No. in
map
Deposit
Location
Sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits

11 Fig. 4 Penjom (Au)
Malaysia
(Mine)
4.1369N
101.985E
Terrane/fold
belt
Host rocks/(ages)
Intrusions/(ages)
Ore mineralogy
Tonnage/grade
References
Sedimenthosted Au
East Malaya/
Bentong
Raub Suture
Trachyte, trachyandesite,
tonalite (E. Jurassic)
Quartz, chlorite, sericite, illite, albite,
Pyrite, galena,
sphalerite, gold,
arsenopyrite.
22 Mt at
1.28 Moz Au
Makoundi (2012),
www.avocet.co.uk
Sedimenthosted Au
East Malaya/
Bentong
Raub Suture
East Malaya/
Bentong
Raub Suture
Tuffaceous siltstone
(259.8 4.9 Ma),
carbonaceous shale,
tuffaceous
conglomerate
(264.9 2.6 Ma)
Sandstone, breccia
(L. Carboniferous)
Alkali rhyolite (L. Triassic)
Quartz, sericite, pyrite, illite,

montmorillonite, hematite
5.2 Mt at 0.71 g/
t Au
Makoundi (2012),
www.peninsulargold.com
Gray to black shale,

limestone, marble;
tuffs (unknown)
Granite (Triassic)
Quartz, pyrite, sericite
Pyrite, arsenopyrite,
galena, gold, geocronite,
covellite
Pyrite, gold,
arsenopyrite
Makoundi (2012),
www.peninsulargold.com
Black shales,
mudstone, breccias,
volcaniclastics
(Rampong and
Bampo Formations)
(Upper Oligocene to
Miocene)
Silicied breccias
and Permian
limestones,
sediments (Post
Oligocene)
Doson biotite granite complex

(Miocene)
Silicication, argillic, quartz, illite

smectite
Pyrite, arsenical pyrite,

marcasite
Tailings: 10.2 Mt
at 0.73 g/t Au;
Oxides: 4.9 Mt
at 1.39 g/t Au
8.5 Mt at 1.49 g/t
Au & 10.7 g/t Ag
Taylor (2012), Crow and Van

Leeuwen (2005)
No known intrusion
Silicication, quartz, calcite
Pyrite, arsenopyrite,
stibnite
17.0 Mt at 2.7 g/
t Au

(2005), www.sihayogold.com
Galena, sphalerite,
pyrite, cerussite,
smithsonite, barite,
gersdofte,chalcopyrite,
pyrarhyrite, cubanite,
cobaltite, argentite,
sulfosalts
10.8 Mt at 22.8%
Pb, 13.9% Zn,
1.1% Cu, 670 g/t
Ag with Co & Ni
credits
Khin Zaw (2003, 2004), Khin

Zaw et al. (1999)
12 Fig. 4
Tersang (Au)
(Prospect)
13 Fig. 4
Raub Australian
(Au) (Mine)
14 Fig. 4
Abong (AuAg)
(Prospect)
Sumatra 4.2769N Sediment97.2189E

hosted Au
Sunda arc
15 Fig. 4
Sihayo (AuAg)
(Prospect)

hosted Au
(karst, breccia
collapse); proximal to porphyry systems
Sunda-arc
Myanmar
23.116N 97.300E
Sibumasu
Basin-related ore deposits

1 Fig. 5
Bawdwin (Pb
ZnAgCuNi
Co) (Mine)
Malaysia
3.9828N;
101.782E
Malaysia
3.8036N
101.857E
Deposit type
Sedimenthosted Au
VHMS/
sedimenthosted
Tuffaceous rock
(Bawdwin Tuff),
Volcaniclastic and
turbiditic unit
(Pangyun
Formation)
(CambroOrdovician)
Rhyolite porphyry; Nam la (red) Sericitization, chloritization,

and Loei Mi (gray) units
carbonate alteration
Table 1 (continued)
Theingon (Pb
ZnAg) (Mine)
Myanmar
20.950N 96.833E
MVT/Irish Type
Sibumasu
Wunbye Formation
(limestone,
dolomitic limestone)
(Ordovician)
Thung Song Group
(Limestone,
dolomite)
(Ordovocian)
Intermediate-felsic
metavolcanic rocks,
UPb zircon
459.5 9.7 Ma,
417.3 7 Ma)
Rhyolite to
rhyodacite (E.
Permian)
3 Fig. 5
Song ThoBoh Yai

(PbZnAg)
(Mine)
Thailand
14.851N 98.798E
MVT/Irish Type
Sibumasu
4 Fig. 5
Duc Bo (CuZn
Pb) (Prospect)
Vietnam 15.443N VHMS

108.578E
Tam Ky
Phouc Son
Suture
5 Fig. 5
Bukit Ketaya (Au

AgMnFeBa)
Tasik Chini (Old
mine)
Malaysia
3.4058N,
102.921E
VHMS
East Malaya
5 Fig. 5
Bukit Botol (Au

AgMnFeBa)
Tasik Chini (Old
mine)
Malaysia 3.376N
102.928E
VHMS
East Malaya
Rhyolite to
rhyodacite (E.
Permian)
Microgranite: UPb zircon

234.9 1.5 Ma,
234.4 2.2 Ma
6 Fig. 5
Dairi (PbZn)
(Prospect)

hosted SEDEX/
MVT
Sunda arc
Caronaceous
shales/dolomitic
siltstones and
massive dolomites
of the PermoCarbonifeorus
Tapanuli Group
No known intrusion
No known intrusion
Silicication, dolomitization
Galena, sphalerite,
pyrite, cerussite
tetrahedritetennentite
No Data
Khin Zaw et al. (1999)
No known intrusion
Silicication, dolomitization
Galena, sphalerite,
pyrite, cerussite
tetrahedritetennentite
4.9 Mt at 3.3%
Pb, 3.0% Zn &
63 g/t Ag
Diehl and Kern (1981),

Crow and Khin Zaw (2011),
www.seasiamining.com
No known intrusion
Epidote, sericite, chlorite
Chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, galena,
bornite
No data
Tran et al. (2009)
Microgranite: UPb zircon

234.9 1.5 Ma,
234.4 2.2 Ma
Distal: quartzchloritesericite
pyrite (quartz, chlorite, sericite,
pyrite, pyrophyllite, paragonite)
Proximal: quartzchloritepyrite
carbonate (quartz, Mg-chlorite,
pyrite, carbonate, sericite,
pyrophyllite, kaolinite)
Distal: quartzsericite
(quartz, sericite, paragonite)
Proximal: quartzsericitepyrite
chlorite (quartz, sericite, chlorite,
phengite)
Silver and tin bearing

minerals, pyrite,
sphalerite, galena,
hematite and barite
No data
Basori et al. (2012a,b)
Electrum, silver and

tin bearing
minerals, pyrite,
chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, galena,
hematite, barite
Pyrite, sphalerite,
galena, tetrahedrite
tennantite
No data
Basori et al. (2012a,b)
25 Mt at 11.5%
Zn, 6.8% Pb &
7.5 g/t Ag

(2005), Reynolds (2010),
www.bumiresources.com
Quartz, barite, calcite
2 Fig. 5
15
16
Fig. 2. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major porphyry-related skarn CuAu deposits. 1 Bohr ThongKTLTharkhek (Laos); 2 Phu Kham (Laos); 3 Phu Lon (Thailand);
4 PadanThengkham South and North-KhanongPhabing (Sepon Mining District) (Laos); 5 Phuthep (PUT1 & PUT2) (Thailand); 6 Phu Thap Fah (Thailand); 7 Khao Phanom Pha
(Thailand); 8 SingtoKhao Lek (Thailand); 9 Ban BothongKhao Phra Ngam (Thailand); 10 Frenchman Mine (Thailand); 11. Khe Rin (Phuoc Son) (Vietnam); 12. Ho RayThac
TrangNui Kem (Bong Mieu Mine) (Vietnam); 13 Mengapur (Malaysia).
SRTM data from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/; regional tectonic map modied after e.g., Barber and Crow (2003), Metcalfe (2013) and Burrett et al. (2014).
mplaced into the Carboniferous Wang Saphung Formation which

includes siltstone, limestone and sandstone.
The Puthep 1 (PUT 1) deposit is related to the emplacement of
the multiphase, composite intrusions. The hypogene alteration at PUT
1 is characterized by porphyry-style alteration and mineralization associated with PUT 1 stock, and skarn-style alteration and mineralization
outboard of the PUT 1 stock. Cross-cutting relationships indicate that
early garnetpyroxene skarn-style alteration was followed by retrograde epidotechlorite alteration. Mineralization includes both oxide
(magnetite) and sulde (pyritechalcopyrite chalcocite), with the
best copper grades being largely conned to the retrograde skarn
assemblages (Kamvong, 2013).
Similar to PUT1, the PUT2 deposit (inferred resource of 36.4 Mt
grading 0.43% Cu) is associated with Triassic granitoids but are more
granodioritic in composition than those of PUT1. Porphyry and skarn
mineralization at PUT2 is characterized by an earlier phyllic alteration
consisting of sericite replacing feldspar and chlorite after mac minerals
(e.g., biotite) in the host granitoids, followed by argillic alteration and
retrograde quartzcarbonate epidote assemblages (Khositanont,

2008). Chalcopyrite, pyrite, magnetite and hematite are the major ore
minerals, with the chalcopyrite mineralization closely related to phyllic
alteration.
The Phu Kham and PUT1 coppergold skarn deposits in the northern
Truong Son and Loei fold belts, are important, not only because they
represent the most important porphyry-related skarn coppergold
deposits in the region (e.g., Tate, 2005; Kamvong et al., 2014), but also
because they are the rst adakitic porphyries discovered in mainland
SE Asia. New geochemical and isotopic data suggest that the Phu Kham
and PUT1 adakites may have formed during short periods associated
with the local initiation of subduction during the Late Carboniferous
(ca. 306304 Ma) and Middle Triassic (ca. 244241 Ma) (Kamvong
et al., 2014).
The Phu Lon coppergold deposit (northern Thailand): The Phu Lon
deposit (resource: 5.4 Mt at 2.4% Cu and 0.64 g/t Au) is hosted in
Devonian volcaniclastics and limestone. UPb detrital zircon dating on
the volcaniclastics yielded a latest Devonian (359 6 Ma) maximum
depositional age (Fig. 2). These host sediments have been intruded by
subalkalic to calc-alkaline quartz monzonite and dioritemonzodiorite
(granodiorite) porphyry, which are responsible for the Phu Lon skarns
and ore formation. Occurrence of primary magnetite and titanite,
combined with the absence of ilmenite, suggest an oxidized magmatic
origin (Kamvong, 2004; Kamvong and Khin Zaw, 2009).
The Phu Lon skarn system is divided into endoskarn and exoskarn
zones. The endoskarn developed at the margins of the Phu Lon plutons
and formed in the immediate vicinity of the exoskarn. In contrast, the
exoskarn, hosted by tuffaceous sandstone and shale with minor
dolomitic to calcitic marble, consists of prograde and retrograde stages
and shows local zoning with a hydrous mineral assemblage close to
the marble front (distal skarns) and anhydrous mineral assemblage
close to the endoskarn (proximal skarns). Spatial distribution of zoning
relative to intrusive contacts (intrusion-endoskarn garnet N
pyroxene hydrous minerals marble) indicates that skarnforming uids may have originated from the magma. Although Phu
Lon's metal grades are lower than metal grades in other CuAu skarns,
the oxidized mineralogy (andraditediopside units) and geological
setting of Phu Lon mimics a number of the other oxidized coppergoldrich end-members of this class of skarn deposit (e.g., Nambija, Ecuador,
McCoy, Nevada and ErtsbergBig Gossan, Indonesia) (Kamvong, 2004;
Kamvong and Khin Zaw, 2009 and references therein).
Other oxidized skarn ironcopper (gold) deposits: Other smaller
deposits in the Loei Fold Belt, such as the Frenchmen Mine, Khao Lek,
Khao Phra Ngam, Ban Bothong and Singto deposits, have similar early
prograde garnet pyroxene and late retrograde chlorite, carbonate,
quartz and epidote assemblages. Their most common ore minerals are
chalcopyrite and pyrite. Many of these smaller deposits appear to be
associated with the younger Late Triassic dioritic intrusions, in contrast
with major mineralized skarns (e.g., PUT1) that are associated with
Early- to Middle Triassic diorite to granodiorite intrusions.
Porphyry-related copper skarn mineralization is also developed
at/around the Sepon sediment-hosted gold deposit (Laos) along the
Truong Son Fold Belt associated with the two rhyodacite porphyry centers
(i.e., Thengkham and Padan, Cannell and Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010;
Cromie et al., 2010) (Fig. 2). A mineralized coppermolybdenum
system is hosted within the core of the intrusive units at Padan and
the system is characterized by porphyry style mineralization (Cromie,
2010). The primary skarn mineralization is hosted in the calcareous
units at Khanong and Thengkham, where the units are in contact with
the intrusive centers. Economic copper orebodies at Sepon predominantly consist of supergene enrichment zones (mainly chalcocite and
malachite) developed over the primary skarn systems (Cannell and
Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010).
Hotson (2009) also reported oxidized coppergold skarns in the
Phonsavan area (Laos) in the northern Truong Son Fold Belt, such as at
the Kham Thong Lai (KTL), Thakhek and Bohr Thong prospects
(Fig. 2). Ages of the dioritic/tonalitic intrusions were determined to be
Early Permian (ca. 290270 Ma; UPb zircon) (Hotson, 2009). The
Early Permian diorites/tonalites intruded into the Ordovician to Carboniferous carbonate/volcaniclastic sedimentary sequence, similar to other
coppergold skarns in the Truong Son Fold Belt (e.g., Phu Kham). Skarn
mineralization in the Phonsavan area is likely to have followed the emplacement of felsic intrusives, subsequent to a backarc opening resulting
from the subduction of South China beneath Indochina. Skarn mineralization is dominated by retrograde, sulde-rich mineralisation (Hotson,
2009).
3.2.2. Reduced gold (copper) skarns
3.2.2.1. Phu Thap Fah gold deposit (northeastern Thailand). The Phu Thap
Fah deposit (6.4 Mt at 2.19 g/t Au, 0.14% Cu & 3.9 g/t Ag) (Fig. 2) is
hosted in a Permian sedimentary sequence consisting of shale, limestone, muddy sandstone and carbonaceous siltstone intruded by Early
Triassic granodiorite (UPb zircon: 245 3 Ma) and Late Triassic
17
andesitic dikes (UPb zircon: 221 2 Ma) (Rodmanee, 2000; Khin

Zaw et al., 2007b, 2008, 2009a,b, 2011; Crow and Khin Zaw, 2011).
Late Triassic andesitic dykes crosscut the mineralized skarn zone,
suggesting skarn formation and gold mineralization probably occurred
during the Middle Triassic. Formation of this skarn is, in part, linked to
the emplacement of the earliest granodiorite intrusion. Gold occurs as
electrum, goldbismuth and goldbismuthtelluride associations and
the gold is conned mainly to the massive pyrrhotite and pyrite with
chalcopyrite in the retrograde zone (Rodmanee, 2000; Khin Zaw et al.,
2007b, 2008, 2009a,b, 2011; Crow and Khin Zaw, 2011). The skarn
zone can be up to 120 m thick and is cut by fracture/fault-lled calcite
and massive sulde (pyrrhotite with minor pyrite and chalcopyrite).
Late stage clay- and carbonate-rich fault and fracture lls also occur.
3.2.2.2. Khao Phanom Pha gold mineralization (central Thailand). At Khao
Phanom Pha in the Loei Fold Belt gold mineralization, thick (up to 5 m
thick) quartzchlorite ( sericitepyritearsenopyritepyrrhotite
chalcopyrite) veins occur (Fig. 2; Khin Zaw et al., 2007a). Visible gold
occurs in dark greenish to black chlorite bands. Pervasive biotite
(overprinted by chlorite) alteration assemblages affect the wall rocks
surrounding these thick quartz veins. This pervasive alteration occurs
up to 20 m from the vein. Stockworks of quartzactinoliteepidote
(sericitechloritepyritepyrrhotite) cross-cut the wall rocks and
occur up to 10 m from the central vein. KAr dating on the sericite
from Khao Phanom Pha yielded a Late Permian (252 5 Ma) age
(Khin Zaw et al., 2007a), and S-isotope data suggest close magmatic afnity of the sulfur source. Further work remains to be done to fully understand the nature and mineralization characteristics of the Khao Phanom
Pha deposit (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a).
3.2.2.3. Mengapur copperiron (gold) deposit (western Malay Peninsula).
The pyrrhotite-rich Mengapur deposit (Fig. 2) is hosted in Late Permian
rhyolitic volcanosedimentary rocks and intruded by Triassic granodiorite (Teh and Goh, 2010). The skarn zone is associated with prograde
assemblages of diopside, garnet, and wollastonite and retrograde quartz
and carbonates. Sulde minerals are chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena, molybdenite, bismuthinite, and nagyagite. Gold is found
to be normally associated with galena and tellurides (Teh and Goh,
2010).
3.2.2.4. Khe Rin, Nui Kem and Ho RayThac Trang deposits (central
Vietnam). The Khe Rin reduced skarn deposit occurs in the Phouc
Son area adjacent to other sediment-hosted gold deposits (Bai Dat and
Bai Go) (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al., 2010). The deposit is hosted
in metabasite and marble with metal association of goldcopper
tungstenmolybdenum in pyrrhotite-rich skarn. Further to the west,
the Nui Kem and Ho RayThac Trang deposits (Bong Mieu area) are
another two important reduced skarn systems (Lee, 2010). The Bong
Mieu area consists predominantly of high-grade Kham Duc metamorphic rocks (i.e., gneiss and schist) (e.g., Quynh et al., 2004) (Fig. 2),
with the Nui Kem deposits being located around an anticlinal structure
and is characterized by quartzsulde veins (e.g., Quynh et al., 2004;
Tran et al., 2009). This Nui Kem appears to be distal part of the Ho
RayThac Trang skarn system and is linked with other orogenic gold
deposits in the district, such as the Ho Gan deposit that occurs on the
axis of the anticlinal structure (Quynh et al., 2004). The Ho RayThac
Trang deposits are hosted by calc-silicate, and classied as a reduced
calcic gold skarn due to the presence of pyrrhotite, Fe2+-rich pyroxene
and a distinctive goldbismutharsenic geochemical association (Lee,
2010).
Gold mineralization at the Nui Kem deposit occurs within a quartz
sulde vein system and is commonly associated with lead and zinc. The
mineralization is hosted in gneissic rocks with ore veins parallel to the
metamorphic foliation (Quynh et al., 2004; Lee, 2010). UPb zircon,
sphene and monazite geochronological studies have indicated that the
host metamorphic rocks were formed during the Early- to Middle
18
Triassic, though the dated minerals commonly preserved Ordovician

Silurian inherited ages in the core of the grains (e.g., Lee, 2010). ReOs
molybdenite dating on the ore minerals has demonstrated that
precipitation or recrystallization of the ore occurred in the Triassic
(e.g., Lee, 2010; Tran et al., 2014).
3.3. Epithermal type
Epithermal type deposits in mainland SE Asia (Fig. 3) are mainly
represented by:
1. Epithermal low-suldation goldsilver deposits in the Loei Fold Belt
(e.g., the Chatree deposit; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014) in
Thailand and in the Truong Son Fold Belt (e.g., Ban Houayxai;
Manaka et al., 2014 and Long Chieng Track deposit, Manaka et al.,
2007; Manaka, 2008) in Laos and epithermal low-suldation deposits in Sumatra (e.g., Ojolali; McCarroll et al., 2014).
2. Epithermal high-suldation copper, coppergold and gold deposits

(e.g., Monywa deposit in Myanmar, Miwah and Matarbe in Sumatra;
e.g., Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005; Khin Zaw, 2008a).
3.3.1. Chatree goldsilver deposit (central Thailand)
The Chatree deposit (81.7 Mt at 1.18 g/t Au, 9 g/t Ag) is the largest
low-suldation epithermal gold deposit in SE Asia (Fig. 3). General
host stratigraphy consists of andesitic breccias and ows in the lower
part of the succession; rhyolite breccia interbedded with epiclastic sedimentary rocks in the middle part and quartz and lithic-rich amme
breccia in the upper part of the succession. Most of these volcanic
rocks demonstrate a signicant continental arc geochemical afnity.
Depositional environments for the host volcaniclastics may have been
mainly subaerial to shallow submarine (Dedenczuk, 1998; Kromkhun,
2005; Salam, 2013; Salam et al., 2014). Recent studies have revealed
two magmatic episodes (i.e., Late Permian and Early Triassic) responsible for the formation of Chatree deposit's host volcanic sequence. The
Fig. 3. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major epithermal deposits. 1 Monywa high-S (Myanmar); 2 Phu He low-S (Laos); 3 LCT low-S (Laos); 4 Ban Houayxai low-S
(Laos); 5 Wang Yai low-S (Thailand); 6 Chatree and LD Prospect low-S (Thailand); 7 Miwah high-S (Indonesia); 8 Martabe high-S (Indonesia); 9 Mangani low-S (Indonesia);
10 TembangLebong cluster low-S (Indonesia); 11 Ojolali low to intermediate-S (Indonesia); 12 Way Linggo low-S (Indonesia).
fertile Late Permian volcanic suite may have formed during the onset of
subduction, where magma was derived from the mantle (Salam, 2013;
Salam et al., 2014). The colloformcrustiform vein textures are also recorded at the LD Prospect just west of the D and H zone of the Chatree
deposit. The host plagioclasepyroxene phyric andesite of the LD Prospect yielded LA-ICP-MS UPb zircon age of Late Permian
(250 6 Ma) (Khin Zaw et al., 2007a).
3.3.2. Wang Yai Prospect (central Thailand)
The Wang Yai Prospect is hosted by Early Permian to Late Triassic
volcanic/volcaniclastic units intruded by andesitic diorite (Fig. 3). De
Little (2005) and De Little et al. (2010) recorded eleven vein systems
and two vein types at Wang Yai based on vein textures, mineralogy,
uid inclusions and stable isotopes. Volcanological and geochemical
studies of the host rocks indicated that the Wang Yai deposit may
have formed in a shallow submarine below-wave-base setting and in
a transitional island arccontinental arc tectonic setting (De Little,
2005), similar to the tectonic and volcanic setting at the nearby lowsuldation Chatree deposit.
3.3.3. Ban Houayxai and Long Chieng Track (LCT) deposits (Laos)
The Ban Houayxai deposit (76 Mt at 0.82 g/t Au, 7.0 g/t Ag) is the
3rd largest gold resource in mainland SE Asia. The deposit is an unusual
low-suldation, deformed epithermal AuAg deposit associated with
silicaclay alteration and hosted by an Early Permian volcanosedimentary
sequence including crystal-rich volcanic breccia, siltstone, tuffaceous
sandstone, red bed siltstone and sedimentary breccia (Fig. 3). The
mineralized veins/breccia occurs in a volcanic sequence as well as sedimentary rocks (Manaka, 2008; Manaka et al., 2009, 2014). New UPb
zircon dating yields a consistent Early Permian (ca. 280 Ma) age for
the host andesite/volcanic breccia (Manaka, 2008; Manaka et al.,
2009, 2014), similar to (or slightly older than) the ages obtained from
the Truong Son gabbroid-granitoids (ca. 280250 Ma) in northern
Vietnam (Liu et al., 2012). This Early Permian age is suggested to be
the time of formation of the Ban Houayxai host volcanic sequence. On
the other hand, Eocene ages have been obtained from ArAr (K-feldspar:
ca. 55 Ma) and KAr (whole rock: ca. 42 Ma) dating. These ages are likely to represent resetting due to the Himalayan Orogeny (e.g., Manaka,
2008; Guo et al., 2012; Manaka et al., 2009, 2014; Xu et al., 2013). The
LCT deposit (0.62 Mt at 0.96 g/t Au) is located 5 km to the NW of Phu
Kham. The deposit is hosted by a Carboniferous to Permian sedimentary
sequence including limestone, siltstone, sandstone, sedimentary breccia
and tuffaceous sedimentary rock. The LCT host rocks are intruded by
Early Permian feldspar-phyric porphyry and dacitic porphyry (UPb zircon age: 290 Ma). The feldspar-phyric porphyry intrusion occurs in the
center of the deposit and hosts gold-bearing vein stockwork with low
suldation afnity (Manaka et al., 2007; Manaka, 2008). In a regional
tectonic context, this deposit formed as a result of early Permian subduction leading to the closure of the AilaoshanSong Ma Palaeotethys
branch (Lai et al., 2014b). In the northwestern part of the Truong Son
Fold Belt, a low-suldation epithermal system is also recorded at the
Phu He deposit as evidenced by extensive colloform banding in Early
Permian volcanic host rocks (Hotson, 2009).
19
with minor covellite and enargite (Mitchell et al., 2011). The Monywa
mineralization is determined to be Early Miocene (ArAr alunite:
ca. 19.7 Ma; Khin Zaw and Vasconcelos, unpub. data).
3.3.5. Martabe gold deposit (northwestern Sumatra)
The Martabe deposit occurs on the island of Sumatra, which is
famous for the rich endowment of both low and high-suldation gold
silver deposits. Low-suldation gold deposits are located in southern
Sumatra, whereas high-suldation ones are conned to the northern
part (Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005). These deposits may be associated
with an arc-parallel major fault segment or fault splay of the dextral
Sumatran Fault System. Low-suldation deposits include the
TembangLebong cluster, together with other deposits such as Way
Linggo and Mangani (Fig. 3) but individual ore deposit characterization
of these deposits is lacking. These low-suldation deposits are associated
with Eocene to Early Miocene calc-alkaline andesitic and dacitic arc
magmatism extending from Sumatra to Java (Garwin et al., 2005).
Mineralization style of these Sumatran deposits is characterized by
moderate levels of base metals, including Fe-poor sphalerite, and highgrade Ag associated with Mn-carbonates which sometimes show intermediate suldation afnity.
The high-suldation Martabe deposit (resource: 8.05 Moz Au and
77 Moz of Ag), one of the largest known gold deposits in Sumatra, is
hosted in a Late Cenozoic porphyritic dacite and andesite diatreme
complex that was emplaced into a volcano-sedimentary sequence of
interbedded sandstone, siltstone, carbonaceous mudstone and andesite
lava ows (Sutopo et al., 2007) (Fig. 3). The goldsilver mineralization is
associated with a zoned alteration assemblage of a brecciated, vuggy
quartz ore zone with high gold grades that grade outwards from
advanced argillic (quartzalunite and quartzdickitekaolinite) to
argillic (illitesmectite) and a peripheral, pervasive propylitic (chlorite
smectite) zone. Gold occurs as micron-sized grains associated with
quartz, enargite, luzonite, tetrahedritetennantite and pyrite and FeTi
oxides (Sutopo et al., 2007).
3.3.6. Miwah gold deposit (Sumatra)
The Miwah deposit (103.9 Mt at 0.94 g/t Au, 2.68 g/t Ag) is hosted in
a Neogene andesitic to dacitic volcanic sequence located east of the
Sumatra Fault System (Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005; Henry Wong,
written comm., 2013) (Fig. 3). Vuggy residual silica, massive silica and
silica-sulde are the dominant alteration facies. Primary gold mineralization is commonly associated with disseminated ne-grained pyrite
and minor arsenopyrite, mostly in vuggy silica and silicaalunite alteration facies. Gold is not always associated with enargite/luzonite at
Miwah, and is locally inferred to have been deposited with earlier
pyrite. Hypogene copper mineralization consists mainly of negrained crystalline enargite, luzonite, covellite and rare chalcocite and
is commonly associated with the vuggy silica and advanced argillic
alteration facies. Barite and native sulfur are minor associated minerals.
Late-stage chalcedonic and crustiform banded quartz veinlets are locally
present within the vuggy silica, suggesting a superimposed lowsuldation mineralizing event (Henry Wong, written comm., 2013).
3.4. Sediment-hosted/orogenic type
3.3.4. Monywa copper (gold) deposit (central Myanmar)

Low- and high-suldation systems are also found along the Kawlin
WuthoMt Popa arc in the West Myanmar Terrane which extends south
into the SundaBandaAceh arc in Sumatra. The Monywa deposit
(Fig. 3) is one of the largest copper resources (7 Mt of contained copper)
in mainland SE Asia (Mitchell et al., 2011), and is hosted in Miocene
dacitic to andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks and consists of
four ore lenses (Lepadaung, Kyisintaung, Sabetaung and Sabetaung
South). The deposits show advanced argillic hydrothermal alteration
assemblages associated with a typical high-suldation epithermal
system including vuggy quartz, alunite, pyrophyllite, kaolinite and
dickite. Ore minerals are predominantly chalcocite, digenite and pyrite
Sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits are widely distributed in

mainland SE Asia (Fig. 4). These deposits occur worldwide throughout
the entire history of the Earth, especially during the Phanerozoic in
Asia (e.g., Goldfarb et al., 2013). These gold deposits are hosted in relatively undeformed/unmetamorphosed carbonaceous and calcareous
sedimentary rocks to highly deformed metamorphic rocks. In SE Asia,
these deposits are largely conned to fold belts (e.g., the Sepon deposit
in the Truong Son Fold Belt; Smith et al., 2005; Cromie et al., 2006a,b;
Cannell and Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010; Cromie et al., 2010; Boutathep,
2013) and in/near suture zones (e.g., the Selinsing, Tersang, and Penjom
deposits; Makoundi, 2012; Makoundi et al., 2014).
20
Fig. 4. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major sediment hosted/orogenic gold deposits. 1 Kyaukpahto (Myanmar); 2 Kwinthonze (Myanmar); 3 Modi Taung
(Myanmar); 4 Meyon (Myanmar); 5 Huai Kham On (Thailand); 6 Langu (Thailand); 7 Sepon (Laos); 8 Bai Dat & Bai Go (Phuoc Son) (Vietnam); 9 Ho Gan (Bong Mieu)
(Vietnam); 10 Selinsing (Malaysia); 11 Penjom (Malaysia); 12 Tersang (Malaysia); 13 Raub Australian (Malaysia); 14 Abong (Indonesia); 15 Sihayo (Indonesia).
3.4.1. Sepon gold deposit (Laos)

The Sepon deposit is one of the most important sediment-hosted
deposits in mainland SE Asia (Smith et al., 2005; Cromie et al., 2006a,b;
Cannell and Smith, 2008; Cromie, 2010; Cromie et al., 2010; Boutathep,
2013) (Fig. 4), with the gold resources there hosted in many orebodies
such as Discovery Main, Discovery Colluvial and Discovery West
(Smith et al., 2005). All of these are associated with disseminated pyrite
in decalcied calcareous sedimentary units that occur together with a
jasperoid (silica replacement) zone at the contact with the rhyodacitic
porphyry stocks (Smith et al., 2005; Cromie, 2010; Boutathep, 2013).
Among the SE Asia sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits, the Sepon
Au deposit has most of the Carlin-like characteristics such as the
AsSb (Hg) geochemical association and disseminated micron-size
gold, calcareous host rocks and silica-rich jasperoidal alteration as
described by Cline et al. (2005) for Carlin-type deposits.
3.4.2. Ho Gan and Phuoc Son gold deposits (central Vietnam)
The Ho Gan deposit occurs in the Bong Mieu gold area which is
located in the south-east corner of Quang Nam Province, in central
Vietnam. The deposit is hosted in highly deformed schist, orthogneiss

and granitoids, forms as shear breccia quartz veins, and associated
with other reduced goldbismuthtungsten deposits such as Ho Ray
Thac Trang deposits in the area (Quynh et al., 2004; Lee, 2010). Further
to the west, the Phouc Son area consists predominantly of metavolcanosedimentary rocks of the Nui Vu Formation, which are in contact
with high-grade metamorphic rocks (mainly gneiss) of the Kham Duc
Formation by a high-angle fault to the eastern and southern sides of
the deposit (Fig. 4) (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al., 2010). A series
of younger, ultramac to felsic intrusions have intruded the metavolcanosedimentary units (Banks et al., 2004). Among these intrusions,
a large mac to ultramac body at the southern end of the deposit
has been dated as Ordovician (gabbro UPb zircon: ca. 483 Ma;
Sang Quang Dinh, per. Com.). The area is interpreted to be a part of
the Tam KyPhuoc Son Suture Zone which may represent an Early
Palaeozoic suture (OrdovicianSilurian; Tran et al., 2009, 2014). UPb
zircon geochronology has demonstrated that the major intermediatefelsic intrusive units in the area are Triassic (e.g., Sang Quang Dinh,
per. com.).
The Phuoc Son deposit hosts two economic gold orebodies at Bai Dat
and Bai Go and a number of prospects (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al.,
2010). Several other gold-bearing mineralization styles are reported,
including intrusion-hosted (e.g., Round Hill), skarn (e.g., Khe Rin),
marble footwall (e.g., Khe Do) and low-angle shear-hosted (e.g., Bai
Dat and Bai Go) systems (Banks et al., 2004; Manaka et al., 2010).
Systematic investigations of the geological, geochemical and geophysical
data relating to the orebodies show a spatial relationship from the
intrusion-hosted system at the center to the low-angle shear-hosted
systems at the distal part. It is therefore possible that the deposits have
an afnity with intrusion-related gold deposits (Banks et al., 2004).
3.4.3. Selinsing gold deposit (Peninsular Malaysia)
Many important sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits,
e.g., Selinsing, Tersang, Penjom and Raub Australian, occur in the East
Malaya Fold Belt (Fig. 4). Geochemical and mineralogical studies on
the Selinsing deposit show that the ore formation process may have
been in two stages. Stage 1 consists of early enrichment of gold and
VAMSNAZ (V, As, Mo, Se, Ni, Ag and Zn) metals in the host Carboniferous
siltstone, whereas Stage 2 is characterized by multiple post-diagenetic
deformation phases that enhance the ore uid pathway development
and thus gold remobilization (Makoundi, 2012; Makoundi et al.,
2014). This two-stage metallogenic model in Selinsing is very similar
to many well-known sediment-hosted gold deposits around the world
(e.g., Sukhoi Log deposit in Russia; Large et al., 2007, 2011).
3.4.4. Langu and Huai Kham On gold deposits (Thailand)
The Langu deposit (Fig. 4) is hosted within Ordovician tidal carbonates (Wilkinson, 2009). Pyrite is the main sulde present along with
lesser amounts of arsenopyrite, stibnite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and
galena. Detailed mineral paragenetic studies by Wilkinson (2009)
revealed ve morphological and textural pyrite types: framboidal pyrite
(py1), non-overgrowth pyrite (py2), overgrowth pyrite (py3), aggregate pyrite (py4) and broken pyrite (py5). LA-ICP-MS results indicated
three sites of signicant gold residence belonging to two stages of
deposition: early syn-diagenetic enrichment of framboidal pyrite
(py1) and later stage gold deposition in arsenopyrite and overgrowth
pyrite (py3).
The Huai Kham On deposit (up to 20 g/t Au) is hosted by Middle- to
Late Triassic andesitic tuff (242 Ma) and intercalated rhyolitic welded
tuff (228224 Ma) in a structurally deformed zone (Khositanont, 2008;
Khositanont et al., 2009). The host sequence is overlain by sedimentary
sequences including Triassic calcareous sandstones. Visible gold and
electrum occur in quartz-rich veins (with associated pyrite, chalcopyrite,
galena and bournonite) crosscutting the andesitic tuff and underlying
rhyolitic tuff. Ore assemblages, isotope evidence and the relatively
high temperature and CO2-enriched ore uids suggest the deposit to
be an orogenic gold deposit that formed during the IndochinaSibumasu
collision (Khositanont, 2008; Khositanont et al., 2009).
3.4.5. Kyaukpahto gold deposit (central Myanmar)
The Kyaukpahto deposit is one of the many important sedimenthosted/orogenic gold deposits in central Myanmar, which occur along
both sides of the NS trending dextral Sagaing Fault west of the
Mogok Metamorphic Belt (Fig. 4). Major gold deposits, from north to
south, include the Kyaukpahto, Thayetsu, Kwinthonze, Phayaung Taung,
Modi Taung, Thayetkon, Shwegyin and Meyon deposits (Khin Zaw
et al., 1999; Mitchell et al., 2004; Zaw Naing Oo and Khin Zaw, 2009;
Zaw Naing Oo et al., 2010).
The Kyaukpahto deposit (6Mt grading 3 g/t Au) is the rst open-pit
gold mine in Myanmar (Khin Zaw, 2002; Ye Myint Swe et al., 2004a,b;
Khin Zaw, 2008c). The deposit is hosted in the Eocene Male turbiditic
sandstone (UPb detrital zircon age: 48.7 0.7 Ma), with high-grade
gold localized in a breccia zone. Gold mineralization is associated with
intense silicication, sericitization and argillic alteration. It occurs as
free gold grains (electrum) in stringer quartz veins, as native gold and
21
electrum in the oxidized and supergene zones, and locked-up in the

pyrite structure, along with arsenic as a refractory ore. Sulde minerals
mainly include pyrite and arsenopyrite, together with minor galena,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite and rare tetrahedrite, chalcocite, marcasite
and cinnabar. The metallogenic model for the Kyaukpahto gold deposit
is not yet clear and is likely to be highly complex. Although the
Kyaukpahto deposit geology, alteration, ore mineralogy, uid inclusion
microthermometry and sulfur isotopic data are generally compatible
with an epithermal origin (Ye Myint Swe et al., 2004b), the presence
of CO2-liquid bearing uids and detectable CH4 in the gaseous phase
of the uid inclusions point to a probable sediment-hosted origin
(Khin Zaw, 2002, 2008c). Extensive carbonate occurrences in the
Kyaukpahto area imply very signicant exploration potential for
skarn-type or bulk leachable Carlin-type large tonnage gold deposits
(Khin Zaw, 2002, 2008c).
3.4.6. Kwinthonze and Modi Taung gold deposits (central Myanmar)
To the east of the Sagaing Fault, the Kwinthonze deposit shows
signicant skarn afnity by its association with calc-silicate, marble
and intrusive rocks and the presence of garnet and pyroxene. No radiometric dating, however, has been attempted to constrain either the age
of the host rocks or of the mineralization. Further south, the Modi Taung
deposit (max. assay values on channel samples up to 3000 ppm Au) is
one of the most important gold deposits in Myanmar. The deposit is
hosted in an Early Paleozoic metasedimentary sequence including
slate, mudstone and pebbly wackes (Mitchell et al., 2004). These
metasedimentary rocks have been intruded by Cretaceous two-mica
SnW-bearing S-type granites, as well as younger (probably Palaeogene)
calc-alkaline dykes. Gold in the Modi Taung deposit is hosted in NNW
trending quartz veins. Pyrite in quartz veins is the major ore mineral,
with high gold values commonly associated with high pyrite content.
The gold is free and nuggety but the nature of the refractory gold in
the system has not been assessed. Other sulde minerals include arsenopyrite, galena and rare sphalerite and chalcopyrite. Mineralization
ages, or ages of the quartz veins, are stratigraphically constrained to
be roughly Late Permian to Jurassic (Mitchell et al., 2004). More
research is needed to determine the precise mineralization age and
the metallogenic history of the Modi Taung gold deposit.
3.4.7. Meyon gold deposit (southern Myanmar)
The Meyon deposit is hosted by a CarboniferousLower Permian
schistose metasedimentary sequence. The deposit is structurally
controlled by the Papun Fault in its north and the Three Pagodas Fault
in its south, as well as other major NNWSSE trending structures in
close proximity. Distinct hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblages,
including those of silicication, argillic and propylitic alteration, are
recorded adjacent to mineralized veins (Zaw Naing Oo and Khin Zaw,
2009; Zaw Naing Oo et al., 2010). Two generations of pyrite, including
large idiomorphic crystals and disseminated grains, have been found,
although rare, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite occur locally. A pyrite Sisotope study (2.80 to 4.43) indicated a magmatic source for sulfur
and thus the ore-forming uids, whereas a uid inclusion study
suggests the presence of carbonic uid inclusions and carbonic gas
(CO2 and CH4) phases. The mineralization age is suggested to be Late
CretaceousPalaeogene and is probably associated with deformation
and metamorphism along the Papun Fault Zone. A skarn system has
been found at the contact between the CarboniferousLower Permian
metasedimentary sequence and intruding granitoids, thus suggesting
probable deeper level exploration opportunities (Zaw Naing Oo and
Khin Zaw, 2009; Zaw Naing Oo et al., 2010).
3.5. Other deposit types
The SE Asian region has potential for other deposit types such as
intrusion-related Au deposits, volcanic-hosted massive sulde (VHMS),
Mississippi Valley-type (MVT), sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX),
22
granitoid-related tungstentin vein and REE deposits and both nickel

laterites and NiCuPGE suldes (Ban Phuc in northern Vietnam,
Glotov et al., 2001) and porphyry and iron-oxidecoppergold (IOCG)
deposits (McLean, 2001). Intrusion-related gold systems (Hart, 2007)
occur in SE Asia, especially around the Cretaceous granites and diorites
of eastern Cambodia (Steung NambraiElephant, AnchorOk Pok and
Big ToeO'Kthung, Okvau) and southern Vietnam (Tien Thuan, Khanh
Hoa, Krong Pha and Klang Bah) along with one location in the Silurian
granites of Laos (e.g., Ang Noi Au deposit, Maloney, 2008) but more
detailed timing and mineralization characteristics remain to be
documented.
3.5.1. Tungstentin deposits
Granitoid magmatism due to subduction and collision of microplates
during the Early Triassic to Oligocene has generated world-class
tungstentin deposits of vein, greisen and skarn types throughout
SE Asia making it the largest tintungsten province in the world
(e.g., Cobbing et al., 1992; Schwartz et al., 1995). This belt stretches
from Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia to Billiton Island of Indonesia
(Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005) and contains world-class SnW
deposits. For instance, the Mawchi in Kayah State in Myanmar was

one of the largest tungsten deposits in the world and produced 60%
of the total production of Myanmar, which then accounted for 17%
of the world output of tungsten in the 1980s (Khin Zaw and Khin
Myo Thet, 1983). There are several other alluvial and primary SnW
occurrences and prospects spread out in the region (e.g., Khin Zaw,
1984).
3.5.2. Basin-related base metal deposits
VHMS deposits are represented by the Cambro-Ordovician Bawdwin
deposit in Myanmar (Khin Zaw et al., 1999; Khin Zaw, 2003, 2004), the
Permian Tasik Chini deposit in central Malaysia (Basori et al., 2012a,b)
and the OrdovicianSilurian Duc Bo deposit in central Vietnam (Tran
et al., 2008) (Fig. 5). MVT-Irish types include the Song Tho and Li
deposits in Thailand (Crow and Khin Zaw, 2011), the Ordovician
Theingon deposit in Myanmar and the Carboniferous Pha Luang deposit
in Laos (Fig. 5). The Diari/Sopokomil zinclead deposit (19.9 Mt at 12.6%
Zn and 7.3% Pb) in Sumatra is hosted in Lower Carboniferous carbonaceous dolomitic shale (Reynolds, 2010) and is probably within the
spectrum of the SEDEX system. These basin-related base metal deposits
Fig. 5. SE Asia regional map showing locations of the major basin-related ore deposits. 1 Bawdwin (Myanmar); 2 Theingon (Myanmar); 3 Song ThoBoh Yai (Thailand); 4 Duc Bo
(Vietnam); 5 Bukit Ketaya and Bukit Botol (Tasik Chini) Malaysia; 6 Dairi (Sumatra).
are located in the Sibumasu Terrane and form a world-class Tethyan

leadzincsilver belt stretching from Sumatra, through Malaysia and
Shan States of Myanmar, northern Thailand, western Laos to western
part of southern China. Several of these deposits are found in Yunnan
and Sichuan (e.g., Khin Zaw et al., 2007c; Lehmann et al., 2013). Formation of these basin-related deposits is related to rifting and opening of
the Palaeotethys from northern Gondwana during the Early Palaeozoic
but their palaeogeoraphic and palaeotectonic environment and mineralization characteristics are poorly constrained.
3.5.3. Porphyry deposits

Continued subduction of the Sunda Trench to the west of Sumatra
has generated several porphyry coppergoldmolybdenum deposits
such as Tangse, Tengkereng and the newly-discovered and delineated
Beutong deposit. They are associated with the epithermal, skarn and
sediment-hosted Au systems. Among these porphyry-style deposits,
the Tangse coppermolybdenum deposit is fairly well documented
(Van Leeuwen et al., 1987; Crow and Van Leeuwen, 2005) and the
coppermolybdenum mineralization is hosted in a multi-phase
Miocene porphyritic dioritic intrusion. Similar porphyry systems are
noted in Yunnan (Khin Zaw et al., 2007c) and Myanmar (e.g., Shangalon,
Hammarstrom et al., 2013). Much research is needed to understand the
age, timing and porphyryepithermal transition, mantle vs. crustal
contribution of magma and their magma composition as well as their
metallogenic relations to tectonic setting such as at slab subduction
or reorganization of the WunthoMt PopaSunda Trench.
3.5.4. Non-sulde deposits

SE Asia also has the potential for supergene non-sulde deposits and
weathered REE deposits (e.g., Sanematsu et al., 2011b,c, 2012). The
Padaeng deposit is one of the largest, high-grade supergene nonsulde Zn deposits in western Thailand. The deposit is hosted in Jurassic
carbonates and the mineralization is derived from precursor MVT
mineralization (Reynolds et al., 2003). Similar non-sulde Zn deposits
occur in Myanmar (e.g., Long Keng).
23
3.6. Metallogenic relations

It is evident that ore deposits in SE Asia are unevenly distributed,
with different styles of ore deposits occurring in different places and
terranes. Ore formation in SE Asia is closely related to the various
tectonic episodes that occurred in the SE Asian terranes. By using the
G-Plate Program developed by the EarthByte Project in the School of
Geosciences at the University of Sydney and collaborators, we present
an integrated model for SE Asian metallogenictectonic history. Our
SE Asia geological model is modied from Seton et al. (2012) and
Wright et al. (2012), and also based on a number of important recent
papers (Lai et al., 2014b; and references therein).
In our new SE Asia metallogenictectonic reconstruction, the SiluroDevonian rifting of the Indochina Terrane from the NW Gondwana
margin and the subsequent Palaeotethys ocean basin development led
to the deposition of Carboniferous pelagic sediments that host the
various sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits in the East Malaya
Fold Belt (e.g., Selinsing and Tersang gold deposits). The Ailaoshan
Song Ma branch of the Palaeotethys Ocean may have begun its closure
from Late Carboniferous/Early Permian by west-vergent (modern orientation) subduction beneath Eastern Indochina (Figs. 6 and 11a). This led
to the arc magmatism along the Truong Son Fold Belt and its associated
porphyry-related skarn (e.g., Phu Kham) and epithermal (e.g., Ban
Houayxai) deposits. Later on, the NanSra Kaeo backarc basins may
have begun to close during the Late Permian/Early Triassic through
east-vergent (modern orientation) subduction beneath western Indochina (Figs. 7 and 11b). This created the Loei continental arc magmatism
and its associated porphyry-related skarn (e.g., Puthep and Phu Thap
Fah) and epithermal (e.g., Chatree and Wang Yai) deposits.
Continuous subduction along the Truong Son- and Loei fold belts
nally brought about the IndochinaSouth China collision during the
Late Permian to earliest-Middle Triassic and the IndochinaSibumasu collision during the Late Triassic (Figs. 8 and 11c). These two continent
continent collisions represent the major SE Asia assembling episode, as
well as the signicant metallogenic epoch for many orogenic gold
deposits along the Tam KyPhuoc Son Suture, Sukhothai- (e.g., Huai
Kham On) and East Malaya- (e.g., Selinsing) terrane/fold belts. Hence
300-290 Ma
1 000 km
Fig. 6. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 300290 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11a.
24
250-230 Ma
1 000 km
Fig. 7. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 250230 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11b.
the sediment-hosted/orogenic gold deposits in SE Asia are found along

or close to the major suture zones (e.g., BentongRaub and Phuoc Son
Tam Ky sutures). We suggest that early gold enrichment in continental
slope sediments such as in carbonaceous shale, muddy sandstone and
limestones at terrane margins may have been later incorporated and
released during metamorphism and deformation by the later Triassic
granitic magmatism (Makoundi, 2012; Makoundi et al., 2014).
The assembly of mainland SE Asia continued throughout the
Mesozoic (Figs. 9 and 11d), with the Woyla terrane accreted onto the
SW Sibumasu margin in the CretaceousEarly Cenozoic. Orogenesis

caused by this accretion and strike-slip movement of the Sagaing Fault
in Cenozoic may have generated the many WSn and the sedimenthosted/orogenic gold deposits in central Myanmar, notably the
Kyaukpahto and possibly the ModiTaung deposits. The Neogene
Recent West MyanmarSunda arc magmatism associated with oblique
subduction of the Sunda Trench is suggested to have generated the
many epithermal deposits in western Myanmar (e.g., Monywa) and in
Sumatra (e.g., Miwah, Martabe and Ojolali) (Figs. 10 and 11e).
210-190 Ma
1 000 km
Fig. 8. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 210190 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11c.
25
140-120 Ma
1 000 km
Fig. 9. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 140120 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11d.
In this special issue, we conclude that incipient arc magmatism in

the Truong Son and Loei fold belts was one of the intense driving forces
for the formation of the largest metal deposits in the region, notably the
Phu Kham porphyry-related skarn (Kamvong et al., 2014), Chatree lowsuldation epithermal (Salam, 2013) deposits and sediment-hosted
gold and porphyry-related copper deposits in the Sepon mineral district
(Smith et al., 2005; Cromie, 2010). In fact, several lines of evidence
suggest that the magmatism occurring during the initial stages of

these subduction zones has unusual geochemical characteristics.
Kamvong et al. (2014) on the PUT1 and Phu Kham deposits have pointed out that the magmatism that accompanied these deposits is unusual
in composition, being adakitic. The magmatism at Chatree is also unusual, with very low Ti and Zr compared to both typical arc magmas and
the post-mineralization magmatism at Chatree (Salam, 2013; Salam et
25-5 Ma
1 000 km
Fig. 10. G-Plate tectonic reconstruction for SE Asia at ca. 255 Ma. Cross-section is shown in Fig. 11e.
26
Fig. 11. Schematic diagrams of tectonic and metallogenic evolution of mainland SE Asia. a. Late CarboniferousEarly Permian (300290 Ma) setting during formation of the Truong Son
Fold Belt and related porphyry-related skarn coppergold at Phu Kham and sediment-hosted Au mineralization at Sepon; b. Late PermianEarly to Middle Triassic (250230 Ma) setting
during formation of the Loei Fold Belt and related porphyry-related skarn coppergold and epithermal gold mineralization; c. Late TriassicJurassic (210190 Ma) setting during formation
of collisional and post-collisional related sediment-hosted/orogenic gold mineralization; d. Early Cretaceous (140120 Ma) setting during subduction of the Mesotethys beneath Sibumasu
and later the West MyanmarWest Sumatra terranes; e. Neogene to Recent (255 Ma) setting during formation of subduction-related porphyry, epithermal coppermolybdenumgold,
coppergold, copper and gold mineralization.
al., 2014). The following metallogenic processes may be formulated to

explain these observations:
(1) When the earliest magmas are emplaced they have a greater
geochemical contrast within the crust, which promotes wall
rock interaction and the trapping of metals through oxidation
reduction or other processes.
(2) The earliest magmas in these continental arcs may be derived
from areas in the sub-continental mantle which have undergone
long periods of enrichment in suldes or other metal-bearing
phases.
(3) The earliest magmas would be most likely to remobilize accumulations of suldes in the crust.
4. Conclusions
The Phanerozoic tectonic history of the SE Asian terranes, i.e., their
Palaeozoic rifting from the Gondwanan margin and their accretion
onto the SE Eurasia margin, has generated numerous phases of continental rifting, seaoor spreading, arc/backarc basin development and
collision-related orogenesis. The associated magmatism, metamorphism, deformation and hydrothermal alteration have driven the
formation of a wide range of precious- and base metal deposits, notably
porphyry-related skarn, epithermal and sediment-hosted/orogenic gold
deposits. In particular, many of the Indochinese mineralization systems
are linked to one (or both) of the two subduction-related systems,
i.e., the Early Permian Truong Son and Late PermianMiddle Triassic
continental arcs, as well as the Late TriassicJurassic post-collisional
magmatism.
Recent political reforms (e.g., improved mining legislation and the

planned economic integration of ASEAN countries) and economic
(e.g., infrastructure) developments of previously less-developed countries such as Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Cambodia and most recently in
Myanmar, not only greatly facilitate future mineral exploration, but
also mean better accessibility to an increasingly large metal market.
The present emphasis on epithermal- and sediment-hosted ore
deposits in many SE Asian countries (notably Myanmar, Cambodia,
Malaysia and Indonesia) implies immense exploration potential for
deeper-level porphyry- and porphyry-related skarn deposits in these
countries. Exploration of these deeper-level ore deposits will be one of
the major SE Asian mineral exploration challenges in the coming
decades, and may remain so for the next generation for SE Asian exploration geoscientists. Solving this challenge will require much better
understanding of the basic geology (particularly magmatic, tectonic
and hydrothermal alteration history) and of the metallogenesis of
each of the deposits and of each deposit type, as well as more research
contrasting and correlating these deposits and relating them to the
broader regional geotectonic and metallogenic context. This special
issue has only covered a part of the numerous outstanding geological/
metallogenic problems in SE Asia, and we hope that this paper and the
special issue will increase interest in SE Asian geology and ore deposit
research and exploration.
Acknowledgements
This study was undertaken at the ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore
Deposits (CODES), University of Tasmania, with nancial support from
the Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage Grant Geochronology,
Metallogenesis and Deposit Styles of Loei Fold Belt in Thailand and
Laos PDR Project (20042007) and the Industry-CODES funded Ore

Deposits of SE Asia (20082010) Project. The authors are deeply indebted to many colleagues and collaborators from various Universities
and Institutions in SE Asia, especially Chiang Mai University, Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, University of Malaya, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaya (UKM), University of Padjadjaran, Bandung,
Indonesia, University of Yangon and Mandalay and Department of
Mineral Resources (DMR), Thailand for their generous and invaluable
input of local expertise and discussion. We would also like to thank
our colleagues at CODES for very constructive and fruitful discussions,
together with Anthony Barber, Mike Crow and Stephen Turner for
their detailed and insightful reviews.
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Tectonics and Metallogeny of Mainland Southeast Asia

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Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

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Tectonics and metallogeny of mainland Southeast Asia A review

2. Regional geological and tectonic setting

This introductory paper provides a summary of the geology and

Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 62262787; fax: +61 3 62267662.

Mainland SE Asia is endowed with a diversity of mineral resources

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

magmatism, tectonism and metamorphism have generated many

deposits, intrusion-related gold, volcanic-hosted massive sulde

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

2.2.1. Truong Son Fold Belt

2.2.2. Loei Fold Belt

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

from Cambodia to southern Vietnam and its granites intrude the

CarboniferousTriassic sedimentary rocks and I- or S-type granitoids.

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

Porphyry related-skarn CuAu deposits

Alteration minerals and types

Silicication, propylitic (chlorite,

Skarn prograde: garnet; skarn

Silicication, propylitic (chlorite,

Bohr Thong (Cu

Diorite, UPb zircon

Phu Kham (Cu

Diorite intrusion, UPb zircon

Porphyry: potassic (K-feldspar,

Phu Lon (Cu, Fe,

Diorite and quartz monzonite

Prograde: garnet, pyroxene,

Porphyry related-skarn CuAu deposits

240 Mt at 0.55% Backhouse (2004), Tate

Kamvong (2004), Meinert

Cannell and Smith (2008),

Bioclastic sandstone, Rhyodacite porphyry (Early

Prograde: garnet, pyroxene, biotite; Hypogene: pyrite,

Cannell and Smith (2008),

Bioclastic sandstone, Rhyodacite porphyry (Early

Prograde: garnet, pyroxene;

Cannell and Smith (2008),

Potassic (K-feldspar, biotite,

2.0 Mt at 3.4% Cu Cannell and Smith (2008)

Khin Zaw et al. (2009a,b),

Khin Zaw et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 530

Khao Phanom Pha Thailand 16.3

Porphyry related-skarn CuAu deposits

Khe Rin (CuAu

Nui Kem (AuZn

Prograde: garnet, retrograde:

Granodiorite: UPb zircon

Khositanont (2008), Khin Zaw

Gold, pyrite, bismuth,

Rodmanee (2000), Khin Zaw

Khin Zaw et al. (2007a),

Magnetite, chalcopyrite, No data

Khin Zaw et al. (2007a)

Granitoid porphyry UPb zircon

Prograde: garnet, retrograde: quartz,

Khin Zaw et al. (2007a)

Prograde:garnet, retrograde: quartz,

Khin Zaw et al. (2007a, 2009a)

Granodiorite UPb zircon

Prograde:garnet, retrograde: quartz,

Khin Zaw et al. (2007a)