Chapter 7 Complete Design

CHAPTER 7
7.1 DETAILED EQUIPMENT DESIGN
7.1.1 HEAT EXCHANGER

7.1.1.1 Design Selection
Heat transfer either to or from process fluids is an essential part of most chemical processes.
Due to this concern, heat exchanger equipment is required to be installed inside a plant. The
function of heat exchanger is to transfer of the thermal energy (enthalphy) between two or more
fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid or solid particulates and a fluid at different temperature
and in thermal contact, usually without external heat and work interaction (R.K. Shah and D.P
Sekulic, 1994)
There are several types of heat transfer equipment present in the industries and the selection
of heat exchanger depends on the requirements within the specified constrain. Some example for
the types of heat exchanger are:
Double pipe heat exchanger
Shell and tube heat exchanger
Plate and Frame heat exchanger
Among all that has been listed, shell and tube heat exchanger is the most widely used heat
exchanger in the industry and been chosen in the process of production of Urea. Some advantages
of the shell and tube heat exchanger compare to the others heat exchanger are:
The configuration gives a large surface area in a small volume
Good mechanical layout such as good shape for pressure operation
Uses well-established fabrication techniques
Can be constructed from a wide range materials
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchanger contain a large number of tubes packed in a shell with their axes
parallel to that of the shell. The process of heat transfer happen when one fluid flows inside the
tubes while the other fluid flows through the shell outside the tube. To increase the efficiency of
heat transfer, the used of baffles is required by forcing the shell side fluid to flow across the shell
and also to maintain uniform spacing between the tube. Shell and tube heat exchanger itself is
divided into several types which are:
Fixed tube plate
U-tube
Internal Floating head
Fixed Tube Plate

Fixed tube plate is the simplest and cheapest type of shell and tube heat exchanger. However, this
type of heat exchanger having disadvantages of cannot be removed for cleaning and there is no
provision for differential expansion of the shell and tubes. Besides, the use of this type of
exchangers is limited to the temperature differences up to about 80C, low shell pressure; up to
about 8 bar and only one end of the tubes is fixed.
U-Tube
This type of heat exchanger requires only one tube sheet and is cheaper than the floating-head
types but it has limitation in use to relatively clean fluid as the tube and bundle are difficult to
clean. Other than that, it also difficult to replace a tube in this type. Therefore maintenance cost
will increase.
Internal Floating Head

Internal floating head exchangers is more versatile than the fixed tube plate and U-Tube exchanger.
Their suitability at high temperature, tubes can be rodded from end to end and the bundle removed
made it as the most favourable exchangers to be used. Furthermore, this kind of shell and tube heat
exchanger are easier to clean and can be used for fouling liquids. However, this heat exchanger
has also disadvantages which are the clearance between the outermost tube in the bundle and the
shell must be made greater than in the fixed and U-tube design to accommodate the floating head
flange to allow fluid to bypass the tube.
Figure 7.1 : Fixed Tube Heat Exchanger
Figure 7.2 : U-Tube Heat Exchanger
Figure 7.3 : Floating head heat exchanger
Below is the typical parts and connections shown in Figure (IS: 4503-1967):
Table 7.1: Parts and connection of heat exchangers

1. Shell
16. Tubes (U-type)
2. Shell cover
17. Tie rods and spacers
3. Shell flange (channel end)
18. Transverse (or cross) baffles or support plates
4. Shell flange (cover end)
19. Longitudinal baffles
5. Shell nozzle or branch
20. Impingement baffles
6. Floating tube sheet
21. Floating head support
7. Floating head cover
22. Pass partition
8. Floating head flange
23. Vent connection
9. Floating head gland
24. Drain connection
10. Floating head backing ring
25. Instrument connection
11. Stationary tube sheet
26. Expansion bellows
12. Channel or stationary head 27. Support saddles

13. Channel cover
28. Lifting lugs
14. Channel nozzle or branch
29. Weir
15. Tube (straight)
30. Liquid level connection
Shell and tube heat exchangers are further classified according to the number of shell and tube
passes involved.
Heat exchangers in which all the tubes make one U-turn in the shelf
o One-shell-pass and two-tube-passes (any multiple of two)
Heat exchanger that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the tube
o Two-shell-passes and four-tube-passes (any multiple of four)
Based on the consideration has been stated above, the Internal Floating Head Shell and Tube heat
exchanger has been choosen in the process of production of urea.
7.1.1.2 Mechanical Design of Heat Exchanger

The cooling fluid used is water which enters the heat exchanger at room temperature and coming
out at 45C. The condition is summarised as below:
Table 7.2: Temperature Value for hot fluid (Urea)
Hot Fluid (Urea)
Inlet temperature
157C
Outlet temperature
129C
Table 7.3: Temperature Value for cold fluid (Water)

Cold Fluid (H2O)
Inlet temperature
45C
Outlet temperature
110C
Properties of fluid
Properties of Urea at bulk temperature obtained from literature are as follows:
(157C+129C)
2
= 143C
5
Table 7.4: Properties of Urea at bulk temperature

Properties
Numerical Value
Bulk Temperature , C
143C
Density,
1220 kg/m3
Specific Heat Capacity, C
1.334 kJ/kg.k
Thermal Conductivity, Kw
0.02651 W/m.k
Viscosity, w
1.8 x 10 -3 kg/m.s
Properties of water at bulk temperature obtained from table A-9 (Yunus A. Cengal)
(45C+110C)
2
= 77.5C
Table 7.5: Properties of water at bulk temperature

Properties
Numerical Value
Bulk Temperature , C
77.54C
Density,
994.0 kg/m3
Specific Heat Capacity, C
4.178 kJ/kg.k
Thermal Conductivity, Kw
0.623 W/m.k
Viscosity, w
0.720 x 10-3kg/m.s
Calculation of mass flowrate of water

Based on the material balance that has been calculated in the chapter 6, the mass flowrate of urea
is 21731.20kg/hr. Therefore:
= 2.5687
So, Qh can be calculated:
Qh
= 1334
= 95946.08
x C x [ ]
(157 129) 2.5687
Since Qh = Qc, therefore
Qc
can be calculated
x C x [ ]
95946.08
= 0.3533
4178
J
kg.k
J
s
x 65
Log Mean Temperature Different

Log mean temperature difference is a formula used to obtain the average temperature
difference to be used in the analysis of the heat exchangers. The 1 and 2 represent the
temperature difference between the two fluids at the two ends of the heat exchanger. The log mean
temperature different will be used in the equation of:
=
Where:
Q
= Rate of heat transfer
= Overall heat transfer Coefficient
= Surface Area
= Log Mean Temperature Difference
The value of log mean temperature different can be obtain from the formula:
=
1 2
(1)
ln
(2)
Where the expression of 1 and 2 is different based on the flow. Since the design of heat
exchanger in the production of urea follows the counter-flow heat exchanger, therefore the value
of 1 and 2 is stated as follow:
1 = , ,
2 = , ,
Routing
In this section, the fluid is rout based on their characteristic and properties. Based on Perry
Handbooks under section 11 page 35, it is stated that the tube side fluid is suitable for more
corrosive or dirtier or at a high pressure. Meanwhile the shell-side fluid is a liquid of high viscosity
or a gas. Same goes with Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering book under section
12.7.1; Fluid allocation: shell or tube, where corrosive fluid should be allocate to the tube side
where this will reduce the cost of expensive alloy or clad component. Based on the explanation
from this two books, therefore the routing of fluid for Urea production will be fixed as below:
Shell side = Water

Tube Side = Urea
Determination of Area (Estimation)

Estimation of area is necessary in the process of designing heat exchanger. This was done to ensure
that when the actual value obtained, the value that we get is approximately to the estimated target.
From that, we can fully understand that our design calculation is right. The estimation of area is
started by estimate the value of overall heat coefficient. By referring to the typical overall
coefficients in the Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Handbook, the estimation area
of heat exchanger are:
Figure 7.4 : typical overall coefficients

Assumed value of = 400
2 .
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Tube
Tube Dimension
The tube dimension is one of the crucial part in the designing heat exchanger. The commonly used
tube diameters in the industry is in the range of 16 mm to 50 mm. However, the most preferable
diameter is in the range of 16 mm to 25 mm. Larger tubes are easier to clean by mechanical
methods and would be selected for heavily fouling fluids (Coulson & Richardsons, 2005). Based
on the dimension tubes been given in the Coulson & Richardsons Handbook (page 645), therefore
the tube dimension for heat exchanger urea plant is stated as below:
Figure 7.5 : Tube Dimensions
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Tube Material
Figure 7.6 : Tube material thermal conductivity
Type of material
= Stainless steel (18/8)
Conductivity of metal = 16
12
Total Fouling
Heat exchanger operation process and service usually will be fouled to a greater or lesser extent.
The deposit material will normally will have a relatively low thermal conductivity and will reduce
the overall coefficient. To ensure the efficiency of heat exchanger, the total fouling inside heat
exchanger should be calculated. Based on the Coulson and Richardsons Handbook, the typical
values of fouling factor is estimated as below:
Figure 7.7: Figure and value of Fouling Factor
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Tube Layout
Number of tubes and number of tubes passes are correlated with bundle diameter. Spaces must be
left in the pattern of tubes on the tube sheet to accommodate the pass partition plates.
As been mention earlier, the configuration of urea shell and tube heat exchanger are two-shell
passes and 4 tube passes. Therefore the tube layout is divided into four stages. The arrangement of
tube is illustrated as below. Figure is obtained from Coulson and Richardsons Handbook (page
666):
Figure 7.8: Picture of tube arrangement based on passes

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Tube Arrangement
There are several pattern in tube arrangement of heat exchanger which are equilateral triangular,
square, or rotated square pattern.
Figure 7.9 : Tube Pattern
The advantages of triangular and rotated square pattern over square patter is it gives higher
heat transfer rates and most commonly used in the industry. However, their pressure drop is
expense compare to the square pattern. Since heat transfer rate is the crucial and most important
aspect in the principle of designing heat exchanger, therefore, the design of heat exchanger for
urea will be used the triangular pattern.
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Figure 7.10 : Heat exchanger design calculation by computer (online)

http://chemicalengineeringnow.com/HeatExchanger.aspx
16
The inside tube coefficient is 0.620 The tube side Reynolds Number is 274.403 The clean outside
coefficient is 2.24 The outside Reynolds Number is 57.33 The overall heat transfer coefficient, U,
is 0.34 BTU/(h)(ft2)(F) The overall heat transfer area is 9,047.8 sq. ft. The total number of tubes
of this diameter to satisfy the required heat transfer area is 532.00. The total length of this number
of tubes is 86.616 ft. The tube counts of this tube diameter and pitch that can fit into this shell
diameter are as follows. If this does not agree well with the number required based on heat transfer,
then select another tube size, pitch or shell diameter. With 1 passes, the tube count will be 534.60;
With 2 passes, the tube count will be 518.42; With 3 passes, the tube count will be 502.23; With
4 passes, the tube count will be 486.05; With 5 passes, the tube count will be 469.86; With 6
passes, the tube count will be 453.68; With 7 passes, the tube count will be 437.50; With 8 passes,
the tube count will be 421.31; The tube side pressure drop is 1.027 psi. The shell side pressure
drop under fouled conditions is Infinity psi. The shell side pressure drop under clean conditions
is Infinity psi.
http://chemicalengineeringnow.com/HeatExchanger.aspx
17
7.1.1.3 Summary of the design of Heat Exchanger

Consideration
Value
Shell diameter (m)
0.762
Number of Tubes
532
Length of the heat exchanger (m)
15.00
Tube outside diameter (m)
0.01905
Shell Inside diameter (m)
0.0221
Baffle spacing (baffle cut 25%) (m)
10
Tube pitch (m)
Number of passes
Tube material
Stainless steel
Fin material
Copper
Overall heat transfer area (m2)
0.836
Clean overall heat transfer coefficient 974.8423

(W/m2.K)
Tube-side pressure drop (kPa)
52.2106
Shell-side pressure drop (kPa)
10.2022
Tube-side pumping power (kW)
0.223
Shell-side pumping power (kW)
0.110
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7.1.2 SCRRUBBER
Scrubbers have found widespread use in cleaning contaminated gas streams (acid mists,
foundry dust emissions, and furnace fumes) because of their ability to remove particulate and
gaseous contaminants effectively. These types of scrubbers vary in complexity from simple spray
chambers used to remove coarse particles to high-efficiency systems like Venturi types that
remove fine particles. Whichever system is used, operation employs the same basic principles of
inertial impingement or impaction, and interception of dust particles by droplets of water. The
larger, heavier water droplets are easily separated from the gas by gravity. The solid particles can
then be independently separated from the water or the water can be otherwise treated before reuse
or discharge. Increasing the gas velocity or the liquid droplet velocity in a scrubber increases the
efficiency because of the greater number of collisions per unit time (Spellman, 1999).
Figure 7.11 : Venturi scrubber

(Source : USEPA, Control Techniques for Gases and Particulates, 1971)
For the ultimate in scrubbing, where high collection efficiency is desired, Venturi scrubbers
are used. These scrubbers operate at extremely high gas and liquid velocities with a very highpressure drop across the Venturi throat. Venturi scrubbers shown in Figure 1 above are most
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efficient for removing particulate matter in the size range of 0.5 to 5 m, which makes them
especially effective for the removal of submicron particulates associated with smoke and fumes.
Although scrubbers require relatively small space for installation, have low capital costs, and can
handle high-temperature, high-humidity gas streams, their power and maintenance costs are
relatively high. They may also create water disposal problems, their corrosion problems are more
severe than dry systems, and their final product is collected wet (Spellman, 1999).
Scrubber Collection Mechanism and Efficiency

Scrubbers able to capture relatively small dust particles with large liquid droplets. This is
accomplished by generating easily collected large particles by combining liquid droplets with
relatively small dust particles. In this process, the dust particles are grown into larger particles by
several methods. These include impaction, diffusion, direct interception, electrostatic attraction,
condensation, centrifugal force and gravity.
Collection Efficiency
Collection efficiency is commonly expressed in terms of penetration, which is defined as
the fraction of particles in the exhaust system that passes through the scrubber uncollected. Simply
put, penetration is the opposite of the fraction of particles collected (USEPA-84/03, p. 9-3). It is
expressed as:
Pt = 1
where
-----------------------
(7.3.1)
Pt = penetration
= collection efficiency (expressed as a fraction)

Scrubbers usually have an efficiency curve that fits the relationship of:
= 1e{[f(system)]}
where
--------------------
(7.3..2)
= collection efficiency (expressed as a fraction)
20
e = exponential function
f (system) = some function of the scrubbing system variables
Substituting for efficiency, penetration can be expressed as:

Pt = 1
= 1 [1 e {[f(system)]} ]
Pt = e {[f(system)]}
----------------------------
(7.3.3)
Impaction
In a scrubbing system, particulate matter tends to follow the streamlines of the exhaust
system. When liquid droplets are introduced into the exhaust stream. However, particulate matter
cannot always follow these streamlines as they diverge around the droplet. Instead, because of the
particles mass, the particles break away from the streamlines and impact on the droplet. When
gas stream velocity exceeds 0.3 m/sec (1 ft/sec), impaction is the predominant collection
mechanism. Most scrubbers do operate with gas stream velocities well above 0.3 m/sec, allowing
particles with diameters greater than 1.0 m to be collected by this mechanism (USEPA-84/03, p.
1-4). Impaction increases as the velocity of the particles in the exhaust stream increases relative to
the liquid droplets velocity. In addition, as the size of the liquid droplet decreases, impaction also
increases. In impaction, after the design, the key parameter is known as the impaction parameter
(USEPA-81/10, p. 9-5) and is expressed by:
= Cf p v(dp)2 / 18dd
where
------------------
(7.3.4)
p = particle density
v = gas velocity at Venturi throat, feet per second

dp = particle diameter, feet
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dd = droplet diameter, feet

= gas viscosity, pounds per foot-second
Cf = Cunningham correction factor
The collection efficiency associated with this impaction effect is expressed as:
impaction = f () ---------------- (7.3.5)
Interception
If a small particle is moving around an obstruction (a water droplet) in the flow stream, it
may come in contact with that object because of the particles physical size. This interception of
particles on the collector usually occurs on the sides before reaching the top or bottom. Because
the center of a particle follows the streamlines around the droplet, collusion occurs if the distance
between the particle and droplet is less than the radius of the particle. Collection of particles by
interception results in an increase in overall collection efficiency. This effect is characterized by
the separation number, which is the ratio of the particle diameter to the droplet diameter (USEPA81/10, p. 9-8) and is expressed as:
dp / dd ------------------ (7.3.6)
where
dp = particle diameter, feet
dd = droplet diameter, feet

The collection efficiency associated with this interception effect as a function is dp and dd or:
interception = f (dp / dd ) ---------------- (7.3.7)
Diffusion
Very small particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of less than 0.1 m are primarily
collected by Brownian diffusion because they have little inertial impaction (bumping) due to their
small mass. Interception is limited by their reduced physical size. This bumping causes them to
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move first one way and then another randomly (diffused) through the gas. The Brownian diffusion
process leading to particle capture is most often described by a dimensionless parameter called the
Peclet number, Pe (USEPA-81/10, p. 9-8):
Pe = 3vdp dd / (Cf kBT)
where
----------------
(7.3.8)
Pe = Peclet number
= gas viscosity
v = gas stream velocity
dp = particle diameter
dd = droplet diameter
Cf = Cunningham correction factor
kB = Boltzmanns constant
T = temperature of gas stream
Above equation (7.3.8) shows that, as temperature increases, Pe decreases. As temperature

increases, gas molecules move around faster than they do at lower temperatures. This action leads
to increased bumping of the small particles, increased random motion, and increased collection
efficiency by this mechanism. Collection efficiency by diffusion process is generally expressed as:
diffusion = f (1 / Pe ) ---------------- (7.3.9)
Above equation (7.3.9) shows that as the Peclet number decreases, collection efficiency by
diffusion increases.
A packed column of scrubber is designed to absorb ammonia from a gas stream. Given the
operating conditions and type of packing below to calculate the height of packing and column
diameter of scrubber (USEPA-84/09, p.106).
Given
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Gas mass flow rate = 5000 lb/h

NH3 concentration in inlet gas stream = 2.0 mol%
Scrubbing liquid = pure water
Packing type = 1-in. Raschig rings
Packing factor, F = 160 HOG of the
column = 2.5 ft
Henrys law constant m = 1.20
Density of gas (air) = 0.075 lb/ft3
Density of water = 62.4 lb/ft3
Viscosity of water = 1.8 cp
Generalized flooding and pressure drop correction graph (USEPA-84/09, p. 107) Figure 2
below is graphical representation of the packed column, The unit operates at 60% of the flooding
gas mass velocity, the actual liquid flow rate is 25% more than the minimum and 90% of the
ammonia must be collected to meet state regulations.
y2
Pure water
Z = packed column height
x2 = 0
D = column diameter
y1 = inlet gas composition

D
D
y2 = outlet gas composition

x1 = outlet liquid composition
x2 = inlet liquid composition
1
Contaminated gas stream
x1
y1 = 0.02
Figure 7.12 : Graphical representation of the packed column of scrubber

(Source : USEPA-84/09, p. 107)
7.1.2.1 Calculation:
Step 1 : Calculate number of overall gas transfer units NOG and height of packing Z
Z = (NOG) (HOG)
24
where
Z
= height of packing
HOG = height of an overall gas transfer unit

NOG = number of transfer units
As HOG is given, only need NOG to calculate Z. NOG is a function of the liquid and gas flow rates.
However, it is usually available for most air pollution applications. Determine the equilibrium
outlet liquid composition x1 and the outlet gas composition y2 for 90% removal. Thus, the inlet
and outlet concentrations (mole fractions) is need of both streams to use the Colburn chart.
Calculate the equilibrium outlet concentration x1 at y1 = 0.02. According to Henrys law, x1 at
y1/m, the equilibrium outlet liquid composition is needed to calculate the minimum Lm/Gm:
where
x1 = outlet concentration
y1 = inlet gas mole fraction

m = Henrys law constant
Lm = liquid molar flow rate, pound-moles per square foot hour
Gm = gas molar flow rate, pound-moles per square foot-hour
x1* = y1 / m
= (0.02) / (1.20)
x1* = 0.0167
Calculate y2 for 90% removal for state regulations require the removal of 90% of NH3, by material
balance, 10% NH3 will remain in the outlet gas stream:
y2 = (0.1y1) / [(1 y1) + (0.1)y1]
where
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y2 = outlet gas mole fraction
y2 = (0.1y1) / [(1 y1) + (0.1)y1]

= (0.1)(0.02) / [(1 0.02) + (0.1)(0.02)]
y2 = 0.00204
Determine the minimum ratio of molar liquid flow rate to molar gas flow rate (Lm/Gm)min by a
material balance. Material balance around the packed column of scrubber:
Gm(y1 y2) = Lm(x1* x2)
(Lm /Gm)min = (y1 y2)/(x1* x2)
where

x1 = outlet concentration
x2 = inlet liquid mole fraction
Lm = liquid molar flow rate, pound-moles per square foot-hour
(Lm /Gm)min = (y1 y2)/(x1* x2)

= (0.02 0.00204)/(0.0167 0)
(Lm /Gm)min = 1.08
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Calculate the actual ratio of molar liquid flow rate to molar gas flow rate (Lm/Gm). The actual
liquid flow rate is 25% more than the minimum based on the given operating conditions:
(Lm /Gm) = 1.25 (Lm /Gm)min

= (1.25)(1.08)
(Lm /Gm) = 1.35
Calculate the value of (y1 mx2)/(y2 mx2) , the abscissa of the Colburn chart :
where

x1 = outlet liquid mole fraction
x2 = inlet liquid mole fraction
(y1 mx2)/(y2 mx2) = [(0.02) (1.2)(0)]/[(0. 0204) (1.2)(0)] = 9.80

Calculate the value of mGm/Lm:
Where

Even though the individual values of Gm and Lm are not known, the ratio of the two has been
previously calculated:
mGm /Lm = (1.2)/(1.35) = 0.889
27
Number of overall gas transfer units NOG is determined from the Colburn chart using the values
calculated previously (9.80 and 0.899). From the Colburn chart NOG = 4.2.
Step 2 : Calculate the height of packing, Z of scrubber

Z = (NOG)(HOG)
Where
Z = height of packing
HOG = height of an overall gas transfer unit

NOG = number of transfer units
Z = (NOG) (HOG)
= (4.2)(2.5)
Z = 10.5 ft @ 3.20 m
Step 3 : Calculate the diameter of the packed column of scrubber

The actual or flooding gas mass velocity is determined to calculate the diameter of the column.
USEPAs generalized flooding and pressure drop correction graph (USEPA-84/09, p.107) is
used to determine the flooding gas mass velocity. The mass velocity is obtained by dividing the
mass flow rate by the cross-sectional area.
Calculate the flooding gas mass velocity Gf. by using USEPAs generalized flooding and
pressure drop correction graph of (L/G)(p/pL)0.5
(L/G)(p/pL)0.5 = (Lm /Gm)(18/29)(p/pL)0.5

where
18/29 = ratio of molecular weight of water to air

28
L = liquid mass velocity, pounds per second-square foot .
= gas mass velocity, pounds per second-square foot

p = gas density
pL = liquid density
Note that the L and G terms (in USEPAs generalized flooding and pressure drop correction graph)
are based on mass and not moles:
(L/G)(p/pL)0.5 = (1.35)(18/29)(0.075/62.4)0 5 = 0.0291
Determine the value of the ordinate at the flooding line using the calculated value of the abscissa:
Ordinate = G2F(L)0.2/PLpgc
where
F = packing factor = 160 for 1-in.
Raschig rings = ratio, density of water/density of liquid

gc = 32.2 lb-ft/lbf-sec2
L = viscosity of liquid, centipoise
G = gas mass velocity, pounds per square foot-second
From USEPAs generalized flooding and pressure drop correction graph,

G2F(L)0.2 /pLpgc = 0.19
Solve the abscissa for the flooding gas mass velocity Gf, in pounds per square foot-second. The G
value becomes Gf for this case. Thus,
Gf = [0.19(pLpgc)/(F(L)0.2)]0.5
= [(0.19)(62.4)(0.075)(32.2)/(160)(1)(1.8)0 2]0.5
29
Gf = 0.400 lb/ft2- sec
Calculate the actual gas mass velocity Gact, in pounds per square foot-second:
Gact = 0.6Gf
= (0.6) (0.400)
Gact = 0.240 lb/ft2-sec @ 864 lb/ft2- h
Calculate the diameter of the column :
S = (mass flow rate of gas stream) / Gact
& S = D2 /4
D2 /4 = 5000/Gact
D = [(4(5000))/(Gact)]0.5
D = 2.71 ft @ 0.83 m
Thus, the height and diameter of packed column of scrubber are 3.20 m and 0.83 m
respectively enhance scrubber made from material carbon duplex stainless steel to operate with
efficiency of 90% to prevent scrubber corrosion as the acidic ammonia concentration can be varied
with lowering the pH of the recycle solution increases the ammonia reduction efficiency, but at
the same time increases the hydrolysis of urea.
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7.1.3 STRIPPING COLUMN
Before going in details of stripping column design first we see what is stripping and what its
industrial uses are.
STRIPPING
Unit operation where one or more components of a liquid stream are removed by being placed in
contact with a gas stream that is insoluble in the liquid stream.
OR
Stripping is a physical separation process where one or more components are removed from a
liquid stream by a vapor stream. In industrial applications the liquid and vapor streams can have
co-current or countercurrent flows. Stripping is usually carried out in either a packed or tray
column.
THEORY
Stripping works on the basis of mass transfer. The idea is to make the conditions favorable for the
more volatile component in the liquid phase to transfer to the vapor phase. This involves a gasliquid interface that the more volatile component must cross.
7.1.3.1 EQUIPMENT USED FOR STRIPPING
Stripping is mainly conducted in trayed towers (plate columns) and packed columns, and less often
in spray towers, bubble columns and centrifugal contractors.
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PLATE COLUMN
Packed column consist of a vertical column with liquid flowing in from the top and flowing out
the bottom. The vapor phase enters from the bottom of the column and exists out of the top. Inside
of the column are trays or plates. These trays force the liquid to flow back and forth horizontally
while forcing the vapor bubbles up through holes in the trays. The purpose of these trays is to
increase the amount of contact area between the liquid and vapor phases.
PACKED COLUMN
Packed columns are similar to plate columns in that the liquid ad vapor flows enter and exit in the
same manner. The difference is that in the packed towers there are no trays. Instead, packing is
used to increase the contact area between the liquid and vapor phases. There are many different
types of packing used and each one its advantages and disadvantages. The gas liquid contact in a
packed bed column is continuous, not stage-wise, as in a plate column. The liquid flows down the
column over the packing surface and the gas or vapor, counter-currently, up the column. In some
gas absorption columns co-current flow is used. The performance of a packed column is very much
dependent on the maintenance of good liquid and gas distribution throughout the packed bed, and
this is an important consideration in packed-column design.
CHOICE OF PLATE OR PACKED COLUMN
The choice between a plate and packed column for a particular application can only be made with
complete assurance by costing each design. However, this will not always be worthwhile or
necessary, and the choice can usually be made on the basis of experience by considering main
advantages and disadvantages of each type; which are listed below:
1. Plate columns can be designed to handle a wider range of liquid and gas flowrates than
packed columns.
32
2. Packed columns are not suitable for very low liquid rates.
3. The efficiency of a plate can be predicted with more certaintly than the equivalent term for
packing (HETP or HTU).
4. Plate columns can be designed with more assurance than packed columns. There is always
some doubt that good liquid distribution can be throughout a packed column under all
operating conditions, particulary in large columns.
5. It is easier to make provision for cooling in a plate column; coils can be installed on the
plates.
6. It is easier to make provision for the withdrawal of side streams from plate columns.
7. If the liquid causes fouling, or contains solids, it is easier to make provision for cleaning in
a plate column; manways can be installed on the plates. With small diameter columns it
may be cheaper to use packing and replace the packing when it becomes fouled.
8. For corrosive liquids a packed column will usually be cheaper than the equivalent plate
column.
9. The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column. This can
be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs to be kept as small as
possible for safety reasons.
10. Packed columns are more suitable for handling foaming systems.
11. The pressure drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for packing than plates; and
packing should be considered for vacuum columns.
12. Packing should always be considered for small diameter column, say less than 0.6 m, where
plates would be difficult to install, and expensive.
Packed column is selected for our operation.

TYPES OF PACKING
The principal requirements of a packing are that it should:
Provide a large surface area: a high interfacial area between the gas and liquid.
Have an open structure: low resistance to gas flow.

33
Promote uniform liquid distribution on the packing surface.
Promote uniform vapor gas flow across the column cross-section.
Many diverse types and shapes of packing have been developed to satisfy these requirements.
They can be divided into two broad classes:
1. Packings with a regular geometry: such as stacked rings, grids and proprietary structured
packings.
2. Random packings: rings, saddles and proprietary shapes, which are dumped into the
column and take up a random arrangement.
Grids have an open structure and are used for high gas rates, where low pressure drop is
essential; for example, in cooling towers. Random packings and structured packing elements
are more commonly used in the process industries.
34
RANDOM PACKING
The principal types of random packings are shown.
Figure 7.13 Raschig Rings
Figure 7.15 Berl Saddles
Figure 7.17 Super Intalox Saddles
Figure 7.14 Pall Rings
Figure 7.16 Intalox Saddles
Figure 7.18 Metal Hypac
35
Raschig rings are one of the oldest specially manufactured types of random packing, and are still
in general use. Pall rings are essentially Raschig rings in which openings have been made by
folding strips of the surface into the rings. This increases the free area and improves the liquid
distribution compared to Raschig rings. Intalox saddles can be considered to be an improved type
of Berl saddle; their shape makes them easier to manufacture than Berl saddles. The Hypac and
Super Intalox packings shown in can be considered improved types of Pall ring and Intalox saddle
respectively.
Ring and saddle packings are available in a variety of materials: ceramics, metals, plastics and
carbon. Metal and plastics (polypropylene) rings are more efficient than ceramic rings, as it is
possible to make the walls thinner.
Raschig rings are cheaper per unit volume than Pall rings or saddles but are less efficient, and the
total cost of the column will usually be higher if Raschig rings are specified. For new columns, the
choice will normally be between Pall rings and Berl or Intalox saddles.
The choice of material will depend in the nature of the fluids and the operating temperature.
Ceramic packing will be the first choice for corrosive liquids; but ceramics are unsuitable for use
with strong alkalies. Plastic packings are attacked by some organic solvents, and can only be used
up to moderate temperatures. So are unsuitable for distillation columns. Where the column
operation is likely to be unstable, metal rings should be used, as ceramic packing is easily broken.
PACKING SIZE
In general, the largest size of packing that is suitable for the size of column should be used, up to
50 mm. Small sizes are appreciably more expensive than the larger sizes. Above 50 mm the lower
cost per cubic meter does not normally compensate for the lower mass transfer efficiency. Use of
too large a size in a small column can cause poor liquid distribution.
36
Table 7.6 Recommended size ranges

Column diameter, m
Use packing size, mm
< 0.3
< 25
0.3 to 0.9
25 to 38
> 0.9
50 to 75
STRUCTURED PACKING
The term structured packing refers to packing elements made up from wire mesh or perforated
metal sheets. The material is folded and arranged with a regular geometry, to give a high surface
area with a high void fraction. A typical example is shown below.
Figure 7.19 Structured Packing

Structured packings are produced by a number of manufacturers. The basic construction and
performance of the various proprietary types available are similar. The advantage of structured
packings over random packing is their low HETP (typically less than 0.5 m) and low pressure drop
(around 100 Pa/m). They are being increasingly used in the following applications:
1. For difficult separations, requiring many stages: such as the separation of isotopes.
2. High vacuum distillation.
3. For column revamps: to increase capacity and reduce reflex ratio requrements.
37
The application have mainly been in distillation, but structured packings can also be used in
absorption; in applications where high efficiency and low pressure drop are needed. The cost
of structured packings per cubic meter will be significantly higher than that of random
packings, but this is offset by their high efficiency.
Selected packing is random because it is cheaper and there are no difficult or vacuum
separation requirements.
CHOICE OF RANDOM PACKING

Factors to be considered
1. Void fraction
2. Effective surface
3. Packing size
4. Maximum operating temperature
5. Mechanical strength
6. Material selection
Packing used here is 0.038 m ceramic intalox saddle because
1. One of the most efficient packings
2. Little tendency to nest and block areas of bed
3. Gives a fairly uniform bed
4. Higher flooding point
5. Lower pressure drop
38
PACKING PROPERTIES
Table 7.7 : Packing Properties
Nominal size (mm)
0.038
Packing factor (F)
170
Package density (kg/m3)
580
Free volume (%)
80
Surface area (m2)
180
Specific gravity (g/cm3)
2.3
Water absorption (%)
< 0.3
Acid resistance (%)
> 99.6
Maximum operating temperature (0C)
1100
7.1.3.2 PROCESS CONDITIONS

Table 7.8 : Process Conditions
Stream
Temperature (0C)
Mass Flow rate (MT/year)
Liquid Inlet
190
216, 409.1
Liquid Outlet
178
168, 904.6
Gas Inlet
110
52, 782.7
Gas Outlet
190
100, 287.1
7.1.3.3 DESIGN APPROACH

1. Determining the diameter of column.
2. Determining the HETP of packing.
3. Determining number of transfer units for the required separation.
4. Determining the height of the overall transfer untis.
5. Determining the total height of column.
6. Determining the flooding velocity.
7. Verifying the pressure drop across the column.
39
8. Mechanical design.
DIAMETER OF COLUMN
The column diameter is calculated by following formula
D = 1.128 [ ]0.5
G = Mass flow rate of gas

G = Mass flux of gas
The find G first find the flow parameter X as followed
L = Mass flow rate of liquid stream
g = Density of gas
i = Density of liquid
x = 0.236
Pressure drop range for strippers and absorbers is 147 Pa to 490 Pa.
Pressure drop of 294 Pa/m of a packed bed is selected.
40
G = 0.7 kg.m2 s
Diameter of packed column is 0.603 m
HEIGHT EQUIVALENT OF THEORETICAL PLATE (HETP)
HETP is calculated as
HETP = A [
]-0.19 [ ]0.21
20
0.2
Where
A = Size of packing
= 38 mm
= Surface tension of liquid
= 29.2 mN/m
= Overall viscosity of feed stream = 0.000414 Pa.S

HETP = 0.0357m
NUMBER OF TRANSFER UNITS

Number of transfer units is calculated as followed.
41
Ntotal = 1ln[(1-) + ]
Where
= L/HG = 0.0045
L= Molar liquid flow rate = 203 kmol/hr
G= Molar gas flow rare = 566 kmol/hr
H = Henrys Law Constant = 79.52 Pa/mol fraction
X2 = Solute contents in liquid inlet stream mol fraction = 0.0083
X1 = Solute contents in liquid exit stream mol fraction = 0.00009
y1 = Solute contents in gas at bottom mol fraction = 0
Ntotal = 4.5 ~ 5
HEIGHT OF OVERALL GAS TRANSFER UNIT (HOG)
Height of overall gas transfer unit is calculated as followed.

1
Hog = HETP
(1)
1
ln()
Hog = 1.45 m
COLUMN HEIGHT
Packing height is calculated as followed
Htotal = Hog x Ntotal
Htotal = 7.28 m
Giving 0.457 m allowance for disengagement of vapors at top and bottom for liquid.
Htotal = 8.194 m
42
FLOODING VELOCITY
Flooding velocity requires the calculation of the superficial velocity that is given as
Vog = G/Ag
Vog = 5.88 m/s
As general rule superficial velocity is 40% to 60% of the flooding velocity. Taking superficial
velocity as 60% of the flooding velocity, then the flooding velocity is given as
VF = 9.8 m/s
CHECK FOR PRESSURE DROP

For pressure drop calculation we required flow factor and gas mass velocity.
Flow factor X is calculated as
X = 2.66
Gas mass velocity is calculated with following formula.

Where
mv = Mass flow rate of gas stream
A = Area of column
G=
G = 0.703 kg/m2 s
Y=
( )
Y= 0.723
Value of pressure drop for this value of Y is 294 Pa/m of packing height.
43
THICKNESS OF SHELL
Material selection: Stainless Steel 304
Shell thickness is calculated as given below
ts =
ts = Thickness of shell
p = Design pressure
= O.P. x 1.1 = 55.265 N/mm2
D = Inside diameter
= 0.602 m
f = Design stress
= 145 N/mm2
J = Joint efficiency
= 85 %
c = Corrosion allowance = 2 mm
ts = 82 mm
SHELL WEIGHT
Shell weight is calculated as
Shell Weight = Volume of shell x Density of shell material
Shell weight = 12, 670 kg
HEAD SELECTION AND THICKNESS

2 : 1 Elliptical head has been selected because it is used for high pressure requirements and its
manufacturing is easy as compared to other types. Material of construction is alloy steel.
Thickness of elliptical head is calculated with following formula
th =
2+0.2
Where
th = Thickness of head
p = Design pressure
= O.P. x 1.1 = 55.25 N/mm2
44
Cs = Stress concentration factor
= 1.77
Rc = Crown Radius
= 0.602 m
F = Design stress
= 240 N/mm2
= 85 %
C = Corrosion allowance
=2
th = 83 mm
HEAD WEIGHT
Weight of elliptical head is calculated as

W = m
4()()
3
W = 58 kg
SUPPORT DESIGN
Type of support selected is skirt type support for vertical vessels. Material of construction is
construction stainless steel SS-301.
First we find maximum dead weight of vessel when full of water.
Maximum Dead Weight = 25.5 kN
Weight of column = 202 kN
Weight of packing = 2.364 kN
Wind Loading
Ms =
Where
w = Dynamic wind pressure = 2790 N/m2
x = Length of column = 9.11m
45
Ms = 69, 813 N
Take test thickness of support say 220 mm.
Tensile strength support

bs =
4
(+)
Where
Ms = Wind loading
Ds = Inside diameter of shell
ts = Thickness of support
bs = 0.81 N/mm2
Test compressive strength of support

ws (test) =
(+)
Where
W = Dead weight column when full of water
ws (test) = 0.044 N/mm2
Operational compressive strength of support

ws (operational) =
(+)
Where
W = Dead weight column when full of water
ws (operational) = 0.359 N/mm2
46
Maximum tensile strength of support

Maximum s (Tensile) = bs - ws (operational)
Maximum s (Tensile) = 770 kPa
Maximumu compressive strength support

Maximum s (Compressive) = bs - ws (Test)
Maximum s (Compressive) = 455 kPa
Check for taken thickness of support

Following two conditions must be satisfied.
1.
s (Tensile) < fsJsins
Where
fs = Design stress
= 240 N/mm2
= 85 %
s = Base angle (normally taken as 90)
0.0226 < 0.770

Condition 1 is satisfied.
2.
s (Compressive) <0.125E( )sins
E = Young Modulus of elasticity = 11.35 N/mm2

0.455 < 0.518
Condition 2 is satistified.
So, thickness of support = 220 mm
PACKING SUPPORT
47
The best design of packing support is one in which gas inlets are provided above the level where
the liquid flows from the bed; such as the gas injection type. These designs have a low pressure
drop and no tendency to flooding. They are available in a wide range of sizes and materials: metals,
ceramics and plastics.
Figure 7.20 : Gas-injection type packing support
48
LIQUID DISTRIBUTER
The pan-type construction provides liquid level balance. Vapor passage is provided by circular gas
risers as well as around the periphery of the pan.
Figure 7.21 : Pan-type distributer with bottom holes
7.1.3.4 SPECIFICATION SHEET
Name of equipment
Type
No.of equipment
Type of packing
Materials of construction
Diameter of column
Area of column
NTU
Hog
Height of column
Weight of shell
Pressure drop
Stripper
Packed column
1
0.038 ceramic Intalox saddles
Low alloy steel 950X
0.602 m
1.138 m2
5
1.45 m
9.11 m
12, 671 kg
294 Pa/m of packing
49
7.1.4 REACTOR
In chemical engineering, chemical reactors are vessels designed to contain chemical reactions. One
example is a pressure reactor. The design of a chemical reactor deals with multiple aspects
of chemical engineering. Chemical engineers design reactors to maximize net present value for the
given reaction. Designers ensure that the reaction proceeds with the highest efficiency towards the
desired output product, producing the highest yield of product while requiring the least amount of
money to purchase and operate. Normal operating expenses include energy input, energy removal,
raw material costs, labor, etc. Energy changes can come in the form of heating or cooling, pumping
to increase pressure, frictional pressure loss or agitation.
Chemical reaction engineering is the branch of chemical engineering which deals with chemical
reactors and their design, especially by application of chemical kinetics to industrial systems.
The general characteristics of the main types of reactors are batch and Continuous .Batch processes
are suited to small production rates, to long reaction times, or to reactions where they may have
superior selectivity. They are conducted in tanks with stirring of the contents by internal impellers,
gas bubbles, or pump around. Temperature control is with internal surfaces or jackets, reflux
condensers, or pump around through an exchanger. Large daily production rates are mostly
conducted in continuous equipment, either in a series of stirred tanks or in units in which some
degree of plug flow is attained
50
Type of reactor
Type of reactor is as follows:
I. Stirred tank reactor (Batch)

II. Tubular reactor
III. Fixed bed reactor
IV. Fluidized bed
i.
Stirred tank (Batch)
This type of reactor are the most used in the laboratories.The reactants are placed in a
test-tube,flask or beaker.They are mixed together and often heated for the reaction to
take place and cooled.The products are poured out and purified if necessary.Industry
are also using this type of procedures ,the differences are at the size and quantities of
reactants.
Figure 7.22:Stirred tank (Batch)
51
The advantages of a stirred tank reactor are:

Simple in construction.
Small instrumentation and cost.
Flexibility of operation.
The disadvantages of a stirred tank reactor are:

High operating cost
Product quality are more variable than with continuous operation
Long downtime for cleaning leads to periods of no production.
Chemical reaction rates usually increase with temperature and with more intimate contact
between reactants. Mechanical agitation promotes the flow of heat by forcing convection of the
mass and by reducing the film resistance at the vessel wall. Additionally, agitation breaks up
agglomerated solids thereby increasing the contact surface and the rate at which reacting species
come into close proximity. Meanwhile A continuous flow stirred tank reactor (CFSTR) differs
from the batch reactor in that the feed mixture continuously enters and the outlet mixture is
continuously withdrawn. There is intense mixing in the reactor to destroy any concentration and
temperature differences. Heat transfer must be extremely efficient to keep the temperature of the
reaction mixture equal to the temperature of the heat transfer medium. It is easy to maintain good
temperature control with a CFSTR.
A continuous flow stirred tank reactor (CFSTR) differs from the batch reactor in that the feed
mixture continuously enters and the outlet mixture is continuously withdrawn. There is intense
mixing in the reactor to destroy any concentration and temperature differences. Heat transfer must
be extremely efficient to keep the temperature of the reaction mixture equal to the temperature of
the heat transfer medium. It is easy to maintain good temperature control with a CFSTR.
52
However, a disadvantage is that the conversion of reactant per volume of reactor is the smallest of
the flow reactors. Therefore, very large reactors in are needed to achieve high conversions. The
effect of this process is a continuous reaction system that has a much lower volume, but has more
equipment items because of the reactor vessels required. Industrial reactors operate in the steady
state with the volume, concentration, and temperature of the reaction mixture being constant. with
time. It is approximated that a steady state operation is reached when about five to ten times the
reactor volume of the reaction mixture has passed through the reactor. In the continuously flow
stirred tank reactor, the reaction takes place at the temperature and the degree of conversion of the
outlet stream. This gives the reactor its characteristic features from either the batch or semi-batch
reactor.
Figure 7.23 : Continuous stirred tank
ii.
Tubular reactor
The plug flow reactor model used to describe chemical reactions in continuous, flowing systems
of cylindrical geometry. The PFR model is used to predict the behavior ofchemical reactors of
such design, so that key reactor variables, such as the dimensions of the reactor, can be estimated.
53
Fluid going through a PFR may be modeled as flowing through the reactor as a series of infinitely
thin coherent "plugs", each with a uniform composition, traveling in the axial direction of the
reactor, with each plug having a different composition from the ones before and after it. The key
assumption is that as a plug flows through a PFR, the fluid is perfectly mixed in the radial direction
but not in the axial direction Each plug of differential volume is considered as a separate entity,
effectively an infinitesimally small continuous stirred tank reactor, limiting to zero volume. As it
flows down the tubular PFR, the residence time ( ) of the plug is a function of its position in the
reactor. In the ideal PFR, the residence time distribution is therefore a Dirac delta function with a
value equal to .
Figure 7.24 : Tubular reactor

The advantages are:
High throughput.
Little or no backmixing.
Close temperature control.
54
The disadvantages are:

Expensive instrumentation.
High operating cost (maintenance, cleaning).
Non uniform heat flux of the radiant section of furnace.
iii.
Fixed bed reactor
In chemical processing, a packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is filled with a
packing material. The packing can be randomly filled with small objects like Raschig rings or else
it can be a specifically designed structured packing. There are two basic types of packed-bed
reactor: those in which the solid is a reactant, and those in which the solid is a catalyst. Many
examples of the first type can be found in the extractive metallurgical industries. In the chemical
process industries the designer will normally be concerned with the second type: catalytic reactors.
Industrial packed-bed catalytic reactors range in size from small tubes, a few centimetres diameter,
to large diameter packed beds. Packed-bed reactors are used for gas and gas-liquid reactions. Heattransfer rates in large diameter packed beds are poor and where high heat-transfer rates are required
fluidised beds should be considered. The fixed-bed reactor is a tubular reactor that is packed with
solid catalyst particles. The catalyst of the reactor may be placed in one or more fixed beds or may
be distributed in a series of parallel long tubes. The fixed-bed reactor gives less chance for
backmixing, but channeling of the gas flow through the catalyst bed causes ineffective use of parts
of the reactor bed.
55
Figure 7.25: Packed bed reactor

The advantages are:
Highest conversion per weight of catalyst of any catalytic reactor
Provides large volumes of processed reactants.
The catalysts are highly prone to deactivation.

The catalysts often require regeneration after a relatively short period of operation. This
may incur additional cost.
It is difficult to control the heat-transfer in the catalyst bed.
Some part of the catalyst surface remains unused as a result of the reaction system and the
rate-controlling step
iv.Fluidized bed
A fluidized bed reactor (FBR) is a type of reactor device that can be used to carry out a variety
of multiphase chemical reactions. In this type of reactor, a fluid is passed through a granular solid
56
material at high enough velocities to suspend the solid and cause it to behave as though it were a
fluid. This process, known as fluidization, imparts many important advantages to the FBR. As a
result, the fluidized bed reactor is now used in many industrial applications.
The solid substrate material in the fluidized bed reactor is typically supported by a porous plate,
known as a distributor. The fluid is then forced through the distributor up through the solid
material. At lower fluid velocities, the solids remain in place as the fluid passes through the voids
in the material. This is known as a packed bed reactor. As the fluid velocity is increased, the reactor
will reach a stage where the force of the fluid on the solids is enough to balance the weight of the
solid material. This stage is known as incipient fluidization and occurs at this minimum fluidization
velocity. Once this minimum velocity is surpassed, the contents of the reactor bed begin to expand
and swirl around much like an agitated tank or boiling pot of water. The reactor is now a fluidized
bed. Depending on the operating conditions and properties of solid phase various flow regimes can
be observed in this reactor.
Figure 7.26: Fluidized bed

The advantages are:
Savings in operating expenses due to heat recovery in the reaction regeneration steps.
57
Rapid mixing of reactants-solids and high heat transfer rates.

Easy to control both the heat transfer and the fluid flow system.
Backmixing due to particle distribution in dense and dilute phases.

Inefficient contacting due to solids movement and the bypassing of solids by bubbles.
Possible channeling, slugging, and attrition of catalyst.
Possible agglomeration and sintering of fine particles in the dilute phase under certain
conditions (e.g., high temperature).
Selection of reactor
The reactor used in the production of urea is loop reactor. The reactor used can be similar as the
continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) type for the production process. The reactor has good
surface to volume ratio hence it is easy for the heat removal reaction throughout the process. This
reactor design increases mass transfer while reducing reactor size and improving process yields.
Other advantages of slurry loop reactors are it have uniform temperature, very efficient heat
exchange and can operate at high polymer concentrations. Historically the circulation velocity in
the reaction loop has typically been maximised to ensure maintenance of good thermal,
compositional and particle distribution across the reactor cross-section, particularly the avoidance
of solids settling, stable flow characteristics, or excessive solids concentrations at the pipe wall
rather than reduced to minimise pressure drop/power in the polymerisation loop. One advantage
of the present invention is that the specific energy consumption of the reactor is reduced while
maintaining a given reactor residence time and avoiding unacceptable reactor fouling.
The design of reactor must be consider in many aspect for the reactor to run smoothly without any
problem. Initially, the design requires the normal operating conditions that should be fully
specified in term of flow, temperature, pressure and composition. The design parameter which
require for the loop reactor are :
58
I. Reactor volume, length and diameter

II. Material of construction
III. Shell thickness
IV. Ends (type, thickness)
V. Joint (type, efficiency
VI. Support
Figure 7.27 : Slurry loop reactor
59
i)
Reactor Diameter
H = 2D
V=
2 ()
4 (64.38)
= 2
=
= 3.44 m
ii)
Reactor Height
=2
= 3.44 2
= 6.88 m 7 m
=7m
60
Design Pressure
A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be subjected
in operation. For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is normally taken as the
pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally be 5 to 10 per ceent above the normal
working pressure to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets
37 bar + (37 bar x 10%) = 40.7 bar

40.7 bar = 4.07 N/mm2
Design Temperature
The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the maximum allowable design
stress will depend on the material temperature. The design temperature at which the design stress
is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working temperature of the material, with due
allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall temperatures.
Maximum working temperature of reactor = 100 C
100+273.15 = 373.15 K
Material of Construction
Many factors have to be considered when selecting engineering materials, but for the chemical
process plant, the overriding considerations are usually high temperature strength and the ability
to resist corrosion. The material selected must have sufficient strength and be easily worked. The
most economical material that satisfies both process and mechanical requirements should be
selected; this will be the material that gives the lowest cost over the working life of the plant,
allowing for maintenance and replacement. The most important characteristic to be considered
when selecting a material of construction are :
I. Strength- tensile strength

II. Corrosion resistance
61
Basically low carbon steel is the most commonly used engineering material. It is cheap and
available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes which can be easily worked and welded. It
has good tensile strength and ductility (Sinnot,2008). However it has poor resistant to corrosion
during operation of chemical plant. Hence, to ensure the construction has a good consideration
properties a stainless steel is chosen for material construction. It is commonly used for corrosionresistant material in chemical industry. Based from (Sinnot,2008) Type 304 (the so-called 18/8
stainless steels): The most generally used stainless steel. It contains the minimum Cr and Ni that
give a stable austenitic structure. The carbon content is low enough for heat treatment not to be
normally needed
with thin sections to prevent weld decay.
From table 13.2 in (Coulsan &Richardson) Type 304 18Cr/8Ni stainless steel is chosen
Tensile strength = 510 N/mm2
Corrosion Allowance
The corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for material lost by
corrosion and erosion. The allowance to be used should be agreed between the customer and
manufacturer. Corrosion is a complex phenomenon, and it is not possible to give specific rules for
the estimation of the corrosion allowance required for all circumstances. The allowance should be
based on experience with the material of construction under similar service conditions to those for
the proposed design. From (coulson & Richardson, 2005) the minimum allowance corrosion is
taken as 2mm.
Welded Joint Efficiency
The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality of the welding. The
soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection and by non-destructive testing (radiography).
The value of the joint factor used in design will depend on the type of joint and amount of
radiography required by the design code. Typical values are shown in Table 13.3. Taking the factor
62
as 1.0 implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate; this is achieved by radiographing
the complete weld length, and cutting out and remaking any defects.
Table 7.9: Allowable Efficiency

Type of Joint
Double - welded butt
or equivalent
Single weld butt joint
with bonding strips
100 per cent

1.0
Degree of Radiography
Spot
None
0.85
0.70
0.9
0.80
0.65
Hence, welded joint efficiency is taken as 1.0 implies that the joint is of double-welded butt type
and with 100% degree of radiography.
J = 1.0
Design for Shell Wall Thickness
There will be a minimum shell wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid
to withstand its own weight. From Chemical Engineering Volume 6, for a vessel not less than 7
mm. For a cylinder shell, the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure is determine
from the equation (given in the BS 5500): The thickness can be calculated by using the formula
below.
Where,
e = wall thickness
Ds = internal diameter = 3.44 m
Pi = design pressure = 4.07 N/mm2
f = design stress = 145 N/mm2
= 4.07 2 3.44 1000
63
2 (145 2) 4.07 2
= 48 mm
Corrosion Allowance Thickness
Since the thickness of the reactor wall is now known, the outer diameter of the reactor can now be
calculated
Let the corrosion allowance thickness = 2mm,

The shell wall thickness = 48 + 2 = 50 mm
Hence, outside diameter of reactor, Dr = Ds + 2e
Dr = 3.44m + 2(0.05m)
= 3.54 m
Baffle Diameter
= 0.45()
As the shell diameter is known to be 1.3 meter, the baffle diameter is calculated to be =
0.45 (3.44 )
= 1.548
Baffle Thickness
The baffles used is in the form of fixed flat plate and its thickness is calculated as follows
Where,
= Baffle Diameter = 1.548 m
F = factor equal to 1.00 for fixed plate
Hence,
64
Domed Head
The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The principal type used are:
I. Hemispherical heads
II. Ellipsoidal heads
III. Torispherical heads
A hemispherical head is the strongest shape; capable of resisting about twice the pressure of a
torispherical head of the same thickness. The cost of forming a hemispherical head will, however,
be higher than that for a shallow torispherical head. Hemispherical heads are used for high
pressures. Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most commonly used end closure for
vessels up to operating pressures of 15 bar. They can be used for higher pressures, but above 10
bar their cost should be compared with that of an equivalent ellipsoidal head. Above 15 bar an
ellipsoidal head will usually prove to be the most economical closure to use. Hence, since the
pressure running in 37 bar which is above 15 bar, the ellipsoidal will be choose as the closure as it
is most economical. The vessel domed ends design will be calculated as follows for the ellipsoidal
ends closure:
Where
e = wall thickness
Ds = internal diameter = 3.44 m
65
Pi = design pressure = 4.07 N/mm2

f = design stress = 145 N/mm2
Therefore, the minimum thickness of the reactor dome is 48 mm which is the same as the shell thickness.
Figure 7.28 : Ellipsoidal Head
Weight Load
The weight of the vessel and fittings can be calculated from the preliminary design sketches. For
the calculation of the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed ends, for a steel
vessel, can be calculated using equation below:
=240 (+0.8)
Where,
= total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, such as plates, N
= a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, man ways, internal supports
= 1.15
= height, or length between tangent lines (the length of the cylindrical section), m
= wall thickness, mm
= mean diameter of vessel =( + 103), m
So,
Wv=240 1.15 [3.44m+(48103m)](7 m+0.8m)48mm
Wv=452 404.82 N
66
Weight of Insulation Material
Fibreglass (density=100kg/m3) is used as insulation material. The thickness of it = 75 mm.

Approximate volume of insulation = 3.54 m(75103m)7m
= 5.839m3
Insulation Weight, =
= 5.839 3 1003 x 9.812
= 5728.06 N
Weight Load of Fluid
Assumption was made for the maximum feed that enter the reactor only leaves the reactor after
the complete residence time.
= mass flow rate 9.81m/s2residence time
= 27029.96 kg/hr1 hr/3600 s9.81m/s2300
= 22096.99 N
Total Weight Load
This value is calculated under the condition that the reactor is working with full load where,
Total Weight Load,W=Wv+Wi + Wf
W=452 404.82 N+5728.06 N+22096.99 N
W=480 229.87 N=480.22kN
67
Wind Load
Wind loading will only be important on tall columns installed in the open. Columns and chimneystacks are usually free standing, mounted on skirt supports, and not attached to structural steel
work. Under these conditions the vessel under wind loading acts as a cantilever
beam, Figure 13.19. For a uniformly loaded cantilever the bending moment at any plane is given
by:
where x is the distance measured from the free end and w the load per unit length (Newtons
per metre run).
Figure 7.29: Wind Speed

68
A wind speed of 160 km/h (100 mph) can be used for preliminary design studies; equivalent to a
wind pressure of 1280 N/m (25 lb/ft). At any site, the wind velocity near the ground will be lower
than that higher up (due to the boundary layer), and in some design methods a lower wind pressure
is used at heights below about 20 m; typically taken as one-half of the pressure above this height.
The loading per unit length of the column can be obtained from the wind pressure by multiplying by the
effective column diameter: the outside diameter plus an allowance for the thermal insulation and
attachments, such as pipes and ladders. The bending moment of wind can be calculated as below :
Dynamic wind loading = 1280 N/m

Mean diameter including insulation = +2( )103)
= 3.44 + 2 (48 + 75) x 10-3)
= 3.686 m
Loading (per linear metre) Fw
= 1280 N/m x 3.686
= 4718.08 N/m
=4718.08/2 72
Bending moment,
Mx= 115 592.96 Nm
Reactor Support
The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape, and weight of the vessel; the
design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangement; and the internal and external
fittings and attachments. Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports. Skirt
supports are used for tall, vertical columns. Brackets, or lugs, are used for all types of vessel. The
supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any superimposed
loads, such as wind loads. Supports will impose localised loads on the vessel wall, and the design
must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress concentrations are below the maximum
allowable design stress.
69
Skirt Support
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the vessel. A flange
at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. Typical designs are shown in Figure.
Openings must be provided in the skirt for access and for any connecting pipes; the openings are normally
reinforced. The skirt may be welded to the bottom head of the vessel. Skirt supports are recommended
for vertical vessels as they do not impose concentrated loads on the vessel shell; they are particularly
suitable for use with tall columns subject to wind loading. The skirt thickness must be sufficient to
withstand the dead-weight loads and bending moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under
the vessel pressure.
Figure 7.29 : Typical skirt-support designs (a) Straight skirt (b) Conical skirt
The resultant stress in the skirt will be :

s (tensile) = bs - ws
s (compressive) = bs + ws
where bs = bending stress of the in skirt
=4/( + )
ws = dead weight stress in the skirt
=/( + )
where Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt (due to
wind, seismic and eccentric loads
W = total weight of the vessel and contents
70
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base,

ts = skirt thickness.
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead-weight
loading the following design criteria are not exceeded:
s (tensile) > fs J sin s
s (compressive) > 0.125E () sin s
where fs= maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material, normally taken at
ambient temperature, 20 C.
By using a straight cylindrical skirt (s = 90) of plain carbon steel, design stress 135 N/mm2
and Youngs modulus 200,000 N/mm2 at ambient temperature. The maximum dead weight load
on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of liquid from the reaction.
Approximate weight :
(/4 3.442 7)1000 9.81
= 638 225 N
= 638.23 kN
Weight of calculated vessel
= 480.22 kN
Total weight
= 638.2k N + 480.22 kN
= 1118.45 kN
Bending moment at base of skirt:

=4.72kN/m
= 4.72 722
= 115.64 kNm
71
Take the skirt thickness as the same as the wall thickness of bottom section which is 48 mm. The
calculation is shown below :
= 4 115.64 103 103
(3440+ 48)3440 48
= 2.56 N/mm2
()=
480220
(3440+48)(48)
= 0.91 N/mm2
()=
(3440+48)(48)
638230
= 1.21 N/mm2
,()=(2.56+0.91)
=3.47 N/mm2
,()=(2.561.21)
= 1.35 N/mm2
Criteria for design:
s (tensile) > fs J sin s
1.35 0.85 x 135 sin 90

1.35 115
2 (compressive) 0.125 E () sin 90

48
0.91 0.125 x 200 000 (3440) sin 90

0.91 348.84
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2mm for corrosion, gives a design thickness of 50mm.
72
Loop Reactor Dimension
Figure 7.30 : Reactor Dimension and Skirt Support
73
7.1.5 FLASH SEPARATION COLUMN

Basis: 1 hour of operation = 271.64 kmol/hr
DIAMETER CALCULATION
1) From methodology as given in RICHARDSON AND COULSON, VOLUME 6, the
calculation is as below:
= [ ] [ ]0.5
139.11
0.9024 0.5
[
]
24.366
1850
= 0.1261
2) In the literature given by RICHARDSON AND COULSON, (pg. 603)
From the plot of K4 vs [] [ ]0.5 graph,

K4 at flooding line = 3.0
The packing is chosen from suggestion by RICHARDSON AND COULSON. The reason
choosing this type of packing which is intalox saddles ceramic because this material is a suitable
packing for corrosive material such as acid. Other than that, the ceramic material has a long life
time with lower maintainance cost. For the sizing of the material, the size and packing factor
chosen are suitable for to create a pressure drop at 40mm. Thus, the flow of liquid will have a good
pressure drop which will increase the efficiency of the seperation process (NORMAN W.S., 2007).
74
Material
2.0in intalox saddles ceramic
Nominal Size
51mm
Bulk Density
609 kg/m3
Surface Area
108 m2/m3
Packing Factor (Fp)
130 Fpm-1
Voidage
75%
Then,
4 ( )
10.403
13.1 (
0.1
)
3.0 0.9024 (1850 0.9024)

13.1 130 (
1850 0.1
)
6 103
Designing for a pressure drop of 42 mm water per m of packing, thus:

K4
Then % loading
=
1.9
1.9
[3.0]0.5 100%
79.58%
And,
G*
6.59
1.9 0.9024 (1850 0.9024)
13.1 130 (
1850 0.1
)
6 103
Cross Section Area required,

75
()
24.366
6.59
8.534 m2
=
Thus,
4 3.6974 0.5
]
Di
2.17 m
HEIGHT OF PACKING CALCULATION

1) Information needed:
Liquid Flow Rate, (L)
139.11 Kg/s
Density Liquid, (L)
1860 kg/m3
Gas Flowrate, (Gv)
24.366 Kg/s
Density (G)
0.9024 Kg/m3
2) Volumetric flowrate of entering gas:

Vf
=
=
24.366
0.9024
27.001 m3/s
76
3) Gas velocity at the bottom of tower given by:

Vg
=
=
27.001
8.534
3.164 m/s
4) Mass flowrate at the top of the tower is given by:
22174.40 33.54 3600
Mf
206.591 Kg/s
5) Volumetric Flowrate at top of tower:
0.9024 3
206.591
Vf
228.935 m3/s
6) Gas Velocity at the top of the tower is given by:

3
8.534 2
228.935
Gv
26.83 m/s
7) Average Gas Velocity:

Vavg
=
=
26.83+3.164
2
14.995 m/s
8) Liquid Flow:
Lf
77
8.534 2
139.11
16.30 Kg/m2.s
9) Given that,
Surface area of packing
108 m2/m3
Liquid Density
1850 Kg/m3
Then, Wetting rate
16.30 2
.
1850 3 130 3
6.778 10-5
According to RICHARDSON AND COULSON, VOLUME 6, the above wetting rate is greater
than required minimum limit and adequate for wetting the packing.
Thus, by using methodology of calculation on height of packing from NORMAN W.S (separation,
Distillation and Cooling Tower)
The average properties of gas at temperature (95C) given as follows:

Density of the gas mixture (G)
0.9024 Kg/m3
Viscosity of the gas mixture (mix)
2.772 10-5
Diffusity of the gas (D)
8.2 10-6 m2/s
Schimidt Number (Nsc)
=
=
()
[]
2.772 105
[0.9024 (8.2106 )
3.746
78
As stated in NORMAN W.S (separation, Distillation and Cooling Tower):

Reynolds Number is calculated for the Standard Wetted Wall Column having the diameter,
D
=
0.083 ft
0.0253 m
Reynolds Number (NRE)

=
=
0.902419.9930.0253
2.772105
16466.616
HEIGHT OF COLUMN
Crown Radius (Rc) = Diameter of the column = 2.17m
Standard thickness, t = 13mm = 0.013m (assuming)
Height of the head, h = (0.1935) (Dc) (0.455) t
= (0.1935 2.17) (0.455 0.013m)
= 0.41398m = 0.42m
Height of the column = (Height of head 2) + Height of packing
= (0.42m 2) + 5.52 m
= 6.36 m
79
Mechanical Design of Separation Column

Support design of separation Column
Design of the cover to the column
Standard torispherical head Klopper Head
Specification of head design:
Crown Radius (Rc) = Diameter of the column = 2.17m
Knuckles radius equals a tenth of diameter of the cylinder
Knuckle radius, Rk
0.1 Rc
0.1(2.17)
0.217
Standard thickness, t = 13mm = 0.013m

Height of the head, h = (0.1935) (Dc) (0.455) t
= (0.1935 2.17) (0.455 0.013m)
= 0.41398m = 0.42m
Consideration
h 3.5t
h 3.5(0.013)
h 0.046 m
since h = 0.5, h 0.046 so above the minimum height (0.42)
80
Shell Vessels Condition

Material Construction
Stainless steel 18 Cr/8Ni-Ti stabilized
Density
7830 kg/m3
Figure 7.31: Image of common stainless steel Cr/8Ni-Ti stabilized

Shell minimum thickness:
=

+
2 ( )
Where,
Pi
Working pressure
0.101325 N/mm2
Di
Internal diameter
2170 mm
Stress on design
150 N/mm2
81
Efficiency
0.80
Corrison allowance
2 mm
Therefore,
=
0.101325 2170
+ 2
2 (150 0.80) 0.101325
= 2.92 mm
Due to the minimum thickness required for construction is equal to 6mm, thus, minimum required
thickness of the shell is taken as 6mm too.
Minimum thickness =
6mm
For stability and safety purpose, the tower is divided into two parts and the thickness is increased
from top to bottom of the shell.
Column
Top
Bottom
Thickness Shell
6 mm
10 mm
Average thickness, ts =
=
=
(6+10)
2
8 mm
Stress Analysis
Axial Stress, (fap)
( )
4 ()
Where;
82
=
=
(0.101325 2170)
4 (82)
9.16 N/mm2
Stress Due to Dead Weight of Vessel

For a steel vessel, Wv = (240) (Cv) (Dm) [Hv + (0.8 Dm)]
Cv
= 1.15 (As stated in Perry Chemical Handbook, 7th edition)
Dm
= Mean diameter of vessel
= Di + (ts) (10-3)
= 2170 + (8mm 7)
= 2226
Hv
= Height column between tangent line
= 8200 (Assumption mode)

Thus,
Wv
(240) (1.15) (2.226) [8.2 + (0.8 2.226)]
6131.96 N
Dead Weight (fp)
6131.96
[(2170+8)8]
0.11202 N/mm2
[(2170+8)8]
Wind Loading
83
Specification characteristic: (As stated in the literature)
Dynamic and Pressure
1280 N/m2
Diameter including thickness + insulation (Do)
2226 mm
Loading
1113.6 N/m
Bending moment (Mx)
11113.6[(8)2/2]
35535.3 N/m
Stress due Pressure

L
Pi (Di/4t)
Pi (Di/2t)
bottom thickness
Pi
Working pressure
Di
Inner diameter
0.101325 [2170/(410)]
5.497 N/mm2
10.994 N/mm2
Where,
0.101325 [2170/(210)]
Stress due to Dead Weight

w
=
(+)
6131.96
(2170+10)10
84
0.0895 N/mm2
((2.254 104 ) (
0.1726 N/mm2
( ) ( 2 + )
35535.3
2170
2
+ 10)
Wind Stress towards the Column
Up-wind stress condition:
w is a compressive stress, thus it always bring a negative stress

wu
L - w + b
= 5.497 0.0895 + 0.1726

= 5.5801 N/mm2
Down-wind stress condition:
wd
L - w - b
= 5.497 0.0895 - 0.1726

= 5.2349 N/mm2
85
5.5801
5.2349
10.994
10.994
Up-Wind
Down-Wind
Figure 7.32: Effect of wind stress to column; (A: Up-wind and B: Down-wind)
The wind stress is the high stress to the MEG distillation column and the opposite stress is the high
stress to the column due to the weather factor.
Skirt Support Calculation
For any higher construction such as reactor, column or tower, skirt supporter is needed in order to
ensure the building is safe and sustain to support higher column that can be affected by the wind.
These skirt supports consist of a cylindrical or conical shell which welded to the base of the vessel.
To transmit the load to the foundation, a flange at the bottom of the skirt is being installed too.
Notation:
W
Total weight of vessels
Ds
Inside diameter of the skirt
Skirt thickness
(Assume skirt thickness = 13mm = 0.013m)
86
Diameter of skirt (Ds) =
Diameter of column (Di)

( =
() =
Vessels full with water:

=
(2.17)2.(8).(1000)(2.4525)
290247.4 N
Weight of vessel
6131.96 N
Total weight (Wt)
Ww Wv
290247.4 N 6131.96 N
284115.44 N
Bending moment
11113.6 N/m
Max. bending (Ms)
11113.6 N/m . [(10)2/2]
Ww
555680 N/m
Where:
=
4()
( + ). ()()
4(555680 1000 /)
(2170 + 13). (13)(2170)
= 11.512 N/mm
() =
284115.44
(2170 + 13)(13)
= 3.187 N/mm
() =
290247.4
(2170 + 13)(13)
87
= 3.2556 N/mm
From the previous equation:

, () = (11.512 3.187)
= 8.325
, () = (11.512 3.325)
= 8.187
The tensile and compressive not greater than skirt specification, thus, both of the above condition
are satisfied so the thickness skirt = 13mm with corrosion allowance of 2mm.
Actual thickness of the skirt with corrosion allowance = 15mm.
Numbers of anchor bolt require:

Pitch based diameter
= 3.0m
Circumference area of based = 3000

=
3000
= 15.7
600
The number of anchor bolt require to support the column = 16 bolt
88
7.2 HAZOP AND CONTROL STRATEGY
7.2.1 Industrial safety
Industrial safety is primarily a management activity which is concerned with reducing, controlling
and eliminating hazards from the industries or industrial units.
Importance of industrial safety
The danger of life of human being is increasing with advancement of scientific development in
different fields. The importance of industrial safety was realized because every millions of
industrial accidents occur which result in either death or in temporary disablement or permanent
disablement of employees and involve large amount of losses resulting from danger to property,
wasted man hours and wasted hours. More ever, from managerial perspective the importance of
industrial safety in any organization may be concluded by following facilitation:
a) Treatment: industrial safety management provides treatment for injuries and illness at the work
place.
b) Medical Examination: it carries out medical examination of staff joining the organization or
returning to work after sickness or accident.
c) Hazards identification.
d) Provision of protective devices.
e) Consultancy: it provides medical advised on other condition potentially affecting health e.g.
works canteen etc.
f) Education: it provides safety and health training.
89
Objectives of industrial safety:

a) to prevent accidents in the plant by reducing the hazard to minimum.
b) to eliminate accident caused work stoppage and lost production.
c) to achieve lower workmens compensation, insurance rates and reduce all other direct and
indirect costs of accidents.
d) to prevent loss of life, permanent disability and the loss of income of worker by eliminating
causes of accidents.
e) to evaluate employees morale by promoting safe work place and good working condition.
f) to educate all members of the organization in continuous state of safety mindness
and to make supervision competent and intensely safety ninded.
A safety programmed includes mainly following four Es.
Engineering: i.e safety at the design, equipment installation stage.
Education: i.e. education of employees in safe practices.
Enlistment: it concerns the attitude of the employees and management towards the programmed
and its purpose. This is necessary to arouse the interest of employees in accident
prevention and safety consciousness.
Encouragement: i.e. to enforce adherence to safe rules and practices.
Principles to prevent accident

Accident prevention is highly essential in an industry, in order to
a) prevent injury to and premature death of employees.
b) Reduce operation and production costs.
c) Have good employee employer relations.
d) High up the morale of employees.
e) above all the prevention of accidents is a true humanitarian concern.
f) Accident prevention does not occur by itself; there should be consistent of
g) safety measures and safety programmers emphasizing the need for
f) safe workplace layout and working condition
h) safe material handling.
90
i) Personal protective devices.

j) Safety activities in organization.
There are following accident preventations:
7.2.1.1 LEGAL
In the industrially developed countries, there exist very well defined and highly stringent punitive
codes and statutes, which are design to maintain and improve safety, health and welfare of
employed persons. Even the developing countries have such laws, albeit still in a some what
elementary form which make them anachronistic with the requirements of modern technology and
the hazards generated as a consequences there of. These laws at their best only impose a minimum
standard of conduct defining them to be the absolute duty of the employer. Traditionally, the safety
specialists have been using this legal argument for accident prevention on the basis that by being
conscious about the safety or the employees, the employer can avoid attracting prosecution. The
economic argument also becomes relevant at this point because of the fines that has been imposed
as the result of statutory breaches, or because of the production loss, which may result due to the
closure of the enterprise ordered as a punishment for the breach of these statutes. In the same
context, employers feel threatened about the image of the company being tarnished and the effect
of the adverse publicity received as a consequence of prosecution and subsequent punishment
under the safety laws. This indirectly could also impact adversely in the revenues and hence the
profits of the company. In the civilized societies it must be remembered, that one of the prime
social objectives of any company is to genarate a safe plan of work for its employees.
7.2.1.2 HUMANITARIAN
The humanitarian argument derives its strength from a universally accepted ethical and moral
axiom that it is the duty of every man to ensure the physical well being of his fellow man. This
automatically holds the employer responsible, in the eyes of every member of the society to
provide a safe and healthy working environment for this employees. The safety specialist can
therefore appeal to the conceive of the management by emphasizing upon them that is immoral for
the employer not to give due consideration to the safety and well being of the employees by taking
91
measures which could protect them against pain and suffering as a consequence of unsafe practices
and procedures allowed in their enterprise.
7.2.1.3 ECONOMIC
The economic argument very simply, is based on accident costing the company money. It must
however be appreciated that in order that this argument may have an effective impact on the
management. It is imperative that the costs of the accidents occurring to the company must be
accurately quantified. If this is done, accident prevention is then seen by the senior management
as good business, which motivate the management to strive more and more to ameliorate their
safety system in the interest of maximization of the profit. The safety specialists thus, use the
economic argument as the most powerful tool for ensuring a very elaborate and sophisticated
accident prevention and safety program. This is the foundation stone upon which the concepts or
theories of risk management/accidents prevention are based. These concepts unfortunately are
hardly known in our country. It is high time that these most powerful tools may be introduced in
our country, both for making its industrial enterprises safer for the workers and for making their
operations more cost effective.
7.1.2.4 SAFETY INSPECTION PROCEDURES

Introduction:
Across the industry and commerce there are a multiplicity of safety inspection procedures, each
developed to identify the and hazard within a particular business. However they do fall into a
number of broad categories. Following are various procedures for the safety :
Safety audit
A safety audit subjects each area of a companys activity to a systematic critical examination with
the object of minimizing loss. Every component of the total system is included. For example
management policy, attitudes training, features of the process and of the design, layout and
92
construction of the plant, operating procedures, emergency plans, personal protection standards,
accident record etc.
Safety survey
A safety survey is a detailed examination in depth of a narrower field of activity. For example
major key areas revealed by safety audits, individual plans and procedures, or specific problems
common to a works as a whole. These surveys are followed by formal report, action plan and
subsequent monitoring.
Safety inspection
A routine scheduled inspection of a unit or department, which may be carried out by someone
( may be a safety representative ) from within the unit, possibly accompanied by the safety advisor.
The inspection would check maintenance standards, employee involvement, working practices,
fire precaution, use of guards and adherence to safe working procedures etc, and be more
immediate than the wide-reaching or in-depth approach taken by audits and surveys.
Safety tours
A safety inspection around a predetermined route or area of the work place carried our by any oneof a range of personnel from works directors to safety representatives to ensure that for example
standards of housekeeping are at an acceptable level, or that obvious hazards are removed or to
ensure that generally safety standards are observed. Typically tours last only fifteen minutes and
are conducted at weekly intervals.
Safety sampling
A particular application of a safety inspection or tour design to check on one specific pre-selected
safety aspect only, within the workplace or an agreed part of it. This focuses attention on the
particular safety matter and highlights the observation of possible hazards. The safety sample
chosen can be concerned with plant, equipment, guarding, methods of operation, lack of adherence
to safe systems of work, non use of permit to work system, forklift truck driving and training or
any other. Safety samples should be carried out regularly but with a random selection of the subject
each time.
93
Hazard and operability study

The application of a formal critical examination to the process and engineering intentions of now
facilities to assess the hazard potential from mal operation or multifunction of individual items of
equipment and the consequential effects on the facility as a whole. Remedial action cam then be
planned at a very early stage of the project with maximum effectiveness and at minimum cost. The
techniques can also be applied to existing plants and processes. Whilst unsuspected hazards may
be revealed by any of the above techniques, the use of a formal checklist in project engineering
design helps to ensure that the plant complies with statutory requirement, and that account is taken
of the best current safety techniques and practices. Hearth and safety requirement should also be
incorporated at the design stage rather than taken on as an afterthought once the plant or process
is in full operation. The safety adviser has a contribution to make and should be a member of both
the design and hazard and operability teams.
7.2.1.5 HAZARDOUS IDENTIFICATION, EVOLUTION AND CONTROL
The prime objective in accident prevention is to control hazards at work, so as to reduce or

eliminate accidents. It can be said that accidents result from the inadequate hazard management.
The term hazard is defined as,
The result of a departure from the normal situation, which has the
potential of cause injury, damage or loss
Essentially, there are three steps in the management of hazards identification
o Evaluation or Assessment
o Control (Elimination or Reduction)
Within the workplace operational management at all levels has a responsibility to identify, evaluate
and control hazards that are likely to result in injury, damage or loss. Part of these responsibilities
should be to undertake regular safety audits of areas under their control. They should also examine
on a regular basis, job methods and procedures to ensure that safe systems of work are followed :
Hazard Identification
Within an organization, there are several ways by which hazards may be identified. These include:
94
a)Workplace inspections
b)Management/ workers discussions
c)Independent audits.
d)Job safety analysis.
e)Hazard and operability studies.
Workplace Inspection
Workplace inspections are undertaken with the aim of identifying hazards and promoting remedial
action. Many different individuals and groups within an organization will at some time be involved
in a workplace inspections; directors, line managers, safety advisers, supervisors and safety
representatives. The key aspect is that results of all such inspections should be coordinated by one
person within the factory, whose responsibility should include;
Monitoring action taken once the hazard has been notified
Informing those persons who reported the hazard as to what action has been taken.
Workplace inspections tend to follow the same format but are given many different names
including: safety sampling, safety audits, safety inspections, hazard surveys, etc but all have the
same aim that is "Hazard Identification" and same format to follow as discussed below;
Management/ Worker Discussions

Management/worker discussion can also be useful in the identification of hazards. Formal
discussions take place during meetings of the safety committee with informal discussions
occurring during on-the-job contact or in conversations between supervisor and worker. The
concept of "incident recall" is an example of management/worker discussion. In all cases,
however, the feedback element is important from a motivational viewpoint. The hazard spatter
must he kept fully informed of any action taken to prevent injury, damage or lass arising from the
hazard he has noted.
95
Independent Audit
Independent audit can also be used to identity hazards. The term independent here refers to those
who are not employed of the organization, but who from time to time undertake either general or
specific workplace audit or inspection. Such independent persons may include :
Engineer surveyors
Employers' liability surveyors
Claims investigators
Insurance brokers personnel
Outside consultants
Health and safety executive
Job Safety Analysis
It is also another method of hazard identification.
Hazard and Operability Study

It is a technique of hazard identification (and evaluation) that has been developed in the chemical
and process industries. The technique essentially involves a multidisciplinary team of chemists
engineer, safety advisors, production management, designers etc, critically examine each aspect
of a process at the design stage, in order to eliminate hazards from the process at that early stage,
rather than to find them later and have to modify the plant to eliminate them.
Hazard Assessment And Evaluation

Once a list of hazard within a company has been developed, each hazard on the list should be
evaluated in order to assess what its impact on the company would be if control action were not
taken. This assessment should take account of legal, humanitarian and economic considerations in
addition to the frequency (number of times spotted), the potential severity (number of persons at
risk) and the maximum or worst possible injury, damage or loss that might occur. Consideration
should also be given to the probability that the hazard will result in loss. From these assessments
a list of priorities for hazard control can be established and used as the basis of control action.
Simple hazard assessment formula involving the frequency, severity and maximum possible loss
(M.P.L,) could be:
96
Hazard rating = frequency X (severity + M.P.L. + probability)

Numerical scales for assessing severity, M.P. L and probability will be needed to work out the
hazard rating. This then enables priorities to be set, and corrective action to be planned.
7.2.1.6 HAZARD CONTROL

The control either elimination or reduction of the hazards within an organization requires careful
planning and its achievement will involve both short term i.e. temporary and long term i.e.
permanent measures.
a)Eliminate hazard at source.

b)Reduce hazard at source.
c)Remove employee from hazard.
d)Contain hazard by enclosure.
e)Reduce employee's exposure to hazard.
f)Utilize protective equipment.
The long-term aim must always be to eliminate the hazard at source, but whilst attempting to
achieve this aim, other short term actions e.g; Utilization of the protective equipment will be
necessary. This list indicates an 'order-of priority for remedial measures for any hazard situation.
Various techniques are available to control hazards within the workplace.
Mechanical hazards may be engineered out of the process, or effectively enclosed by means of
fixed guarding. Alternative forms of guarding involve the use of interlocked guards, light-sensitive
barriers or pressure-sensitive mats. Trip devices and other form of emergency stops may also be
incorporated.
Hazard from the working environment may be controlled by effective ventilation system,
adequate heating and lighting, and general provision of good working conditions.
97
Chemical hazards may also be controlled by effective ventilation, regular monitoring,

substitution of material, change of process, purchasing controls and the use of protective
equipment.
A necessary corollary of hazard assessment is the establishment of safe system of work and
training for the work force to make them aware of the hazards in their work areas, and of the
methods for the control of such hazards.
98
7.2.2 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY (HAZOP) STUDY OF REACTOR

Introduction
A Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) is a method of assessing and evaluating
potential hazards to employees or equipment for companies in the process industry. It is a
qualitative risk assessment technique that provides executives and management with information
in order to make decisions to improve safety.
Objective
HAZOP provides an understanding of the causes and consequences of deviations from
expected behavior and facilitates decision-making on actions needed to eliminate or reduce the
risks. Although HAZOP is essentially a qualitative technique, it can be used to identify areas which
must be subjected to comprehensive quantitative analysis. The study is not intended as a substitute
for good initial design and the proper application of safety codes. It must not be seen purely as a
design checking function, as normal design quality assurance should be applied irrespective of
whether or not the project is being subject to the study.
99
Table 7.10 : HAZOP for reactor (Feed)

Item
Guide Word
None
Deviation
Causes
No flow of feed,
coolant and/or fuel
Valve
failure
Less
Low feed and/or

fuel flow
-
Reactor
More
High temperature
Others
Maintenance
Consequences
Action
No production
Furnace can be
damaged due
to
high temperature
Leaking
flange of
Less
valve
yield
Low
material
flow
Install temperature indicator
Process shut down immediately

to proper inspection and
maintenance
Install flow sensor to trip furnace
production
-Waste of feed
and/or fuel
-Reactor can be
Leaking valve
damaged due to
extreme operating
parameters.
-Pipelines cannot
be
completely
Equipment
drained or purged
Failure
-Failure of burner
to burn fuel
Process shut down immediately

for proper inspection and
maintenance
-Pyrometer in furnace to alarm or trip

fuel supply
-Process shut down immediately for

proper inspection and maintenance
-Install alarm
100
Table 7.11 : HAZOP for reactor (Product)

Item
Guide Word Deviation
Causes
None
Blockage of exit
No production
stream
More
No product flow
Increased feed flow
Reactor
Less
Less feed flow
Others
Maintenance
Valve
malfunction
Consequences
Overfilled
Action
Process
shut
down
immediately for proper
inspection
and
maintenance
-
Install
alarm
breakdown
Process shut down

immediately
for
proper inspection and
maintenance
Process
shut
down
immediately for proper
- Pipe leakage Decreased production
inspection
and
maintenance
Equipment
Streams
cannot
be Install sensors to alarm
Failure
completely drained or or trip furnace operations
purged
101
7.2.2.1 PROCESS CONTROL AND STRATEGY OF REACTOR

For most reactor, controlling the operating temperature is important as it dictates the
efficiency of the reactor, as well as the lifespan of the reactor. Apart from temperature, the
flow of feed into the reactor also has to be regulated to reduce wasting resources. The control
strategy to be used at this equipment is feedback and feed-forward control strategy.
Feedback Control Strategy
The feedback control strategy is applied to control the operating temperature of the
reactor. In the feedback strategy, the temperature transmitter read the temperature in the reactor
from time to time. The reading obtain will be transmitted to the temperature controller, hence
controlling the opening of the fuel valve. If the signal indicates that the temperature in the
reactor is declining, more fuel is needed to be burned to increase the temperature, thus the fuel
valve will open wider. The feedback controller is used to make decisions about changes to the
control signal that controls the fuel flow. This control system is important, since maintaining
the temperature in a reactor is a must. The temperature has to be kept at 1100C. If the
temperature drops too low, the production of ammonium carbamate will enter a decline, which
then affects the entire plant.
Feed-forward Control Strategy
The feed-forward control strategy is also applied to control the flow rate of feed entering
the reactor. Using this strategy, if the feed input rate is increased, then the required heat to burn
the feed also increases. This control strategy immediately changes the fuel gas flow rate and
therefore the temperature of the reactor.
102
7.2.3 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY (HAZOP) STUDY OF STRIPPING COLUMN

Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) is a formal systematic examination of a processing
plant for identifying hazards, failures and operability problems, and assessing the consequences
from such mal-operation (OSHA Website). Hazard identification is the process of recognizing
that hazard exists and defining its characteristics as it is essential to identify the hazards and
reduce the risk in advance of an accident. The objectives of the HAZOP study are stated as
follow:
Identification and assessment of major hazards potential in the process equipment which
is stripping tower.
Suggesting measures to reduce risk by reducing hazard and probability.
A list of guide words used in this HAZOP study is shown as below:
Table 7.12 : List of guide words

Guide Words
Meanings
Comments
No or Not
Complete negation of
intention
No part of the intention is

achieved (e.g: no flow or
reverse flow)
More of, Less of
Quantity increases or
decreases in activity
These refer to quantities and

properties such as flow rates
and temperatures as well as
activities like HEAT and
REACT
Incomplete performance of
an activity
Only some of the intentions

are achieved, some or not
When activity occurs at the

wrong time relative to others
No part of the original

intention is achieved.
Something quite different.
Complete substitution

Part of
Sooner/ Later than
Other than
103
Table 7.13 : HAZOP for Stripper

Parameter
Temperature
Guide Word
More
Causes
Good Heating
Consequences
Non-returnable valve must be install.
hazard. Part of
gauge and
Arrow indicator provided in the any
the
indicator
It will
accelerate the
distillation
process
Recommendation Action
Temperature
No process
requirement.
Present Protection
Sight glass
Insulation material which can
provided
withstand high temperature install
Safety valve
outside the column.
provided
pipe.
Cooling and
Periodic checking on the performance

of the gauge and indicator.
No absorption
chilling
will take
arrangement
the equipment and cool down the
place. Process
with alternative
column by spraying the water to the
delayed
provided.
column.
Emergency
Dump for
If emergency, immediately shutdown
Install alarm to alert the person incharge.
sulfuric acid
provided
Less
Poor Heating
104
Pressure
More
Inlet or
outlet
Failure in
column
valve
Sign on open
and close the
and outlet pipeline, upper column.
valve fully.
blockage
Install High Pressure Alarm to alert the

person in-charge.
in error
Install pressure relief valve at the inlet
Incorrect

pressure
Install safety valve.
being set
Vapour
lock
Flow
Less
Leaking
throughout
None
rate will take place
Periodic inspection on the pipeline to check

any leakage.
Decrease the
Isolate the valve to prevent leakage
Valve is not
quality and purity
Install flowrate indicator together with
fully opened
of the product
sight gauge to monitor the flow in the
or closed
(urea)
pipeline and the content of the liquid in the
the pipeline
Lower absorption
Low material
column.
flow
Install an emergency fully open valve to

top-up water in case there is not enough
water in the column.
Contamination
Leaking
on the
water
Contamination
in column
None
Proper maintenance and operator alert
Daily check on the water supply to the

column and also in the water reservoir.
supply
pipeline
105
From the
water
reservoir
Power failure
Failure
in
Process
disturbance
Captive power plant

provided
electrical
system
Others
Equipment
Failure
Valve cannot
fully open or
closed
Install safety valve along the pipeline
Pipeline
Valve indicator to show either valve is
blockage due
to
factor.
fouling
fully function
Put tag- out and tag-in sign to ensure

the valve is fully checked.
106
7.2.3.1 PROCESS CONTROL AND STRATEGY FOR STRIPPING COLUMN

The gas inlet comes from the converter and further cooled by using heat exchanger
before entering the absorption column at 180C through bottom of the column. The gas then
rises in the upstream direction meeting a counter current liquid stream coming from the top of
the column. The liquid solvent is fed at the top of the column and being distributed over the
surface of the packing by nozzle. The gas is diffuses from the gas inlet and into the water
through packing to form urea solution as it propagates upwards in the column. A pressure drop
of this column is 42mm which located at the base of the column. Sampling point is also
provided at the base of the column; feed of water and at the outlet of the column which is the
product (urea). Water/solvent is being pumped to the column at 24C via calibrated flow meter
while inlet gas is taken from previous reaction through a calibrated flow meter. The purified
gas leaves at the top of the column and recycle back to the heat exchanger from the previous
reaction. While for liquid effluent which is the product of the absorption process is being taken
out through calibrated flow meter with 95C in temperature and is intended to be kept in the
tank for distribution purpose.
The column is operates by using reflux ratio cascade control type and feed forward
controls system. The control strategy in this absorption tower is separated into two types which
is master control and slave controller. Slave control is being manipulated by two parameters
which is concentration of the outlet and temperature of the inlet by using feed forward control
system. It will used temperature control (TC) to control the purity concentration at the product
line. These two parameters are dependence on each other as the purity of the product determine
by the temperature at both inlet (water and gaseous). In slave controller, the temperature
controller (TC) will control the initial set point at gaseous inlet (180C) to produce the product
concentration needed. The concentration controller (AC) will read the actual value before
discharging the product (urea) to the storage tank. However, if the concentrations vary from
the specification needed, the temperature of the process will be adjusted.
According to Hori et al, (2006) and Lubey (2006), the condition of the temperature is
important to directly control the composition. Thus, the temperature loop should be fast. Due
to this reason, the temperature loop is decided to be control at the gas inlet as there is no delay
for the vapour to move up the column where fast temperature control in the column can be
obtain. At this slave section, feed forward control strategy has being chose as a controller. This
is due to a reason which feed forward has the ability to measure important disturbance variables
107
and take corrective action before the process upset. Thus, the corrective action can be taken as
soon as the controlled variable deviates from the set point. In feed forward control, PID output
with the proper direction is used after the disturbance is measured, filtered, multiplied by a feed
forward gain. As gas inlet is unstable which give a high disturbance, thus, by making the
decision to install feed forward controller at this section is reasonable.
The reflux ratio cascade controller (FCC) control both inlet and outlet stream by
manipulating its flow rate parameter at the inlet. As mention earlier, gas inlet has a high
disturbance thus it will affect the flow rate at the inlet. The flow rate entering the column must
equal to the flow rate leaving the column to prevent the increasing of pressure column which
may cause the failure of the absorption column. To maintain the flow rate inlet and outlet, Flow
rate Transmitter, FT1 at the gas line and FT2 at the solvent line will give the actual reading and
transmit it to cascade controller. Here, the cascade controller will adjust the flow rate at both
lines and open the valve according to the correction flow rate. The reading of the concentration
at feed forward controller will also transmit to the cascade controller. Thus, the flow rate at
outlet can be adjusted according to the information given from slave controller. To increase or
decrease the flow rate to manipulating the concentration, the two control valve inside the reflux
ratio control will operate. According to McCabe, (1993), the variation in this cascade control
system where ratio will respond to the disturbance in the master control by sending a ratio set
point to the controller for a slave variable. Mention earlier, the temperature controller is act as
a master controller (with feed forward control system) will send a ratio set point to the ratio
controller and cascade ratio controller will adjust the flow rate according to the correction. By
doing this, the concentration and purity of the product can be maintain.
Other than flow rate and temperature controller which is the main influence parameter
in absorption tower, level controller will also being used to control the liquid level in the
column for safety reason. The decreasing in liquid level in the column will cause to the opening
and closing the valve at the product stream. The level will set with a safe set point level to
avoid any overflow or less amount of liquid in the column which may lead to the failure of the
column.
Other safety valves also being install in this equipment such as Pressure Relief Valve
(PV) and Emergency Loading Valve (SV). These two valves will function when the condition
of column is not safe to operate. PV will fully open automatically when the pressure is higher
than the pressure set earlier for the column while SV will fully opened automatically when the
108
liquid content in the column is over the safe liquid level for column to operate. If there is any
unsafe condition in the column, alarm also being install at top, centre and bottom of the column
to alert the person in-charge. For a better system, high accurate sensor system being install at
each of the valve to ensure the actual reading of the process.
109
7.2.4 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY OF HEAT EXCHANGER
Introduction
A hazard an operability (HAZOP) study is a structured and systematic examination of a
planned or existing process and operation in order to identify and evaluate potential hazard and
operability problem. Thus, the ability of equipment in accordance with the design intent can be
determine. The HAZOP analysis technique used a systematic process to identify possible
deviations from normal operations and ensure appropriate safeguards in place to help prevent
accident. The method used for analysis of HAZOP for the heat exchanger equipment is by
using one event causes of deviation. There are a lot of guide word can be used such as NONE,
MORE, LESS, REVERSE and many more. The purpose of doing the HAZOP study as stated
as below:
i.
To study the possible accident that could happen and provide the consequences and
action that can be taken to prevent the accident from happen.
ii.
To reduce the measurement of risk and probability for the accident occur.
iii.
To act as an assessment for a worker as guide for a safe working environment.
The HAZOP study for Heat Exchanger is stated as below:
110
Table 7.14 : HAZOP study for Heat Exchanger

Guide Word
Deviation
Causes
Consequences
Action
NONE
No cooling water flow
Failure of inlet cooling

water valve to open
MORE
More cooling water flow
Failure of inlet cooling

water valve to close
LESS
Less flow of cooling water Pipe leakage
REVERSE
Reverse process fluid flow Failure of process fluid

inlet valve
Product off set
Install check valve

(whether it is crucial have
to check)
CONTAMINATION
Process fluid
contamination
Outlet temperature too

low
Proper maintenance and

operator alert
Contamination in cooling
water
Process fluid temperature Install Temperature

is not lowered accordingly indicator before and after
the process fluid line
Install high temperature
Alarm (TAH)
Output of Process fluid
Install Temperature
temperature too low
indicator before and after
process fluid line
Install low temperature
Alarm (TAL)
Process fluid temperature Installation of flow meter
not lowered accordingly
111
7.2.4.1 PROCESS CONTROL AND STRATEGY FOR HEAT EXCHANGER

Introduction
There are two important parameters that need to be controlled in this heat exchanger
unit which are temperature and flow. Two types of controller which are cascade control system
and feedforward has been chosen as control strategy to reduce the disturbance that might occur
in the process. Both of this control system been chosen due to their advantage which is the load
upsets or supply disturbance are corrected before their effects are felt by controlled variable.
Cascade control system

Cascade is the control system that used two control loop which are slave and master to
control the process. The primary loop which is master is the parameters that need to be
controlled while the secondary loop which is slave will control the process. To differentiate the
different between feed forward and cascade is feedforward requires to calculate the disturbance
explicitly and hence available to calculate the CV. Meanwhile, in cascade, disturbance is not
necessarily measured but still able to recognize the upset condition sooner. This can reduce the
time taken and work load in order to know any upset condition that happen inside the system.
The parameter for this two types of loops is temperature and flow.
Feedforward Control System

Feedforward is a mode of control that responds to a disturbance instantaneously and
compensates for the error that the disturbance would have otherwise caused later in the
controlled variable (B.G Liptak, 2005). A feedforward implementation requires the installation
of a sensor and the construction of a feedforward model element. There are two factors
correlated with the performance of control system for feed forward which are and identifiable
of disturbance and the corrective action occurs as soon as the controlled variable deviates from
the set point and other factor is the disturbance can be measured with the additional of
instrument.
112
Combination of Cascade and Feedforward control system

The cascade and feed forward system is combine to get high efficiency in the control
process. In this heat exchanger system, cascade is the primary control system (master)
meanwhile the feedforward will act as a slave. During the cooling down process, the hot fluid
will enter the tube side meanwhile cool fluid which is water will enter the shell.
In the primary controller, temperature of sulfuric acid is used by the master controller
(TC) to establish the set point for slave loop controller. Temperature transmitter will be installed
at the inlet and outlet of hot fluid to monitor the temperature in an out of the system. This was
done to ensure the temperature of fluid in and out of the heat exchanger does not deviates from
the set point. If the transmitter detect any changes in the set point, it will gives signal to the
master controller and master controller will alert the slave controller so that immediate action
can be taken.
After receiving signal from the primary controller, the slave controller will take
immediate action to maintain the smoothness of the system by either larger the flow valve or to
reduce the flow valve in the occurrence of the cooling water inside the system. This is happen
inside the secondary loop or slave. The right quantity of cooling fluid enter the heat exchanger
is very important so that the urea will lowered accordingly.
113
7.2.5 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY OF SCRUBBER

Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) is a formal systematic examination of a processing
plant for identifying hazards, failures and operability problems, and assessing the consequences
from such mal-operation (OSHA Website). Hazard identification is the process of recognizing
that hazard exists and defining its characteristics as it is essential to identify the hazards and
reduce the risk in advance of an accident. The objectives of the HAZOP study are stated as
follow:
Identification and assessment of major hazards potential in the process equipment which
is absorption tower.
Suggesting measures to reduce risk by reducing hazard and probability.
A list of guide words used in this HAZOP study is shown as below:
Table 7.15 : List of guide words

Guide Words
Meanings
Comments
No or Not
Complete negation of
intention
No part of the intention is

achieved (e.g: no flow or
reverse flow)
More of, Less of
Quantity increases or
decreases in activity
These refer to quantities and

properties such as flow rates
and temperatures as well as
activities like HEAT and
REACT
Incomplete performance of
an activity
Only some of the intentions

are achieved, some or not
When activity occurs at the

wrong time relative to others

Complete substitution

Part of
Sooner/ Later than
Other than
114
Table 7. 16 : HAZOP for Scrubber

Parameter
Temperature
Guide Word
More
Causes
Good Heating
Consequences
Non-returnable valve must be install.
hazard. Part of
gauge and
Arrow indicator provided in the any
the
indicator
It will
accelerate the
distillation
process
Recommendation Action
Temperature
No process
requirement.
Present Protection
Sight glass
Insulation material which can
provided
withstand high temperature install
Safety valve
outside the column.
provided
pipe.
Cooling and

No absorption
chilling
will take
arrangement
the equipment and cool down the
place. Process
with alternative
column by spraying the water to the
delayed
provided.
column.
Emergency
Dump for
If emergency, immediately shutdown
sulfuric acid
provided
Less
Poor Heating
115
Pressure
More
Inlet or
outlet
Failure in
column
valve
Sign on open
and close the
and outlet pipeline, upper column.
valve fully.
blockage
Install High Pressure Alarm to alert the

person in-charge.
in error
Install pressure relief valve at the inlet
Incorrect

pressure
Install safety valve.
being set
Vapour
lock
Flow
Less
Leaking
throughout
None
rate will take place
Periodic inspection on the pipeline to check

any leakage.
Decrease the
Isolate the valve to prevent leakage
Valve is not
quality and purity
Install flowrate indicator together with
fully opened
of the product
sight gauge to monitor the flow in the
or closed
(sulfuric acid)
pipeline and the content of the liquid in the
the pipeline
Lower absorption
Low material
column.
flow
Install an emergency fully open valve to

top-up water in case there is not enough
water in the column.
Contamination
Leaking
on the
water
Contamination
in column
None
Proper maintenance and operator alert
Daily check on the water supply to the

column and also in the water reservoir.
supply
pipeline
116
From the
water
reservoir
Power failure
Failure
in
Process
disturbance
Captive power plant

provided
electrical
system
Others
Equipment
Failure
Valve cannot
fully open or
closed
Install safety valve along the pipeline
Pipeline
Valve indicator to show either valve is
blockage due
to
factor.
fouling
fully function
Put tag- out and tag-in sign to ensure

the valve is fully checked.
117
7.2.5.1 PROCESS CONTROL AND STRATEGY FOR SCRUBBER
The gas inlet comes from the converter and further cooled by using heat exchanger before
entering the absorption column at 180C through bottom of the column. The gas then rises in the
upstream direction meeting a counter current liquid stream coming from the top of the column. The
liquid solvent is fed at the top of the column and being distributed over the surface of the packing
by nozzle. The gas is diffuses from the gas inlet and into the water through packing to form urea
solution as it propagates upwards in the column. A pressure drop of this column is 42mm which
located at the base of the column. Sampling point is also provided at the base of the column; feed
of water and at the outlet of the column which is the product (urea). Water/solvent is being pumped
to the column at 24C via calibrated flow meter while inlet gas is taken from previous reaction
through a calibrated flow meter. The purified gas leaves at the top of the column and recycle back
to the heat exchanger from the previous reaction. While for liquid effluent which is the product of
the absorption process is being taken out through calibrated flow meter with 95C in temperature
and is intended to be kept in the tank for distribution purpose.
The column is operates by using reflux ratio cascade control type and feed forward controls
system. The control strategy in this absorption tower is separated into two types which is master
control and slave controller. Slave control is being manipulated by two parameters which is
concentration of the outlet and temperature of the inlet by using feed forward control system. It will
used temperature control (TC) to control the purity concentration at the product line. These two
parameters are dependence on each other as the purity of the product determine by the temperature
at both inlet (water and gaseous). In slave controller, the temperature controller (TC) will control
the initial set point at gaseous inlet (180C) to produce the product concentration needed. The
concentration controller (AC) will read the actual value before discharging the product (urea) to the
storage tank. However, if the concentrations vary from the specification needed, the temperature of
the process will be adjusted.
According to Hori et al, (2006) and Lubey (2006), the condition of the temperature is
important to directly control the composition. Thus, the temperature loop should be fast. Due to this
reason, the temperature loop is decided to be control at the gas inlet as there is no delay for the
vapour to move up the column where fast temperature control in the column can be obtain. At this
118
slave section, feed forward control strategy has being chose as a controller. This is due to a reason
which feed forward has the ability to measure important disturbance variables and take corrective
action before the process upset. Thus, the corrective action can be taken as soon as the controlled
variable deviates from the set point. In feed forward control, PID output with the proper direction
is used after the disturbance is measured, filtered, multiplied by a feed forward gain. As gas inlet is
unstable which give a high disturbance, thus, by making the decision to install feed forward
controller at this section is reasonable.
The reflux ratio cascade controller (FCC) control both inlet and outlet stream by
manipulating its flow rate parameter at the inlet. As mention earlier, gas inlet has a high disturbance
thus it will affect the flow rate at the inlet. The flow rate entering the column must equal to the flow
rate leaving the column to prevent the increasing of pressure column which may cause the failure
of the absorption column. To maintain the flow rate inlet and outlet, Flow rate Transmitter, FT1 at
the gas line and FT2 at the solvent line will give the actual reading and transmit it to cascade
controller. Here, the cascade controller will adjust the flow rate at both lines and open the valve
according to the correction flow rate. The reading of the concentration at feed forward controller
will also transmit to the cascade controller. Thus, the flow rate at outlet can be adjusted according
to the information given from slave controller. To increase or decrease the flow rate to manipulating
the concentration, the two control valve inside the reflux ratio control will operate. According to
McCabe, (1993), the variation in this cascade control system where ratio will respond to the
disturbance in the master control by sending a ratio set point to the controller for a slave variable.
Mention earlier, the temperature controller is act as a master controller (with feed forward control
system) will send a ratio set point to the ratio controller and cascade ratio controller will adjust the
flow rate according to the correction. By doing this, the concentration and purity of the product can
be maintain.
Other than flow rate and temperature controller which is the main influence parameter in
absorption tower, level controller will also being used to control the liquid level in the column for
safety reason. The decreasing in liquid level in the column will cause to the opening and closing
the valve at the product stream. The level will set with a safe set point level to avoid any overflow
or less amount of liquid in the column which may lead to the failure of the column.
Other safety valves also being install in this equipment such as Pressure Relief Valve (PV)
and Emergency Loading Valve (SV). These two valves will function when the condition of column
is not safe to operate. PV will fully open automatically when the pressure is higher than the pressure
119
set earlier for the column while SV will fully opened automatically when the liquid content in the
column is over the safe liquid level for column to operate. If there is any unsafe condition in the
column, alarm also being install at top, centre and bottom of the column to alert the person incharge. For a better system, high accurate sensor system being install at each of the valve to ensure
the actual reading of the process.
120
7.2.6 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY OF FLASH COLUMN
In the case of distillation systems, considering column and peripherals, different scenarios are
evaluated during the HAZOP study. In steady state operation, normally, the HAZOP group analyses
the deviations on temperature, pressure, level, flow rate, etc., and the possible consequences of
those failures (such as human and environmental losses). A common cause of the temperature or
pressure deviation is the total loss of cooling capacity. In this scenario, the loss of condensation
capacity leads to the loss of reflux flow causing, by consequence, the variation of the temperature
and pressure profiles of the distillation column. This scenario culminates in the unwanted event, a
process accident: the emission of volatile products to the atmosphere via column vent system and
its possible ignition. In addition, overpressure in the column above of the Maximum Allowed
Working Pressure (MAWP) may occur, and by consequence causing the rupture of the column
and/or its peripherals. Some recent studies presented the use of dynamic simulation for safety
analysis in distillation systems. The dynamic simulation was used to simulate the consequences of
operational failures including reduction or total loss of cooling capacity and it is possible to observe
the dynamic response (such as the pressure increase) and also to evaluate the safety systems
installed. The reduction of the risk associated with the illustrated scenario is normally related to the
installation of active safeguards, such as pressure relief devices (PSV) and instrumental safety
chain. The distillation system, with TISH safety chain type - (high temperature) installed in the
column vent actuating by closing the on-off steam valve. The logic of the safety chain is such that
an increase of the vent temperature above the stipulated value in steady state conditions, leads to
the closure of the steam to the reboiler. Other safety chains might also act on other points of the
facility preventing unwanted chain events. In HAZOP studies carried out at Rhodia 4 , the reduction
of the scenario risk is associated with the Instrumented Safety Systems reliability, expressed by the
SIL (Safety Integrity Level).
121
Table 7.17 : HAZOP for Flash Column

Guide
Cause
Word
High
Temperature
Temperature controller
fault,
reboiler
malfunction
Consequence
Column level,
temperature, and pressure
increase.
Overpressurization.
Column controls will
attempt to correct.
Low
Temperature Reduced column
temperature and rate of
fault,
Reaction
reboiler
malfunction
Zero
Temperature No reaction
fault,
reboiler
malfunction
High
Pressure
Low
Pressure
Zero
Pressure
Flow
controller
fault,
Temperatue
controller
fault
Feed
pump
failure;
jammed
feed valve
Feed
pump
failure;
jammed
feed valve
Column level,
temperature, and pressure
increase.
Overpressurization.
Reduced column
temperature and rate of
Reaction
No reaction
Recommendation/Action
Temperature indicator with high
temperature alarm and emergency
shutdown procedures
Temperature indicator with low

temperature alarm.
Temperature indicator with low

temperature alarm.
Pressure indicator reporting to feed

control valve and to Pressure Safety
Valve (open-to-air)
Flow indicator with low flow alarm
Flow indicator with low flow alarm
122
Deviations from proper operating conditions for temperature, pressure, and flow were
analyzed in order to develop recommendations for controllers, transmitters, and alarms to monitor
and control these parameters during operation. These findings can be found in the Analysis of Main
Findings section. The recommended transmitters, controllers, and alarms are indicated in the P&ID.
The main hazards include dangerously high temperatures and pressures inside the column, which
could result in overpressurization events and explosions if not controlled. The proposed process
control system should be implemented and tested before the plant begins normal operation.
7.2.6.1 PROCESS CONTROL AND STRATEGY FOR FLASH COLUMN

In the plant-wide context, the distillate and / or bottoms would feed into a downstream unit such as
another flash column. The variation in the distillate / bottoms flow rate then acts as a disturbance
into the downstream unit. The LQ control structure is particularly preferable as the reflux drum and
reboiler levels are controlled using the P only controller which results in a smooth flow change into
the downstream unit. If however, the DQ (or LB) control structure is used in a high reflux ratio
(reboil ratio) column and a tray temperature is controlled using D, the reflux drum level controller
manipulates L and must be tightly tuned for a fast dynamics of the of closed loop temperature
controller. The D would then show large changes disturbing the downstream unit. Feedforward
control action can and should be used to mitigate the propagation of variability to downstream units.
For example, the distillate rate may be ratioed to the feed rate with the composition / temperature
controller setting the ratio set-point. Alternatively, the distillate may be moved in ratio with reflux
with the composition controller setting the reflux ratio set-point. The reflux level controller is then
tuned as a P only controller for smooth changes in the reflux and hence the distillate. The variability
in the distillate rate can thus be greatly reduced improving the overall plant-wide control
performance.
The vapour distillate from a partial condenser can be manipulated to control the tower pressure.
This is however not a good idea if the vapour stream feeds directly into a downstream unit and not
a surge tank. In such a scenario, the column pressure should be controlled using the condenser
cooling duty, the reflux drum level controlled using the reflux rate and the vent rate moved in ratio
with the reflux. This arrangement mitigates the propagation of variability downsteam.
123
The control of energy integrated flash columns can also be problematic as a disturbance on the hot
vapour side necessarily affects the boil-up in the reboiler using the hot vapour as the heat source
(instead of steam). To maintain the control tray temperature in the heat integrated column, an
auxiliary reboiler (or condenser, as appropriate) is provided. The heat integrated reboiler and the
auxiliary reboiler may be arranged in a parallel or a series arrangement. The series arrangement is
preferred as the temperature variations in the hot vapour are attenuated due to variation in the
temperature driving force in the auxiliary reboiler. In the parallel arrangement, the auxiliary reboiler
must adjust for the variability on the hot vapour side after it has entered the column. One way to
prevent this is to use a total heat input controller.
124
CHAPTER 8
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
Introduction
Economic evaluation is a very crucial part in designing a plant. Economic evaluation

was made to ensure the system of the plant are fair, capable to evaluate and compare the
efficiency of urea plant by means of energetic, economic, ecological and socio economic
criteria. For a new process plant, the cash flow across the entire lifecycle of the project must
be considered in order to determine the economic performance and the sustainability of the
plant for a long time. Therefore, the economic evaluation at this stage must be done properly
so that the economic growth of the company will always increase which leads to the increases
of net profit year by year.
8.1 Cost of Urea Plant
There are two categories of the cost that must be taken into serious consideration when
it comes to the economic evaluation to build a plant which are capital investment and operating
cost. The capital investment is the initially outlay to fund the purchase and installation of the
process plant. Meanwhile, the operating costs are those ongoing charges required to continue
the operation.
8.2 Capital Investment

The capital investment is divided into two element which are fixed capital and working
capital. The fixed capital refer to the money necessary to purchase or install all the equipment
required for the complete operation of the process which sub-divided into direct and indirect
125
cost. Table 3.0 and Table 4.0 below shows the direct and indirect cost that covers the following
items:
Table 8.1: Direct cost item and its description
Item
Description
Purchased equipment
All equipment on the process flowsheet,

spared, surplus, inflation allowances, freight
charges, taxes, import duty and insurance
Purchased equipment installation
Installation, structural supports, insulation

and painting
Piping
Pipes, supports, fittings, valves, etc.
Electrical systems
Switchgear, motors, cable, lighting and

installation etc.
Buildings
Platform, stairways, ladders, cranes, lifting

equipment, control rooms, maintenance
workshops, administrative buildings,
laboratories, heating and ventilation,
communication
Site preparation
Roads, civil works etc
Utility systems
Steam, water, power, refrigeration,

instrument air, fuel, waste treatment and
disposal.
Non-process equipment
Office furniture, firefighting equipment
Land
Property, surveys and fees
126
Table 8.2: The indirect costs items and description

Items
Description
Engineering and supervision costs
Process design, administrative, discipline

engineering design, consultants, travel,
supervision, inspection etc
Legal fees
National and local regulations, regulatory

permits and approvals, contract negotiation
etc
Construction
Construction, operation and maintenance of

temporary facilities, offices, road,
construction equipment, material handling,
safety and security etc.
To operate a plant, the funds (cash) are required as a working capital for a process
plant. These funds are replaced on a monthly basis from product revenues but they must be
invested up-front to establish operations and are only fully recovered when the production
ceases and the project lifecycle is completed.
8.2.1 Operating Costs
The operating cost of total product cost is the sum of the manufacturing costs and the general
administrative expenses. The manufacturing costs consist of the following items which are:
Direct production cost raw material, utilities, maintenance, operating supplies,

operating labour, laboratory charges, patents and royalties.
Fixed cost Depreciation, local taxes, insurance, rent and interest payments.
Plant overheads general plant upkeep, payroll overhead, health, safety and security.
8.2.2 Land Cost

The Urea plant will be located at Olak Lempit Industrial Park, Banting, Selangor. The
total size of the free land around this area is 170.46 acres. This size included with the free
space for expansion in the future.
127
Based on the Selangor Government through their website The Official Portal Invest
in Selangor, 7% of the total land property will be charge for the land tax rate annually. As
been mention above, 170.46 acres will be bought for urea plant. Since the condition for the
land is already prepared for industrial activity but without any facilities, therefore the price of
the land per square feet is RM35 which makes the total price of the land is RM 259,883,316.
With 7% annual tax rate, Urea company has to pay to the Selangor Government is RM 195,
148.80. However, our team predict that the land taxes will increase to 10% after 6 years
operation. Table 8.3 shows the land price and annual tax details.
Table 8.3: Land price and annual tax

Plant location
Olak Lempit Industrial park
Total area of land, acre
170.46
Total area of land, ft2
7 425 237.6
Total price of land per square feet, RM
RM 35.00
Total price of land, RM
RM 259,883,316.00
Taxes per total price property
7%
Taxes per year, RM
RM 487,872.00
Taxes per year after 6 years (10%)
RM 696,960.00
operation, RM
128
8.2.3 Equipment Cost
Equipment
Capacity,
size
H=7m
D=3.44m
Fixed tube
(heat
exchanger)
Vessel
(vertical)
H=11m
D=3m
(Shell and
tube heat
exchanger)
Area =
158.7m
Vessel
H=6.36m
D=2.17m
Reactor
Stripper
Scrubber
Heat
exchanger
Flash
separator
Material Condition,
Fp
Fm FBM
Cp
CBM
CBM
constuction
barg
Stainless
152
3.3211 4
25.35 900,780 3,801,292 22,834,142
steel
Stainless
150
1.26
3
7.5
31,248 99,994
234,360
steel
Stainless
steel
15
1.8
14.88 75,000
316,500
1,116,300
Stainless
steel
150
1.29
7.7
18,500
61,050
142,450
Stainless
steel (alloy)
2.9
9.2
18,000
75,600
165,600
TOTAL = 24,492,852
8.2.4 Building Cost

There are four factors that need to be considering while dealing with cost of building
which are:
Material (cement, bricks, plaster, etc)
System building
Finishes (Paint)
Pipe & Electrical Installation

According to the literature (Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol 6, 4th
Edition), building, process and auxillary (BPA) range of cost is in between 10-70% of
purchased equipment cost. Thus, for process more than 80 000 MT/year, the suggested percent
129
is more than 50% of purchased equipment cost. After doing some survey through internet on
the same production industrially, most of the plant will estimate 50% of purchased equipment
cost for their building cost. Table 6.0 shows the summary of building cost.
Let BCA cost
= 50% of purchased equipment cost

50
= 100 24,492,852
= RM 12,246,426
Table 8.4: Summary of building cost
Building Cost
Percent of Estimation (%)
Material
40
Amount
40
= 100 RM 12,246,426
= RM 4,898,570.40
Pipe & Electrical
30
Installation
System Building
30
= 100 RM 12,246,426
= RM 3,673,927.80
25
25
= 100 RM 12,246,426
= RM 3,061,606.50
Finishes (Paint)
= 100 RM 12,246,426
= RM 612,321.30
OVERALL BUILDING COST
RM 12,246,426
130
8.2.5 Grass Root Capital
Grass roots capital cost is the job or work costing estimated by those who will do the
work in order to develop the budget. This capital cost is the main or early estimation cost before
the total investment cost can be calculated. Table 7.0 shows the grass root capital cost for this
plant.
Table 8.5: Grass root capital cost for 80,000 MT/year urea plant
Cost
Amount
Total Bare Module Cost,
RM 24,492,852
(TBM) for overall main

equipment
Contingency and Fee
10% of TBM
10
= 100 RM 24,492,852
= RM 2,449,285.20
Auxiliary Facilities
15% TBM
15
= 100 RM 24,492,852
= RM 3,673,927.80
GRASS ROOT CAPITAL, GRC
RM 6,123,213
8.2.6 Fixed and Total Capital Investment Cost

In this cost, there are two types of cost that need to be considered which are:
Direct Cost
Indirect Cost
131
8.2.6.1 Direct Cost
In direct capital cost, the cost is divided into two which are on-site and off-site cost.
Eight matter of consideration had been calculated in order to find the direct cost of this plant.
All the information about direct cost is shown in the Table 8.0.
Table 8.6: Direct cost of urea plant

ON-SITE COST
Expenses Cost
Amount
Equipment
RM 24,492,852
Installation
25% of GRC
25
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 1,530,803.25
Instrumentation & Control
15
15% of GRC
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 918,481.95
Piping Installation
20
20% of GRC
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 1,224,642.60
OFF-SITE COST
Expenses Cost
Amount
RM 24,492,852
Building
Service Facilities
7% of GRC
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 428,624.91
RM 259,883,316.00
7% of land price
RM 487,872.00
Land (170 Acres)

Land Taxes (per year)
OVERALL DIRECT COST
RM 313,459,444.70
132
8.2.6.2 Indirect Cost
In this cost, there are four matter of consideration that contributes to this cost which is
engineering and supervision, construction expenses, contractors fee and contingency. Table
9.0 shows the summary of indirect cost.
Table 8.7: Summary of indirect cost

Expenses Cost
Percent of Estimation
Engineering &Supervision
3% of GRC
Amount
3
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 183,696.39
Construction Expenses
12% of GRC
12
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 734,785.56
Contractors Fee
10% of GRC
10
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 612,321.30
Contingency
10% of GRC
10
= 100 RM 6,123,213
= RM 612,321.30
OVERALL INDIRECT COST
RM 2,143,124.55
Calculation of Fixed and Total Capital Investment

Total Cost
= Direct Cost + Indirect Cost

= RM 313,459,444.70+ RM 2,143,124.55
= RM 315,602,568.60
Fixed Capital Cost, FCI
= Total Cost + GRC

133
= RM 315,602,568.60+ RM 612,321.30
= RM 316,214,889.90
Working Capital (15% of FCI)
15
100
RM 316,214,889.90
= RM 47,432,233.49
Start-Up Cost (10% FCI)
10
100
RM 316,214,889.90
= RM 31,621,488.99
TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
= RM 395,268,612.10
8.2.7 MANUFACTURING COST
Manufacturing cost consists of direct manufacturing expenses, indirect manufacturing

expenses and general expenses. For example, operating labor cost, utilities cost, administration
cost, storage, royalties and other cost. The operating hour per year of this plant is 8400 hours
with 24hour operation. The operation day is 350 days per year, with 14 days for shutdown.
8.2.8 Estimation of Operating Labor Cost
Table 8.8 Labor operating cost

Position
Executive
General
Supervisor/
Manager
Department
Engineer Assistant Technician

Engineer
Manager
Person
Wages(RM)/
month/pax
Salary
year (RM)
10
11000
7000
4000
3500
2400
1800
132000
252000
192000
252000
115200
432000
per
Total Labor Cost per Year (RM)
1375200
134
8.2.9 Estimation of Utilities Cost
Utilities cost includes electricity, steam for heating and cooling water for cooling
purpose. There are 305 days working days in urea production plant. Below shows all the
estimation for utilities cost in this production plant.
Estimation of electricity and water cost:

1. Electricity operation cost:
Table 8.9 :Equipment power consumption
Equipment
Power
consumption (kW)
Reactor
8902.83
Scrubber
4828.93
Stripper
1206.96
Flash column
583.05
Heat Exchanger
2345.8
Condener
1415.6
Total
19283.17
Therefore,
Annual Utilities costs for electricity,
Ae= (19283.17 kW) x (RM 0.30 / kW hr) x (8400 hr/1year)
= RM 48 593 588.40
2. Water operation cost

Table 8.10 :Total water cost annually
Quantity used (m3/yr)
30 172.70
Price per unit (RM/m3)
0.60
Total Water Cost (RM)
18 103.32
135
8.2.10 Manufacturing Cost Summary

From previous calculation:
Fixed capital, FCI
: RM 316,214,889.90
Working capital
(15% of fixed capital), CWC
: RM 47,432,233.49
Total capital investment, TCI
: RM 335,213,443.70
Table 8.11 : Manufacturing cost summary

Cost
Specification
RM/yr.
Manufacturing Expenses
Direct Production Cost
Raw material
Ammonia,carbon dioxide,
Min Cost: 327 056 08.46
water
Max Cost: 429 666 71.72
Utilities
Electricity
RM 0.30/kW hr
48 593 588.40
4% FCI
607 953.72
Operating supplies
0.2% FCI
30 397.69
Operating Labor
28 persons/day
1375200
10% Operating Labor
137520
Laboratory charges
12% Operating Labor
165024
Plant Overhead
50% Operating Labor
687600
Maintenance and
repairs
Direct Supervision &

___Clerical Labor
136
Indirect Production Cost
Rates(Local authority taxes)
0.5% FCI
75 994.22
Insurance
1% FCI
151 988.43
Total Manufacturing
Min cost: 84 530 874.90
Expenses, AME
Max cost: 94 791 938.16
General Expenses
Administration Cost
Distribution & Selling
Expenses
Research &
Development
Transportation
5% FCI
759 942.15
8% FCI
1 215 907.45
3% FCI
455 965.29
2% FCI
303 976.86
Total General Expenses,
2 735 791.75
AGE
Total Production Cost,
APC
AME + AGE
Min cost: 87 266 666.65

Max cost: 97 527 729.91
Depreciation, AD
15% FCI
2 279 826.46
Total Expenses, ATE
APC + AD
99 807 556.37
Revenue from sales
248 952 000.00
137
8.2.11 Revenue from sales of urea
Table 8.12 : Total product cost

ITEM
Urea
Quantity in kg
230000000
Total price
248 952 000
Annual Profit = Revenue from sales Total expenses

= RM 248 952 000.00- RM 99 807 556.37
= RM 149 144 443.60
According to LembagaHasilDalamNegeri (LHDN):
Figure 8.1 Tax rate of company in Malaysia year 2009 onward
Thus:
The income taxes is at 25 % of total annual profit,
Income Tax
= 0.25 x RM 149 144 443.60

= RM 37 286 110.91
138
Therefore
Net annual profit after deduction of income tax
= RM 149 144 443.60 RM 37 286 110.91
= RM 111 858 332.70
Carried out calculation for rate of return,
Rate of return
Annp Ad
100%
TCI
=
149 144 443.60 +2 279 826.46

18 998 553.84
= 7.97%
139
REFERENCES
1. Davis M.L and Cornwell D.A, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Boston 1998.
2.Peavy H.S and Tchobanoglous G., 1985. Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York
3. R. K. Sinnott. 2000. Chemical Engineering Design. Volume 6. Third Edition. Great Britain.
Butterworth Heinmann.
4. H. Perry and W.Green, 1998. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, SeventhEdition,
United State.
5. Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Act 127) & Subsidiary Legislation. 1999. Laws of
Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia
6. Sinnott, R. K., Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering Volume 6, Chemical
Engineering Design, Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
7. Dale E.Seborg, Thomas F.Edgar, Duncan A.Mellichamp, 2004. Process Dynamics And
Control, Second Edition, John Wiley.
8. Carl R. Branan, 2002. Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers, Third Edition. Gulf
Publisher.
9. Ullmann`s encyclopedia, encyclopedia of industrial chemistry.
10. Urea Project Report - https://www.scribd.com/doc/97197124/Urea-Project-Report
11. V.S. Vaish & A.B. Sarkar on Fundamental Mechanical Process Control Design of Urea
Plant in Industry, IFFCO Kalol Unit, Gujarat, India.
12. Wentz, (1998). Safety, Health, And Environmental Protection, Mc Graw Hill Companies, Inc.
13. Bequette, B. W, Process Control, Modeling, Design and Simulation, Prentice Hall
International Series in The Physical and Chemical Engineering Sciences, 2003, Chapter 15,
PlantWide Control, p463.
140

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CHAPTER 7

7.1 DETAILED EQUIPMENT DESIGN

7.1.1 HEAT EXCHANGER

Double pipe heat exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchanger

Plate and Frame heat exchanger

The configuration gives a large surface area in a small volume

Good mechanical layout such as good shape for pressure operation

Uses well-established fabrication techniques

Can be constructed from a wide range materials

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Fixed tube plate

Internal Floating head

Fixed Tube Plate

Internal Floating Head

Figure 7.1 : Fixed Tube Heat Exchanger

Figure 7.2 : U-Tube Heat Exchanger

Figure 7.3 : Floating head heat exchanger

Table 7.1: Parts and connection of heat exchangers

16. Tubes (U-type)

17. Tie rods and spacers

3. Shell flange (channel end)

18. Transverse (or cross) baffles or support plates

4. Shell flange (cover end)

19. Longitudinal baffles

5. Shell nozzle or branch

20. Impingement baffles

6. Floating tube sheet

21. Floating head support

7. Floating head cover

22. Pass partition

8. Floating head flange

23. Vent connection

9. Floating head gland

24. Drain connection

10. Floating head backing ring

25. Instrument connection

11. Stationary tube sheet

26. Expansion bellows

12. Channel or stationary head 27. Support saddles

28. Lifting lugs

14. Channel nozzle or branch

15. Tube (straight)

30. Liquid level connection

7.1.1.2 Mechanical Design of Heat Exchanger

Table 7.3: Temperature Value for cold fluid (Water)

Table 7.4: Properties of Urea at bulk temperature

Specific Heat Capacity, C

Table 7.5: Properties of water at bulk temperature

Specific Heat Capacity, C

Calculation of mass flowrate of water

So, Qh can be calculated:

(157 129) 2.5687

Since Qh = Qc, therefore

Log Mean Temperature Different

= Rate of heat transfer

= Overall heat transfer Coefficient

= Log Mean Temperature Difference

Shell side = Water

Determination of Area (Estimation)

Figure 7.4 : typical overall coefficients

Figure 7.5 : Tube Dimensions

Figure 7.6 : Tube material thermal conductivity

= Stainless steel (18/8)