An Attenuator is

an electronic
device that
appreciably distorting its waveform.

reduces

the power of

a signal without

An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an amplifier, though the two work by different
methods. While an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator provides loss, or gain less than 1.

Difference b/w pin and Scotty diode?

PIN diodes: A PIN diode has a central intrinsic layer. PIN diodes are used as radio frequency
switches and attenuators. They are also used in power electronics, due to their central layer being
able to withstand high voltages.
Schottky diodes/Crystal diode: In a Schottky diode, a semiconductormetal junction is formed
between a semiconductor and a metal, thus creating a Schottky barrier. The N-type
semiconductor acts as the cathode and the metal side acts as the anode of the diode. This
Schottky barrier results in both a low forward voltage drop and very fast switching. Used in fast
switching applications. They have less losses dues to low F.V.D.
Peltier diodes - This diode is used in heat engine as a sensor for thermoelectric cooling.
Tunnel diode is the p-n junction device with high doping that exhibits negative resistance. That
means when the voltage is increased the current through it decreases. Used in microwave RF
applications
Step recovery diode: A semiconductor junction diode having the ability to generate extremely
short pulses. Can be used as a pulse generator.
Shockley diode: is a four-layer semiconductor diode, which was one of the first semiconductor
devices invented. It was a "pnpn" diode. It is equivalent to a thyristor with a disconnected gate.
Used in switching application
Transistors:
A three terminal semiconductor device used as amplifier or as a switch
Phototransistors:
A common type of phototransistor resembles a bipolar transistor with its base lead removed and
replaced with a light-sensitive area. This is why a phototransistor has only 2 terminals instead of
the usual 3
Thyristor:
A thyristor is a four layer 3 junction p-n-p-n semiconductor device consisting of at least three p-n

junctions, functioning as an electrical switch for high power operations. It acts exclusively as a
bitable switch, conducts when the gate receives a current trigger, and continuing to conduct until
the voltage across the device is not reversed (forward-biased).
SCR: can be turned off
GTO: can be turned off by giving a negative pulse at gate

DIAC: (AC Diode)

Two shokley diodes are connected in anti parallel fashion.
TRIAC:
SCRs are unidirectional (one-way) current devices, making them useful for controlling DC only.
If two SCRs are joined in back-to-back parallel fashion just like two Shockley diodes were
joined together to form a DIAC, we have a new device known as the TRIAC
Diac use along with TRIAC in lamp dimmer circuits or heater input power control circuits. Or
phase control circuits.
IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled field effect transistor it has a Metal Oxide Gate
electrode which is electrically insulated from the main semiconductor n-channel or p-channel by
a very thin layer of insulating material usually silicon dioxide, commonly known as glass.
JFETs: simplest FET used as voltage control resistor or as a switch
Shape of solenoids B field?
Just like Bar magnet..loops are formed starting from one end to other.
Shape of E field?
directed outwards for +ive and inward for _ive.
Ways of transfer of heat?
heat transfer conduction convection radiation

What are advantages and disadvantages of HVDC?

Advantages:
no skin effects
no charging current
only two conductors are required
more power can be transmitted per conductor
less insulation is required 70 % of AC..
no problem of stability (as no frequency is involved)

Disadvantages:
no reactive power can travel on the line
Expensive converter cost, so overall cost is high.
The converters produce lot of harmonics both on dc and ac sides which may cause
interference with the audio frequency communication lines.
Cost of HVDC circuit breaker is higher compared to ac breakers
Converters have very little over load capacity
Therefore because of the cost factors HVDC transmission is economical if bulk amount of power
(1500-6000MW) transmitting over large distance (beyond 500kms)

HVAC:
Advantages: no converters required, voltage level can be raised ,so power transmission is
efficient, CB here are cheap as that of DC
Disadvantage:
Skin effect, crona effect, stability issues, interference with communication lines, more
conductors required
Types of DC Machines:

Separately Excited DC Motor: A separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to
the field and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of dc motor is that,
the armature current does not flow through the field windings
Permanent Magnet DC Motor: contain a permanent magnetic as field winding to produce field
flux.
Self Excited DC Motor: In case of self excited dc motor, the field winding is connected either in
series or in parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding.
In a series wound dc motor, the speed varies with load. And operation wise this is its main
difference from a shunt wound dc motor.
Compound Wound DC Motor: contain both series and shunt field winding
Differential Compound DC Motor:
Cumulative Compound DC Motor:
DC Generator:
Permanent Magnet DC Generator: generates very low power.

Separately Excited DC Generator:

Self-excited DC Generators:
In series wound generators, the output voltage is directly proportional with load current.
In shunt wound generators, output voltage is inversely proportional with load current.

Which type of A.C motor is used in the fan (ceiling fan, exhaust fan, padestal fan, bracket
fan etc) which are find in the houses ?
Its Single Phase induction motor which mostly squirrel cage rotor and are capacitor start
capacitor run.
What are the Application of DC Motors in Thermal Power Plant?
DC motors operate as backup drives for normal ac drive systems when ac power supply to the
plant is lost.
Why syn. generators are used for the production of electricity?
Synchronous machines have capability to work on different power factor (or say different
imaginary power varying the field EMF. Hence syn. generators r used for the production of
electricity.
Why is the starting current high in a DC motor?
because Eb=0
What are the Advantages & Disadvantages of Synchronous motors?
Advantage or Merits:
1. One of the major advantages of using synchronous motor is the ability to control the
power factor. So we can use it along with Induction Motor to improve P.F
2. Constant speed irrespective of load. So use where constant speed is required.
3. Synchronous motors usually operate with higher efficiencies (more than 90%) especially
in low speed and unity power factor applications compared to induction motors.
Disadvantages or Demerits:
1. Synchronous motors requires dc excitation which must be supplied from external sources.
2. Not self starting

3. Cost/kwh is higher than I/M

4. Cant be used in variable speed applications...as speed can only be change by changing
the supply frequency.
Why AC systems are preferred over DC systems?
Due to following reasons, AC systems are preferred over DC systems:
a. It is easy to maintain and change the voltage of AC electricity for transmission and
distribution.
b. Plant cost for AC transmission (circuit breakers, transformers etc) is much lower than the
equivalent DC transmission
c. From power stations, AC is produced so it is better to use AC then DC instead of converting it.
Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the
transformer core.
Eddy current loss in transformer: due to linkage of primary flux with other conducting parts
like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts,
causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy current.
AC Machines:
Synchronous Motor:
Rotors used in Synchronous alternators can be classified into
1) Salient Pole :

1. They are generally used in lower speed electrical machines, say 100 RPM to 1500 RPM.
2. As the rotor speed is lower, more number of poles are required to attain the required
frequency. (Ns = 120f / P therefore, f = Ns*p/120 i.e. frequency is proportional to
number of poles). Typically number of salient poles is between 4 to 60.
3. Flux distribution is relatively poor than non-salient pole rotor.
4. Salient pole rotors generally need damper windings to prevent rotor oscillations during
operation
5. Salient pole synchronous generators are mostly used in hydro power plants.

2) Non-Salient (Cylindrical) Pole Rotors:

1. Cylindrical rotors are used in high speed electrical machines, usually 1500 RPM to
3000 RPM.
2. Number of poles is usually 2 or 4.
3. Damper windings are not needed in non-salient pole rotors.
4. Flux distribution is sinusoidal and hence gives better emf waveform.
5. Non-salient pole rotors are used in nuclear, gas and thermal power plants.
Types of Synchronous motor:
Reluctant Motor: An unexcited single phase synchronous motor is reluctance motor.
Repulsion Motor: An alternating-current motor having stator windings connected directly to the
source of ac power and rotor windings connected to a commutator. Repulsion motors are
classified under Single Phase motors. Its characteristics are similar to Series DC motor
Universal Motor: It construction is same as DC. Run on either DC or single phase AC
supply. Similar to Series DC motor. High starting torque and speed. Universal motors find their
use in various home appliances like vacuum cleaners, drink and food mixers, domestic
sewing machine etc.
Technical Reasons for not using Higher Frequencies
1. It increases series impedance in electrical transmission system. This reduces power
transfer capability so we cannot access full fruit of transmission system.
2. Harmonics with higher frequency can carry more power and it introduces excess
heat losses.
3. As the frequency directly proportional to the rotating speed of alternator and it is not
practical to construct very high speed gigantic alternators.

The MHD generation or, also known as magneto hydrodynamic power generation is a
direct energy conversion system which converts the heat energy directly into electrical
energy, without any intermediate mechanical energy conversion

In conventional generator or alternator, the conductor consists of copper windings or strips

while in an MHD generator the hot ionized gas or conducting fluid replaces the solid
conductor