Discuss critically the strain theory of crime and deviance.

(25 marks)
American sociologist, Robert K. Merton posited the strain theory in order to provide insight as to
what causes crime and deviant behaviour in society. Schaeffer (2013) defines deviance as
behaviour that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group of society while
crime, according to Mustapha (2009) refers to activities that break the law of the land. Crime and
deviance though both having similar characteristics can also be seen as different concepts. This is
because crime being punishable by law while on the other hand deviance is subject to informal
sanctions within society. Merton posited this theory to explain the strain or pressure put on
individuals when they are unable to meet their goals through acceptable means and how this
causes individuals to resort to criminal and deviant behaviour. Within this essay, the
functionalists strain theory along with several criticisms will be discussed in order to explain the
phenomena of crime and deviance.
Schaeffer notes that Merton devised a highly influential theory of deviance placing the very
source of crime within the structure of society. He highlights the basis of this theory, the strain
theory noting that Strain occurs when there is a gap between the goals society encourages and
how this can be achieved legitimately. Essentially, the theory states that social structures may
pressure individuals to commit crimes. Merton is credited stating that an individuals failure to
attain social goals leads to deviant behaviour. He posits that individuals engage in deviant
behaviour when they cannot achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means. He further
explains that this explanation combines two elements: structural and cultural factors. Structural
factors referring to societys unequal opportunity structure and cultural factors referring to
societys emphasis on success goals over using legitimate means to achieve them. Merton used
the predominantly middle class American society in order to illustrate the strain theory. He
focused on the idea of the American dream and where there was an increased desire for material
success. This idea feeds into the pressure or strain to divert to deviant behaviour as winning is
often seen as more important than playing by the rules. According to Merton, in a well-integrated
society, people use accepted and appropriate means to achieve the goals that society establishes.
In this case, the goals and the means of the society are in balance. It is when the goals and means
are not in balance with each other that deviance is likely to occur. This imbalance between
cultural goals and structurally available means can actually lead an individual into deviant
behaviour. Therefore, poverty and discrimination means that opportunities are blocked for many
individuals. Merton was also of the belief that if a society provided the means for all to reach
cultural goals, then no deviance would exist. Merton believed when this imbalance occurred and
individuals were faced with a gap between goals and the means, they would have a choice
between five modes of adaptation which are conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreaism and
rebellion. Conformity involves pursuing cultural goals through approved means. Conformists
have accepted the goals of society and the societally-approved ways of attaining them. The
'American Dream,' for example, is financial security through talent, schooling, and above all,
hard work. The problem, as Merton saw it, is that not everyone who wants conventional success
has the opportunity to obtain it. Mustapha noted that innovation is the response when a person
accepts the goals set by society however rejected socially acceptable means. Innovation, the
mode of adaptation most associated with criminal behaviour, explains the high rate of crime
committed by uneducated and poor individuals who do not have access to legitimate means of
achieving the social goals of wealth and power. Ritualism is the response when people conform
to societys means but lose sight of goals. Mustapha notes that they may participate in socially

desirable means however lacks the interest in achieving goals. This individual goes through the
motions of getting an education and working hard, yet is not committed to the goal of
accumulating wealth or power. Retreatism is when a person rejects both the means and goals and
as noted by Mustapha essentially drops out of the rate race. Retreatism involves rejecting both
the cultural goal of success and the socially legitimate means of achieving it. The retreatist
withdraws or retreats from society and may become an alcoholic, drug addict, or vagrant. Lastly,
rebellion also refers to an individual rejecting both means and goals, however they wish to
replace socially approved goals and means with an alternative system. For example, rebels may
use social or political activism to replace the goal of personal wealth with the goal of social
justice and equality.
Mertons theory essentially discusses the strain placed on individuals as they need to attain
material acquisitions and may not be able to do so through socially acceptable means, however
there are many theorists that have raised their own concerns with this perspective. The most
notable critics of the strain theory, is the subculture theory. The subculture theory which is based
on Mertons theory also addresses many issues that were also overlooked. Merton places a great
deal of emphasis on an individuals response to strain and therefore overlooks social interaction
and group processes and the influence of such groups for example gangs. The subculture of
delinquency posited by Albert Cohen proposes that delinquent behaviour is most common among
the lower class and those within the lower class are being judged by the standards of middleclass society. Cohen initially agrees with Merton that deviance results from the lower classs
inability to achieve mainstream success goals by legitimate means, however he disagrees with
Merton on the following basis. Cohen argues that Merton focuses on deviance being an
individual response to strain as he posited the modes of adaptation being individual responses.
However, Merton ignored that a large amount of deviant behaviour is committed by groups, for
example the youths within gangs. Additionally, Merton failed to discuss non-utilitarian crimes as
he primarily focused on utilitarian crimes which are crimes producing a monetary reward. He
further discusses that success is not achieved through material wealth as discussed by Merton but
by gaining status.
Another critic of Mertons strain theory is the differential opportunity theory posited by both
Cloward and Ohlin (1960) which disagreed with Mertons theory and further explained that goals
are achieved either by legitimate means, which are available to the middle and working classes,
or illegitimate means, which is the only option for the lower class and focuses on an individuals
social status influencing their likelihood to engage in deviant behaviour.