LITERARY FUNCTIONAL EQUIVALENCE TRANSLATION

Literary functional equivalence translation (LiFE for short) is simply an extension or

development of de Waard and Nidas functional equivalence methodology (1986). This
approach is based upon the assumption (supported by various types of discourse and esthetic
analyses, e.g., Wendland 2004, 2013, 2014; Wilt 2005a, 2005b) that the Hebrew and Greek
Scriptures, by and large, exemplify literary texts of comparatively high quality, and therefore
any translation should manifest a corresponding level of excellence (to the degree possible
under the prevailing circumstances of text production). The term literary conveys a twofold
emphasis, namely, upon the artistry (forms) and rhetoric (functions) of the original biblical
documents as well as any derived vernacular, or target language (TL), translations (cf.
Wendland 2011). Artistic techniques include both macro- and micro-structural and stylistic
features such as patterned recursion, chiastic arrangement, imagery and figurative language,
distinctive word orders (new topic, focus), rhythm, euphony, and other purposeful sound
effects, plus the integrated use of assorted forceful devices (e.g., rhetorical questions,
hyperbole, irony, exact repetition, direct speech insertions, and so forth).
Basic functional analysis techniques are given more precision through the application of
speech act and schema (or cognitive frames) theory (Wendland 2008). Special
attention is given to the TL and the search for oral and written (or mixed) genres that may
serve as functional equivalents to those found in the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, the
source language (SL). Different degrees of LiFE application are possible, depending on
considerations of relevance (cognitive-emotive gain versus text-processing cost) in
relation to a given translation projects foundational job commission (brief). This would
include the major communicative goal[s] (Skopos) of the present version in view of its
envisaged audience or readership, the primary setting in which it will be used, the projects
management and support system, the everyday working procedures and relative competence
of the translators. The goal may range from a complete genre-for-genre (SL to TL)
oratorical transposition to a somewhat limited amelioration with respect to the texts
typography and page format and/or the utterance-based phonological (e.g., rhythmic)
structures of a relatively literal liturgical version.
Thus the intended situation of use is of major importance when preparing a LiFE translation,
and this projected scenario may be effectively researched and assessed through the recursive
application of an interdisciplinary, cognitive frames of reference methodologythat is,
involving the complex interaction of flexible, overlapping sociocultural, organizational,
conversational (situation-specific), and textual (including intertextual) referential contexts (cf.
Wilt 2003, Wendland 2008, Wilt & Wendland 2008). It is recognized that complete (total)
communication via translation is impossible, and therefore the use of various supplementary
paratextual tools (such as explanatory notes, cross-references, sectional introductions and/or
headings, illustrations, a glossary, etc.) and creative features of textual design and formatting
(e.g., indentation, spacing, typography) are also promoted during the preparation of a full
LiFE translation. Two recently published examples of LiFE translations of the Psalms in
English are Boerger (2009) and Wilt (2012). Two recent dissertations that apply a LiFE
methodology are Pluger (2014, NT proverbial sayings) and Watt (2015, selected psalms).
Bibliography:
Boerger, Brenda H. 2009. Psalms (Poetic Oracle English Translation). Dallas: Self-published.
Pluger, Chris. 2014. Translating New Testament Proverb-like Sayings in the Style of Nsenga Proverbs. MA
ThesisGraduate Institute of Applied Linguistics (Dallas, Texas).

de Waard, Jan and Eugene A. Nida. 1986. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible
Translating. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.
Watt, Milton. 2015. Re-Sculpting a Poetic Text: Towards an Acceptable Poetic Translation of the Psalms
Exemplified by Psalms 131 and 150. PhD Dissertation (University of Stellenbosch, South Africa).
Wendland, Ernst. 2004. Translating the Literature of Scripture: A Literary-Rhetorical Approach to Bible
Translation. Dallas: SIL International.
Wendland, Ernst. 2008. Contextual Frames of Reference in Translation: A Coursebook for Bible Translators
and Teachers. Manchester, UK: St. Jerome.
Wendland, Ernst. 2011. LiFE-Style translating: A workbook for Bible translators (2nd ed.). Dallas: SIL
International.
Wendland, Ernst. 2013. Lovely, Lively Lyrics: Selected Studies in Biblical Hebrew Verse. Dallas: SIL
International.
Wendland, Ernst. 2014. Prophetic Rhetoric: Case Studies in Text Analysis and Translation (2nd ed.). Dallas: SIL
International.
Wilt, Timothy L. 2003. Translation and communication, in T. Wilt (ed.), Bible translation: Frames of
reference. Manchester: St. Jerome. 27-80.
Wilt, Timothy L. 2005a. Literary Functional Equivalence: Some Case Studies. Journal of Biblical Text
Research 10, 82-116.
Wilt, Timothy L. 2005b. Translation Principles for LiFE, Inductively Derived, in Philip Noss, ed., Current
Trends in Scripture Translation: Definitions and Identity. Reading: UBS, 215-223.
Wilt, Timothy L. 2012. PraiseThe Book of Psalms Translated from the Hebrew. CreateSpace: Self-published
(available from Amazon).
Wilt, T. and E. Wendland. 2008. Scripture Frames & Framing: A Workbook for Bible translators. Stellenbosch:
SUN Press.
[Revised 17/09/2015]