Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Species of Interest
Trichinella spiralis
Ascaris lumbricoides
Strongyloides stercoralis
Enterobius vermiculari
Trichuris trichiura
Necator americanus
Ancylostoma duodenale
Dracunculus medinensis
Brugia malayi
Onchocerca volvulus
MEMBERS
ABRAHAM, Kristine D.
BASILIO, Zxyl Alexander S.
CACHO, Patrice Dianne G.
DONATO, Lian Phillip G.
GONZALES, Rhea Klarisse
LIMSI, Katreeya Eleonor H.
MORON, Rey Sebastian S.
RECABO, Peter Paul
TAN, Alyssa Nikka B.
UY, Paul Francis M.
2B PH
1
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Table of Contents
I.
General Characteristics.................................................................................4
Introduction..................................................................................4
Scientific Classification.................................................................4
Ecology.........................................................................................4
Anatomy.......................................................................................5
Nervous System............................................................................5
Circulatory System........................................................................5
Respiratory System.......................................................................5
Musculo-Skeletal System..............................................................6
Digestive System..........................................................................6
Reproductive System....................................................................6
Reproduction.................................................................................7
II.
Life Cycle........................................................................................................ 8
Basic (General) Nematode Life Cycle............................................8
III.
Parasites....................................................................................................... 10
Brugia malayi Common Name : Roundworm...........................10
Description........................................................................10
Morphology........................................................................10
Transmission......................................................................10
Life Cycle...........................................................................11
Onchocerca volvulus Common Name : River Blindess.............11
Description........................................................................11
Morphology........................................................................12
Transmission......................................................................12
Life Cycle...........................................................................12
Trichinella Spiralis Common Name : Trichina Worm..................13
Description........................................................................13
Morphology........................................................................13
Transmission......................................................................13
Life Cycle...........................................................................14
Strongyloides stercoralis Common Name : Threadworm..........14
Description........................................................................14
Morphology........................................................................15
Transmission......................................................................15
Life Cycle...........................................................................15
Trichuris trichiura Common Name : Human Whipworm............16
Description........................................................................16
Morphology........................................................................16
Transmission......................................................................16
2
IV.
Life Cycle...........................................................................17
Ascaris lumbricoides Common Name: Large Intestinal
Roundworm 17
Description........................................................................17
Morphology........................................................................17
Transmission......................................................................17
Life cycle...........................................................................18
Enterobius vermicularis Common Names: pinworm, threadworm,
seatworm
18
Description........................................................................18
Morphology........................................................................18
Transmission......................................................................18
Life cycle...........................................................................19
Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale......................19
Description........................................................................19
Transmission......................................................................19
Life cycle...........................................................................20
Ancylostoma duodenale Common name: Old World hookworm 20
Description........................................................................20
Morphology........................................................................20
Necator americanus Common Name: New World hookworm....21
Description........................................................................21
Morphology........................................................................21
Dracunculus medinensis Common Name: The Guinea worm. . .21
Description........................................................................21
Morphology........................................................................21
Transmission......................................................................22
Life cycle...........................................................................22
3
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
General Characteristics
Introduction
If you have ever owned a dog, chances are pretty good that you have
had a personal contact with the phylum Nematoda. Nematodes, or
roundworms, are incredible creatures that escape the average eye because
of their buried existence beneath the sheltering cloak of mother earth. They
make themselves recognized by us in the uncontrollable itches we scratch,
on the plant that withers and dies. The damage inflicted upon man, animals
and plants by nematodes is measured in hunger, disease and untold billions
of dollars over the years and for this reason, knowledge of their existence is
important.
Nematodes are long, thin, and cylindrical or round worms with
transparent bodies that may or may not be broken by annulations. Most
nematodes are small, averagely ranging in size from 100 micrometers in
length to the female giant nematodes which may extend to a length of 1
meter. The smallest nematodes measure 80 micrometers in length while the
largest nematode, Placentonema gigantissima, has a length of about 8.4
meters.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Nematoda
Etymology
Nematos-
-eides
Thread
species
Ecology
Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem they
get carried into. From the saltiest water-bodies to fresh water, to soils, and
from the polar regions to the tropically-regulated countries, as well as the
highest and lowest elevation in earth, they ubiquitously inhabit every
environment imaginable. (This just proves that the nematodes are one of the
fewest successful organisms, as they could adapt to every ecosystem.)
4
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Anatomy
Roundworms are considered as pseudocoelomates organisms which
possess a defined pseudocoelom. A pseudocoelom is a fluid-filled body cavity
that is not completely lined with mesodermal tissue which separates the
digestive tract of an organism from its outer body wall. In advanced, nonnematode species, the body cavities are lined with mesoderm, however, in
pseudocoelomates, the body cavity is lined with mesodermal tissue
externally but endodermal tissue on the inside. Endodermal tissue
progressively develops into the digestive tract, while mesodermal tissue
differentiates into a number of different body tissues, such as bones, skin,
and liver.
Roundworms are frequently confused with flatworms as both species
possess similarities in terms of physical features. However, nematodes have
thread-like, round or cylindrical bodies. Furthermore, their bodies are nonsegmented. Generally, nematodes are bilaterally symmetrical, meaning both
halves of their bodies are equally identical.
Nervous System
Nematodes have a reasonably well developed nervous system. It is
characterized by a rear nerve ring surrounding the area of the pharynx and
two pairs of lengthwise nerve cords which run along the body. Moreover,
there are also dorsal (back) and ventral (belly) nerve cords as well as a set of
lateral nerve cords across the body. These nerve cords are responsible for
the transmission of sensory information and coordination of movement.
Nematodes have also a variety of sensory receptors, such as tactile
receptors (touch) at the front and back ends of the body, and chemosensory
(chemical-sensitive) cells at the front end.
Circulatory System
Roundworms have no circulatory system like most organisms do.
Instead, their way of circulation is achieved by diffusion (movement of
material from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration).
They highly rely to the fluid in their body cavities for the transport of
nutrients.
Respiratory System
Roundworms do not respire in the sense that vertebrates, such as
humans and other animals, do. Instead, roundworms obtain the oxygen
essential for their metabolic activity also through diffusion. Diffusion allows
roundworms to provide oxygens to their cells without the aid of complex
organs, such as the lungs. Diffusion takes place through the worms skin. The
oxygen is taken through their skin, then the oxygen molecules are diffused
through their bodies and into their cells essentially the oxygen goes to
parts of the body where less oxygen is present. When the cells use the
oxygen, they produce carbon dioxide, which builds up in a high concentration
5
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
that is diffused back through the skin into the environment where it can be
less concentrated.
Musculo-Skeletal System
Roundworms have no skeleton to serve as a framework of its body.
Instead, it has a layer of skin the epidermis which is highly unusual.
Unlike human skin, it is not composed of cells, but instead is a mass of
undifferentiated cellular material. This epidermis secrets a thick, tough and
flexible layer of cuticle which forms an additional coating over the skin,
supplementing another protection for its body. This layer of cuticle is utilized
by the roundworms as a support and a leverage point for movement.
However, the movement of the roundworms are influenced by its muscles.
These muscles, which are beneath the epidermis, are all aligned
longitudinally along the inside of the body, so the nematode can only bend
its body from side to side, not crawl or lift itself.
Digestive System
The digestive system of general roundworms is very distinct and runs
along the length of their bodies. It has an oral cavity lined with cuticle. (The
cuticle is often underwired with ridges, and in some carnivorous species, may
bear a number of teeth.) The mouth often includes a stylet (probe), which
the roundworm uses to thrust into its prey, and sometimes, to suck liquids.
The oral cavity opens into a muscular pharynx, also lined with cuticle.
The digestive glands in this region produce enzymes which start to break
down the food. (In stylet-bearing organisms, it maybe even injected into the
prey.)
The pharynx is then connected directly to the intestine which forms the
main length of the gut. This further bathes the food with enzymes, and also
absorbs nutrients through its single cell-layered lining. The intestine then
opens to a rectum, which expels waste through the anus in the other end of
the body. The bodily locomotion of the worm as well as the intestinal
sphincters of the worm influences the movement of the food through the
body.
Reproductive System
The reproductive system of male nematodes include: one testis, a
seminal vesicle and a vas deferens opening into a cloaca. Most of the male
nematodes only has one testis but some have two. The spermatogonia of
nematodes are produced in the testis and is stored in the seminal vesicle
until the nematode mates. The reproductive system of male nematodes also
contains spicules which help dilate the vulva and can also serve as a canal
for the spermatozoa.
6
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
7
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Life Cycle
Basic (General) Nematode Life Cycle
Despite the diversity and
complexity of many nematode
life cycles, all of them can be
related to the same basic
pattern.
This pattern is illustrated
by the adjacent figure and
consists of two phases, parasitic
and pre-parasitic. The parasitic
phase takes place inside the
definitive host while the preparasitic phase occurs either as
a free living phase in the
external environment or inside a
second
host,
called
an
intermediate host. This basic life
also consists of seven stages, an
egg, four larval stages (L2, L2,
L3, L4) and two adult stages
comprising separate males and
females. Sometimes the sexually
immature adult stages are called L5's
In most species sexual reproduction by adult nematodes is the norm
and occurs within an infected definitive host. Eggs are laid by the female and
pass from this host into the external environment. These eggs must pass
through the three developmental stages (L1, L2, and L3) before the
nematode is again infective for another host.
A first stage larva develops inside an egg, then hatches. Initiation of
the hatching process is controlled by several factors including temperature
8
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
and moisture levels in the external environment. Hatching occurs only when
environmental conditions are favorable for survival of the hatched larvae.
These conditions stimulate the enclosed larvae to assume its own role in
hatching by secreting enzymes to digest the surrounding egg membranes,
then exerting pressure against the weakened membranes to rupture them
and escape.
This newly hatched L1 feeds on bacteria and grows until constrained
by its outer skin or cuticle. At this point further growth is possible only if the
larva grows a new, more flexible, cuticle and casts off its old outer cuticle.
This process is called molting and involves two steps.
1. Synthesis of a new cuticle by the hypodermis. At this stage the larva,
with a new cuticle is completely enclosed by its old cuticle.
2. Exsheathment - a process by which the old cuticle is loosened and
ruptured followed by the larva wriggling out of the casing of the old cuticle.
Nematodes molt four times during each life cycle with a molt occurring
at the end of each larval stage. Therefore, molts separate the first and
second larval stages (L1 and L2), the second and third larval stages (L2 and
L3), the third and fourth larval stages (L3 and L4) and also the fourth larval
stages and immature adults (L4 and L5). The L5 grows to the limit of its new
cuticle, at the same time developing into a sexually mature adult male or
female.
9
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Parasites
Brugia malayi
Description
It is one of the three causative agents of lymphatic filariasis in humans.
Lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis, is a condition characterized
by swelling of the lower limbs. The two other filarial causes of lymphatic
filariasis are Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia timori, which both differ
from B. malayi morphologically, symptomatically, and in geographical extent.
B. malayi is transmitted by mosquitoes and is restricted to South and
South East Asia. It is one of the tropical diseases targeted for elimination by
the year 2020 by the World Health Organization, which has spurred vaccine
and drug development, as well as new methods of vector control.
Morphology
Adult worms resemble the classic nematode roundworm. Long and
threadlike, B. malayi and other nematode possess only longitudinal muscles
and move in an S-shape motion. Adults are typically smaller than adult W.
bancrofti, though few adults have been isolated. Female adult worms
(50 mm) are larger than male worms (25 mm).
B. malayi microfilariae are 200-275 m in length and have a round
anterior end and a pointed posterior end. The microfilariae are sheathed,
which stains heavily with Giemsa. The sheath is actually the egg shell, a thin
layer that surrounds the egg shell as the microfilariae circulates in the
bloodstream. The microfilariae retain the sheath until it is digested in the
mosquito midgut.
Transmission
10
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
nocturnal periodicity. The microfilariae migrate into lymph and enter the
blood stream reaching the peripheral blood. A mosquito ingests the
microfilariae during a blood meal. After ingestion, the microfilariae lose their
sheaths and work their way through the wall of the proventriculus and
cardiac portion of the midgut to reach the thoracic muscles. There the
microfilariae develop into first-stage larvae and subsequently into third-stage
larvae. The third-stage larvae migrate through the hemocoel to the
mosquito's prosbocis and can infect another human when the mosquito takes
a blood meal.
Onchocerca volvulus
Description
These long thin filarial worms are tissue-dwelling nematode parasites
that live as adults in the circulatory system or connective tissues of
vertebrate hosts. Female worms do not lay eggs but produce live
microfilariae (pre-larvae). The parasites have indirect life-cycles involving the
transmission of larvae by arthropod intermediate hosts (blood or tissue
feeding insect vectors). Infections are common in wild animals and birds, but
several species cause serious diseases in humans and domestic animals,
involving skin lesions, blindness, and gross deformities, such as nodules and
elephantiasis.
Morphology
Filarial worms form adults and microfilariae in vertebrates while larval
development occurs in the arthropod vectors. Adult worms have distinctive
cross-striations (regularly spaced annulations) of their cuticle and they
exhibit marked sexual dimorphism. Female worms are large, measuring 2550cm by 0.3-0.4mm, while male worms are smaller, measuring 2-4cm by
0.2mm. Gravid females produce small microfilariae (pre-larvae), measuring
220-360m by 5-9m, which are released into host tissues. The microfilariae
of various filarial worms can be differentiated on the basis of their
morphology, those of Onchocerca not being sheathed and possessing nuclei
which do not extend to the tip of the tail (compared to those
of Wuchereria, Brugia and Loa which are ensheathed by a thin flexible eggshell membrane).
Transmission
12
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Life Cycle
During a blood meal, an infected blackfly (genus Simulium) introduces
third-stage filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host, where they
penetrate into the bite wound. In subcutaneous tissues the larvae develop
into adult filariae, which commonly reside in nodules in subcutaneous
connective tissues. Adults can live in the nodules for approximately 15 years.
Some nodules may contain numerous male and female worms. Females
measure 33 to 50 cm in length and 270 to 400 m in diameter, while males
measure 19 to 42 mm by 130 to 210 m. In the subcutaneous nodules, the
female worms are capable of producing microfilariae for approximately 9
years. The microfilariae, measuring 220 to 360 m by 5 to 9 m and
unsheathed, have a life span that may reach 2 years. They are occasionally
found in peripheral blood, urine, and sputum but are typically found in the
skin and in the lymphatics of connective tissues. A blackfly ingests the
microfilariae during a blood meal. After ingestion, the microfilariae migrate
from the blackfly's midgut through
the hemocoel to the thoracic
muscles. There the microfilariae
develop into first-stage larvae and
subsequently
into
third-stage
infective larvae. The third-stage
infective larvae migrate to the
blackfly's proboscis and can infect
another human when the fly takes
a blood meal.
Trichinella Spiralis
Description
Trichinella species are the smallest nematode parasite of humans,
have an unusual lifecycle, and are one of the most widespread and clinically
13
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Strongyloides stercoralis
Threadworm
Common Name :
Description
The Strongyloides stercoralis nematode can parasitize humans. The
adult parasitic stage lives in tunnels in the mucosa of the small intestine. The
genus Strongyloides contains 53 species, and S. stercoralis is the type
species. S.
stercoralis has
been
reported
in
other mammals,
including cats and dogs. However, it seems that the species in dogs is
typically not S. stercoralis, but the related species S. canis. Non-human
primates are more commonly infected with S. fuelleborni and S. cebus,
although S. stercoralis has been reported in captive primates. Other species
of Strongyloides, naturally parasitic in humans, but with restricted
distributions, are S. fuelleborni in central Africa and S. kellyi in Papua New
Guinea.
Morphology
Whereas males grow to only about 0.9 mm (0.04 in) in length, females
can grow from 2.0 to 2.5 mm (0.08 to 0.10 in). Both genders also possess a
tiny buccal capsule and cylindrical esophagus without a posterior bulb. In the
free-living stage, the esophagi of both sexes are rhabditiform. Males can be
distinguished
from
females
by
two
structures:
the spicules and gubernaculum.
15
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Transmission
The S. stercoralis has an unusual feather of infection called
autoinfection. Autoinfection is the development of L1 into small infective
larvae in the gut of the host. These autoinfective larvae penetrates the wall
of the lower ileum, the colon, or the skin if the perianal region, enter the
circulation; travel to the lungs, and to the small intestines, thus repeating the
cycle. Autoinfection makes strongyloidiasis die to S. stercoralis an infection
with unusual features.
Persistence of infection is the first of these important features. Because
of autoinfection, humans have been known to still be infected up to 65 years
after they were first exposed to the parasite (e.g., World War II or Vietnam
War veterans). Once a host is infected with S. stercoralis, infection is lifelong
unless effective treatment eliminates all adult parasites and migrating
autoinfective larvae
Life Cycle
The Strongyloides life cycle is more complex than that of most
nematodes with its alternation
between free-living and parasitic
cycles, and its potential for
autoinfection and multiplication
within the host. Two types of cycles
exist: Free-living
cycle: The
rhabditiform larvae passed in the
stool can either become infective
filariform
larvae
(direct
development) or free living adult
males and females that mate and
produce
eggs from
which
rhabditiform larvae hatch. and
eventually become infective filariform larvae. The filariform larvae penetrate
the human host skin to initiate the parasitic cycle (see below). Parasitic
cycle: Filariform larvae in contaminated soil penetrate the human skin, and
by various, often random routes, migrate into the small intestine. Historically
it was believed that the L3 larvae migrate via the bloodstream to the lungs,
where they are eventually coughed up and swallowed. However, there is also
evidence that L3 larvae can migrate directly to the intestine via connective
tissues. In the small intestine they molt twice and become adult female
worms. The females live threaded in the epithelium of the small intestine and
by parthenogenesis produce eggs, which yield rhabditiform larvae. The
rhabditiform larvae can either be passed in the stool (see "Free-living cycle"
16
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Trichuris trichiura
Whipworm
Description
The human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura or Trichocephalus trichiuris) is
a round worm (a type of helminth) that causes trichuriasis (a type
of helminthiasis which is one of the neglected tropical diseases) when it
infects
a
human large
intestine.
It
is
commonly
known
as
thewhipworm which refers to the shape of the worm; it looks like a whip with
wider "handles" at the posterior end.
Morphology
Trichuris trichiura is typically 54mm x 22mm long, but sizes of the
whipworm ranges from 49-65mm x 20-25mm. It is elongated, and barrelshaped with a polar plug at each end. It appears as 1 cell or unsegmented
in its stage of development when being passed. T. trichiura has distinctive
polar plugs and eggs which are occasionally oriented in a vertical or slanted
position and not readily recognized. Gently tapping the coverslip will usually
reorient the egg. Atypical eggs lacking polar plugs may be seen on rare
occasions. Female and male T. trichiura are easil distinguishable by the
shape of their heads. Females have a straight and thick head while males
have a curly ended head.
Transmission
Infection occurs by the ingestion of eggs and is more common in warm
areas. Whipworms eggs are passed in the feces of infection persons, and if
an infected person defecates outside or if untreated human feces are used
as fertilizers, the eggs will be deposited on the soil where they can mature
into an infective stage. Ingestion of these eggs can happen when hands or
17
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Life Cycle
The unembryonated eggs are passed with the stool. In the soil, the
eggs develop into a 2-cell stage, an advanced cleavage stage, and then they
embryonate; eggs become infective in 15 to 30 days. After ingestion (soilcontaminated hands or food), the eggs hatch in the small intestine, and
release larvae that mature and establish themselves as adults in the colon.
The adult worms (approximately 4 cm in length) live in the cecum and
ascending colon. The adult worms are fixed in that location, with the anterior
portions threaded into the mucosa. The females begin to oviposit 60 to 70
days after infection. Female worms in the cecum shed between 3,000 and
20,000 eggs per day. The life span of the adults is about 1 year.
Ascaris lumbricoides
Roundworm
Description
It is the largest and most common human parasitic nematode. It is
responsible for the disease ascariasis in human. It has a worldwide
distribution and prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions like SubSaharan Africa and Southeast Asia. As. lumbricoides eggs are extremely
resistant to strong chemical, desiccation, and low temperature. It is a
monogenetic parasite which requires only a single host to complete its life
cycle.
18
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Transmission
It can be transmitted through ingestion
of vegetables which grow in fields
mannered with human faeces. Children
playing in mud can transmit eggs to
their mouth through dirty fingers. Its
transmission is associated with an
accidental ingestion of soil,
contaminated foods and vegetables. It
could also be airborne and inhalation of
dust which contains eggs could infect a
person.
Morphology
Males: Male As. lumbricoides are 2-4
mm in diameter and 10-30 cm long. Its
posterior end is curved ventrally. They also have a single reproductive
tubule.
Females: Female As. Lumbricoides are 3- 6 mm wide and 20-35 cm long. Its
posterior end is straight and conical. The female has two reproductive
tubules.
Life cycle
Adult worms live in the lumen of the small intestine. A female may
produce approximately 200,000 eggs per day, which are passed with the
feces. Unfertilized eggs may be ingested but are not infective. Fertile eggs
embryonate and become infective after 18 days to several weeks, depending
on the environmental conditions (optimum: moist, warm, shaded soil). After
infective eggs are swallowed, the larvae hatch, invade the intestinal mucosa,
and are carried via the portal, then systemic circulation to the lungs. The
larvae mature further in the lungs (10 to 14 days), penetrate the alveolar
walls, ascend the bronchial tree to the throat, and are swallowed. Upon
reaching the small intestine, they develop into adult worms. Between 2 and 3
months are required from ingestion of the infective eggs to oviposition by the
adult female. Adult worms can live 1 to 2 years.
Enterobius vermicularis
threadworm, seatworm
19
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Description
It is the causative agent of Enterobiasis and is proven to be mans
oldest parasitic infection. Pinworms are the smallest nematodes which could
infect man. It is common in areas with temperate and colder temperature.
Transmission
Pinworm infection usually occurs via ingestion of infectious eggs by
direct anus-to-mouth transfer by fingers. It is caused by frequent nail biting,
poor hygiene, or inadequate hand-washing. Its transmission could also occur
by touching contaminated surfaces, such as clothing, bed linen, and
bathroom fixtures followed by ingestion
or even through inhalation or ingestion
of aerosolized eggs.
Morphology
The worms are small, white, and
threadlike and are covered by a
resistant coating called cuticle. It has
three lips surrounding the mouth and a
bulb on the posterior end of the
esophagus.
Females:
Female
Enterobius
vermicularis ranges between 8-13 mm
x 0.3-0.5 mm and are fusiform in
shape. They possess a long, pinshaped
posterior end from which the parasite's
name is derived.
Males: Male Enterobius vermicularis ranges between 2-5 mm x 0.1-0.2 mm
and has a curved tail.
Life cycle
Eggs are deposited on perianal folds. Enterobiasis may also be acquired
through surfaces in the environment that are contaminated with pinworm
eggs (e.g., curtains, carpeting). Some small number of eggs may become
airborne and inhaled. These would be swallowed and follow the same
development as ingested eggs. Following ingestion of infective eggs, the
larvae hatch in the small intestine and the adults establish themselves in the
colon. The time interval from ingestion of infective eggs to oviposition by the
adult females is about one month. The life span of the adults is about two
months. Gravid females migrate nocturnally outside the anus and oviposit
while crawling on the skin of the perianal area. The larvae contained inside
the eggs develop (the eggs become infective) in 4 to 6 hours under optimal
conditions. Retroinfection, or the migration of newly hatched larvae from the
anal skin back into the rectum, may occur but the frequency with which this
happens is unknown.
20
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
21
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Description
It is associated with miners and probably the cause of anemia in
miners because mines offer an ideal habitat for the development of the egg
due to its constant temperature and humidity. Moist, warm regions of the
world where the skin frequently contacts the soil is optimal for infection,
especially in areas of poor sanitation. It is commonly found in Europe and
South America.
Morphology
It is a single curve which looks like C. Its copulatory bursa is circle in
shape when viewed from the top.
Male: Male measures 5-11 mm which is smaller than the female. The
anterior end have buccal capsule which are armed with two ventral pairs of
teeth. The posterior end of the male has copulatory bursa to attach the
female during the copulation.
Female: Female measures about 9-13 mm. They also have a simple conical
tail. They produce 25,000 eggs per day which are oval in shape and have
empty space between the shell and its content. Eggs are 60 x 40 m in size,
colorless and transparent in color and have a thin egg shell which contains 48 unembronated cell.
Rhabditiform larva (wet mount): Are thin with long buccal cavity and
measures 200-400 m.
Filariform larva: measures 600-700m and has sharply pointed tail.
Necator americanus
Description
It is a predominant soil-transmitted human parasitic nematode. It is the
most common species in humans in the world and are commonly found in
North America and Africa.
Morphology
It has double curves which look like an S. Its copulatory bursa is circle
in shape when viewed from the top. Four teeth or two pairs of dorsal and
ventral cutting teeth are present.
Males: Male N. americanus has needlelike specules have minute barbs at
their tips and are fused distally. They are commonly 7-9 mm in size.
Females: Their size commonly range from 9 to 11 mm and produces 9000
eggs per day. The eggs are bluntly rounded, thin shelled, and are almost
indistinguishable between the different species.
22
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Dracunculus medinensis
worm
Description
The guinea worm causes
dracunculiasis which is caused
by the large female nematode.
This disease is limited to the
sub-Saharan
Africa.
The
disease typically occurs in
rural areas where piped water
supplies are not available.
Morphology
The adult female is
longer than the male and can
grow up to about 1m in length
inside the body of the human host. The D. medinensis worms inhabit the
cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues of infected individuals, the female
reaching a length of up to 700mm, and the male 25mm.
Transmission
The worm inhabits the cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues of infected
individuals and transmitted by drinking contaminated waiter infected by D.
medinensis. Its transmission is highly seasonal and depends on the changes
in water sources.
Life cycle
Humans become infected by drinking unfiltered water containing
copepods (small crustaceans) which are infected with larvae of D.
medinensis. Following ingestion, the copepods die and release the larvae,
which penetrate the host stomach and intestinal wall and enter the
abdominal cavity and retroperitoneal space. After maturation into adults and
copulation, the male worms die and the females (length: 70 to 120 cm)
migrate in the subcutaneous tissues towards the skin surface. Approximately
one year after infection, the female worm induces a blister on the skin,
generally on the distal lower extremity, which ruptures. When this lesion
comes into contact with water, a contact that the patient seeks to relieve the
local discomfort, the female worm emerges and releases larvae. The larvae
are ingested by a copepod and after two weeks (and two molts) have
developed into infective larvae. Ingestion of the copepods closes the cycle.
23
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
24
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Signs/Symptoms:
Fever
Swelling around the eyes
Gastrointestinal upset
Small hemorrhages under the fingernails
Prevention:
Make sure pork is not undercooked or contaminated by the
parasite.
Freezing pork for prolonged periods (for example, - 23C for 10
days) kills T. spiralis.
Treatment:
Typically, patients are treated with either mebendazole or
albendazole (anthelmintics).
Symptoms can be relieved by use of analgesics and
corticosteroids.
Ascaris lumbricoides
Strongyloides stercoralis
26
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Dermatitis
Mild to severe symptom of pneumonia during migration to
air-sacs of lungs.
Inflammation of the intestinal mucosa.
Diarrhea accompanied by emaciation and exhaustion.
In massive infections death may result unless therapeutic
measures are taken.
Prevention:
Wear shoes when you are walking on soil.
Avoid contact with fecal matter or sewage.
Proper sewage disposal and fecal management.
Treatment:
Ivermectin is the drug of first choice for treatment, because
of higher tolerance in patients.
(Thiabendazole was used previously, but, owing to its high
prevalence of side effects (dizziness, vomiting, and nausea) and
lower efficacy; it has been superseded by ivermectin.)
Enterobius vermiculari
Trichuris trichiura
28
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Necator americanus
29
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
and Symptoms:
itching and a localized rash
abdominal pain
diarrhea
loss of appetite
weight loss
fatigue
anemia
The physical and cognitive growth of children can be affected.
Treatment:
Albendazole take 400 mg orally once
Mebendazole take 100 mg orally twice a day for 3 days or 500 mg
30
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
orally once
Pyrantel pamoate take 11 mg/kg (up to a maximum of 1 g) orally
daily for 3 days
Ancylostoma duodenale
orally once
Pyrantel pamoate take 11 mg/kg (up to a maximum of 1 g) orally
daily for 3 days
The treatments for this type of hookworm is similar to Necator
americanus.
Dracunculus medinensis
or
Transmission:
The parasite is transmitted to man by drinking raw water
containing infected cyclopses.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of GWD is made by visual identification of the female
Guinea worm protruding from a skin lesion.
Microscopic identification of larvae is also a method of diagnosis.
Prevention:
control of water fleas and early detection of cases
availability of clean drinking water is
filtration of water to remove infected water fleas from suspect
water sources
treatment of contaminated water supplies with pesticides to kill
the fleas.
Signs and Symptoms:
severe itching
nausea
vomiting
diarrhea
dizziness
formation of blisters
Treatment:
There is no specific drug treatment for guinea worm disease.
Soaking the site of the blister in a container of water encourages
the worm to emerge. Once it has broken through the skin, gentle
traction is applied to the worm, speeding its emergence, which
may take several days or weeks. The worm usually is wrapped
32
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)
Brugia malayi
Treatment:
Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) is the drug registered for use in this
disease, however it is associated with many side effects
Ivermectin and DEC appears to be effective combination as they
act synergistically
Tetracycline antibiotics to kill Wolbachia bacteria
Severely
damaged
extremities
may
undergo
surgical
decompression of the lymphatic system
Onchocerca volvulus
35
Nematodes Group 1; 2B PH (A.Y. 2015-2016)