Outline Machine Structures

Design Requirements
Structural Elements
Materials

Design Considerations
Columns
Beds

Manufacturing Techniques

Chapter 5

Cast IIron
C
Welded Steel
Polymer Concrete Casting
Granite-based Structures
Carbon Fiber Composites

Structural Damping
p g
Finite Element Analysis
Elimination of Static Deformations
ME 551

Design
g Requirements
q
Structure of the machine houses (and supports the
operation of) all the vital (moving or stationary) elements of
the machine.
It is
i the
th skeleton
k l t off the
th machine.
hi
Without a good structure, the rest of the machine will be ineffective.

Some design requirements are

Symmetrical (and Simple) Design

Minimum Weight
g
High Static and Dynamic Stiffness
High Structural Damping
High Secular and Thermal Stability
Independent Foundation

Chapter 5

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Structural Elements
Structural elements can be
classified as
Flat Bed

Machine Beds
T-Bed, Slanted Bed,
Floor Plates, etc.

Columns
Open or Enclosed Design
Slanted Bed

Portals/Bridges
Open or Enclosed Design

Column

Chapter 5

Machine structures can be

categorized into three classes:
Open Frame
Closed Frame
Truss-type
Truss type (Enclosed) Structures
ME 551

Open
p Frame Structures1,2
Most traditional machine
tools
employ
this
configuration.
Also known as C- or G frames

Provides easy
y access to the
workspace.
Not as stiff as the closed
frames.
Employs stacked axes.
axes
Prone to Abbe offset errors.
Chapter 5

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Closed Frame Structures1,2

Most precision machine
tools
utilize
this
architecture:

Deformed Frame

Commonly referred to as O
frames

Axial Force

Tool

Accessing the workspace

is fairly easy.
Symmetrical
S
t i l structure
t t
i
is
quite rigid.
Main actuator must be
located on the bridge.

Structural Loop
(Force Flow)

Workpiece

Chapter 5

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Truss-type
yp Structures
In precision machine design
design, advanced frame geometries
are deployed:
Cubic / Cuboid
Tetrahedron
Octahedron etc.

Such (truss-type) geometries yield stable- and strong

enclosed structures that are especially suitable for parallel
mechanisms
h i
(lik
(like Hexapod
H
d platforms).
l tf
)
High thermal stability
Workspace is relatively small in proportion to the overall
dimensions of the frame.

Chapter 5

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Example
p - Octahedral Hexapod
p
Machine is built by Ingersoll Company
It employs an octahedral geometry to
support the hexapod tool platform.
The
hexapod
(Stewart
platform
concept originally developed for flight
simulators) gives six limited degrees of
freedom.
The tool angle is limited to about 20
degrees from the vertical.
d a ced co
controller
o e a
architecture
c ec u e a
and
d
Advanced
algorithms
make
programming
possible.
Chapter 5

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Structural Materials
Ferrous metals
Cast Iron
Steel
Invar
Super Nilvar
Nitralloy

Chapter 5

Nonferrous metals
Al. (Cast 201)
Al. (6061-T651)
Copper
Brass (Cu Alloy)

ME 551

Non-metals
Composites
Granite
Zerodur
Polymer concrete
Portland concrete
Carbon Fibers

Column Structures1

Without Ribs

With Ribs

Chapter 5

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10

Stiffness Properties
p
of Columns1

Chapter 5

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11

Bed Structures1

Chapter 5

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12

Bed Structures (Contd)

(
)

Chapter 5

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13

Properties
p
of Bed Designs
g 1

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14

Cast Iron Structures2

Widely used in machine
construction
Stable with thermal anneal,
aging or vibration stress
aging,
relieve
Provides good damping and
heat transfer
Low cost for moderate sizes
Integral features can be cast
in place
Design and manufacturing
rules are well-established.
Chapter 5

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15

Welded Steel Structures2

Often used for larger
structures or small-lot
small lot sizes
Stable with thermal anneal
Low damping,
damping improved with
shear dampers
Low cost
Integral features/parts can be
welded in place
Structures can be made from
tubes, profiles,
p o es, a
and
dp
plates.
ates

Chapter 5

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16

Polymer
y
Concrete Casting
g2
Polymer concrete (PC) is a relatively new
material used in precision machine
design.
Special polymers are mixed with specially
prepared/sized aggregate.
Epoxy-granite-, mineral-, and reactiveresin concrete castings all refer to the
same technique.

For PC castings, the same rules for draft

allowance apply as for metal castings if
the mold is to be removed.
Unlike metal castings,
castings a PC will not
develop hot spots while curing even in
thick, uneven sections.
Chapter 5

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17

PCC (Contd)
(
)
Instead of ribs,
ribs PC structures use
internal foam cores to maximize their
stiffness-to-weight ratio.
PC can accommodate cast in place
components such as bolt inserts,
conduit, bearing rails, hydraulic lines
etc.
Highly
Hi hl loaded
l d d machine
hi
substructures
b t t
(e.g. carriages) are made from cast
iron or steel.
steel

Chapter 5

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18

PCC (Contd)
(
)
PC structures can have the stiffness
of cast iron structures.
They can have much greater damping.

PC does not diffuse heat as well as

cast iron.
Attention must be paid to the isolation off
heat sources to prevent the formation of
hot spots.

When bolting or grouting non-PC

components to a PC bed, bimaterial
effect must be considered.

Chapter 5

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19

Granite-Structures

Used exclusively in precision instruments and

CMMs.
Serves as reference planes/surfaces
Quite costly

Just like concrete,

concrete the granite is hydrophilic:
It must be sealed off properly to avoid
absorbtion of water. Otherwise, it will distort!

This very hard (and brittle) material is very

stable:

Chapter 5

Density: 2.6 [g/cm3]

Elasticity modulus: 40 [GPa]
Tensile strength: 16 [MPa]
Th
Thermal
l exp. coefficient:
ffi i t 7.3510
7 35 10-66 [1/K]

Not all grades are suitable for precision

machine design.
g
ME 551

20

3
Carbon Fiber Composites
p
Fibre reinforced composites have
very high
hi h values
l
off a specific
ifi
modulus of elasticity and specific
strength.
t
th
Mechanical properties can be tightly
controlled
t ll d
Joining process can be complicated
Quite expensive

The application of this new material

to this field is still in its early stages.
Chapter 5

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21

Slanted Bed Designs

g for Lathe1

Adhesive Joint
Adhesive Surface
Cast iron guideway plate
on cast concrete

Location of Cast-ribs
Lower Section
of Bed

Mounting for
Hydraulics
Steel Insert for
Machine Foot
Oil Chamber
Conduit

Transfer Tap

Chapter 5

Turning Fixture

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22

Structural Damping
p g
Damping is needed to absorb energy from the process:
T
To preventt chatter
h tt and
d damage
d
to
t the
th surface
f
To absorb energy from structural modes excited by the servos
and other sources

Damping can be obtained by internal means:

Material damping
Damping by micro-slip at joints

Damping can be obtained by external means:

Constrained layer dampers (or shear dampers)
Vibration absorbers
Active dampers
Velocity control loops in servo systems
Actively controlled masses attached to the structure
Chapter 5

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23

Combined Damping
p g Effect6

Major part of the damping for a machine system can be generated at

the mating surfaces (i.e. bolted joints, slides) of the various
components via micro
micro-slip
slip.

Chapter 5

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24

Shear Dampers
p 4
Steel structures are known to
h
have
littl internal
little
i t
l damping.
d
i
One alternative method to
increase the damping of the
structure is to employ shear
dampers.
Visco-elastic layer damps
motion between structure and
constraining
layer
(from
bending
or
torsion)
by
di i ti
dissipating
ki ti energy into
kinetic
i t
heat.
Chapter 5

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25

Application
pp
- Shear Dampers
p 4

For this case,

case the structural damping of a round tube is
considered.
Inner tube serves as constraining layer.
Constraining layer is wrapped with damping material.
Coated inner tube is inserted and gap filled with epoxy.
Chapter 5

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26

Application
pp
((Contd))

Chapter 5

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27

Example
p - Precision Grinder7
T-bed of the precision grinder includes
4 (visco-elastic
(visco elastic material covered) steel
inserts. Square inserts also allow the
circulation of cooling fluid.

Cross-section
C
ti off the
th shear
h
damped test beam

Chapter 7

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28

Vibration Damping
p g Tapes
p
Vibration damp(en)ing tape/foil is a
band aid option to increase structural
band-aid
damping.
Commercial products like 3M
434/435/436 constitute a visco-elastic
polymer coated on a soft Aluminum
constraining layer.
Very useful in dampening the vibrations
off metal
t l plates
l t and
d composite
it panels.
l
Somewhat sensitive to high
temperatures:
Nominal operating temperature range (for
the tape)
p ) is -60 to 20oC.
Chapter 5

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29

Ma
agnification
function

Vibration Absorbers1

Chapter 5

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30

Absorber Designs
g 2

ConstrainedLayer Beam

Adjustable Position

TMD
Mass

Anchor

St t
Structure
Chapter 5

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31

Finite Element Method

FEM is an indispensible engineering analysis tool
to find approximate solutions to technical
problems defined by partial differential equations.
FEA Packages (ANSYS, MARC/Mentat,
Nastran/Patran, Abaqus, etc.) are routinely
utilized to design/analyze/optimize structural
members.
members
Large number of engineering analysis can be
packages:
g
conducted byy FEA p

Stress/Strain (in elastic- or plastic region)

Heat Transfer
Mechanical Vibrations
Electromagnetic Fields (Maxwell)
Fluid Dynamics (Fluent)

Chapter 5

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32

FEM Analysis
y 1
CAD Model of the Machine

Specs of the Simulation

Determination of the
simulation objectives
(deformations, stresses,
natural modes)
Determination of modeling
strategy (volume- or shell
model)
Choice of element order
(linear, parabolic)

Abstraction for the

FE-model Creation

Presentation of the Results

Abstraction of Guides
and Drives as Springs

Compilation of the Overall Model

Definition of boundary conditions

Programs Internal Processes

(force, temperature) and constraints

List of basic stiffness

matrices
Structure the global
stiffness matrix
Consideration of the
boundary conditions
Solution of the resulting
linear system
Derivation of stress from
deformation values

Chapter 5

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33

FEM Analysis
y
- Illustration1

Chapter 5

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34

Example Portal Frame1

Chapter 5

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35

Vibration Analysis
y
- Illustration1

Chapter 5

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36

Natural Frequencies
q
& Modes1
Natural Frequency: 42.4 Hz

Chapter 5

Natural Frequency: 73.4 Hz

ME 551

Natural Frequency: 102 Hz

37

Vibration Analysis
y 1 ((Contd))

Frequency [Hz]

Chapter 5

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38

Elimination of Static Deformations5

There are three methods
to compensate the elastic
deformations of the
machine structure under
the action of quasi
quasi-static
static
loads:
a. Compensating
C
ti curve
b. Preloaded support
c. Counter-weight
C
t
i ht

Chapter 5

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39

Compensating
p
g Curve1
The bearing rails are finished (grounded) so that
they deform to the desired shape when the
machine axes move.
Grinding process is expensive but it saves structural
costs.

When the primary weight is that of the machine

axis (not the workpiece!), this method can be
very effective.

Chapter 5

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40

Counter-weight
g Systems
y
For vertical axis, the servo-motor
system needs to support the deadweight of that axis.
M
May need
d to
t choose
h
overrated
t d servosystem.
Energy
gy wasted due to IR losses of
machine.

Dead weight can be supported by an

external system (i.e.
(
counter weights,
hydraulic systems, floats, etc).
For
F dynamic
d
i motions,
ti
motor
t + ballb ll
screw inertia usually dominates.
Chapter 5

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41

Counter-weight
g ((Contd))
Counterweight system contributes
dynamics of a precision machinery

to

the

Cogging effect, elastic effect etc.

Cable
Cable, braided bands,
bands and chains are frequently
utilized to carry the counterweight.
In chain mechanisms,
mechanisms the sprocket
sprocket's
s pitch diameter varies slightly
as it rotates producing a small cogging effect.

A cable and a smooth running pulley will give the

least variation in force.
Cables are elastic compared
p
to chains and hence they
y should
only be used for quasi-statically (i.e slow) moving elements.
Pulley friction and friction in the counterweight's bearings should
be scrutinized for precision machines.
machines
Chapter 5

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42

Some Design
g Rules2
When sizing components,
components keep the proportions of the
golden rectangle (Height/Width = 1.618) in mind.
Utilize symmetry wherever possible.
Minimize the structural loop and use closed sections
p
whenever possible.
Large plate sections should be stiffened with ribs and
other
o
e means
ea s to
o keep
eep them
e vibrating
b a g like
ed
drumheads
u eads.
When needed, use active damping systems.

Maximize thermal diffusivityy of the machine and

minimize heat input.
Chapter 5

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43

Design
g Rules ((Contd))
Locate the work volume at the center of mass and in plane
of support.
support
Start at the tool tip (or workpiece) with estimates on
cutting forces and acceleration
Then work backward through the structural system.
Use guesstimates for sensor, bearing, and actuator limitations to
help size structural components.

Try to make the natural frequencies of the various

vibration modes (e.g.
(e g translational and rotational) close
together.
This will minimize cross coupling between modes.

Use as many design tools as possible in design stage.

Especially,
p
y, Solid Geometric Modeling
g and FEM Packages.
g
Chapter 5

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44

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
4
5.

6.
7.

M. Weck, C. Brecher, Werkzeugmaschinen (Band 2), SpringerVerlag 2005.

Verlag,
2005
A. H. Slocum, Precision Machine Design, SME Press, 1992.
A. H. Slocum, ME 2.075 Course Notes, MIT, 2001.
L.N. L. deLacalle, A. Lamikiz, Machine Tools for High Performance
Machining, Springer-Verlag, 2009.
E Bamberg,
E.
Bamberg ME EN 7960 Course Notes,
Notes University of Utah,
Utah 2006.
2006
Cranfield Unit for Precision Engineering (CUPE), Precision
Engineering Course Notes, Cranfield Institute of Technology (UK),
1998.
Lwenfeld, K., Zweites Forschungs und Konstruktionskolloquium
Werkzeugmaschinen, p. 117, Vogel
Werkzeugmaschinen,
Vogel-Verlag,
Verlag, Coburg, 1955.
E. R. Marsh, A. H. Slocum, An integrated Approach to Structural
Damping, Precision Engineering, vol. 18, pp. 103-109, 1996.

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45