Proceedings of the ASME 2007 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences & Computers and

Information in Engineering Conference

IDETC/CIE 2007
September 4-7, 2007, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

DETC2007-34997

MODELING AND CONTROL OF NONLINEAR SERIES ELASTIC ACTUATOR

Ehsan Basafa
School of Mechanical
Engineering, Sharif University of
Technology
Azadi St., Tehran, Iran
basafa@mech.sharif.edu

Hassan Salarieh
School of Mechanical
Engineering, Sharif University of
Technology
Azadi St., Tehran, Iran
salareih@mech.sharif.edu

ABSTRACT
Series Elastic Actuators are force actuators with
applications in robotics and biomechanics. In linear Series
Elastic Actuators, a large force bandwidth requires a stiff
sensor (spring), but the output impedance puts an upper limit
on this parameter, therefore selecting the proper spring is
difficult in these actuators. In this paper, Series Elastic Actuator
is modeled with a nonlinear, stiffening spring and controlled
using the Gain Scheduling method. Simulations show that both
linear and nonlinear models have similar force bandwidths, but
the nonlinear one shows much lower output impedance. Hence,
the choice of spring for actuator design is an easier task than
that of the linear model. Also, as a force-augmenting device for
the knee joint in normal human gait, the nonlinear model acts
better in simulations.

Aria Alasty
Center of Excellence in Design,
Robotics and Automation
(CEDRA)
School of Mechanical
Engineering, Sharif University of
Technology
Azadi St., Tehran, Iran
aalasti@sharif.edu

results in better closed-loop behavior, and lower output

impedance [2, 3]. Figure 1 shows a schematic of Series Elastic
Actuator. By measuring the deflection of the elastic element,
one can calculate the output force using the force-displacement
curve of the sensor, and use it as the feedback to control the
actuator. Having low output impedance makes these actuators
convenient for robotics applications, as well as force and torque
augmentation in human joints [4].
Sprin
f desired

Control
System

X load

Motor
f load

Figure 1: Schematic of Series Elastic Actuator [2]

INTRODUCTION
In conventional force actuators, a force sensor is usually
planted at the output of the actuator that feeds back the exerted
output force to the controller. Typical force sensors have a large
elastic constant, which results in a high open-loop gain for the
actuator. This requires small controller constants for these
actuators, in order to maintain the overall stability. Small
controller constants result in poor closed-loop behavior, and
large output impedance. Series Elastic Actuator is developed to
cope with this issue [1]. In Series Elastic Actuator, an elastic
element, i.e. a sensor with much smaller stiffness, is planted in
series with the force source of the actuator. This substitution,

Series Elastic Actuator is usually modeled and controlled

using linear springs in the literature. Also experimental
prototypes are often made of linear springs [2, 7, 11]. A crucial
parameter to be determined in linear models of Series Elastic
Actuator is the spring constant, or stiffness. For the force
bandwidth to be large, this value has to be large, but as the
spring constant increases, the output impedance grows, and
hence there must be a trade off between these two criteria,
which is a difficult process. To solve this issue, use of a
nonlinear, stiffening spring is suggested [2]. It has been
foreseen that this substitution "moves away" these bounds on

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the spring constant, and makes the trade off easier. Few papers
have addressed the problem of nonlinear Series Elastic
Actuators. In [12], an actuator with mechanically adjustable
series compliance is modeled and its use in a spring loaded
inverted pendulum (SLIP) model for running in animals or
bipeds is investigated. Also in [13] a nonlinear (exponentially
stiffening) spring is used as the compliance in the Series Elastic
Actuator, but the model behavior is investigated only for a
linear model based on the full nonlinear one.
In this paper, a nonlinear spring is used to model the
actuator, and proper control is applied to control the actuator
model. Then some characteristics such as force bandwidth and
output impedance are compared for the linear and nonlinear
model. Also use of the actuator as a force-augmenting device is
investigated for normal human gait.
MODEL
Linear Electromechanical Model
In [2] as a case study, electromechanical Series Elastic
Actuator is modeled as follows (Figure 2): A DC motor is the
main force source, and a ball screw converts its rotary motion
to a linear motion. The ball screw nut is fixed to one end of a
linear spring, and the other end is connected to the load or
place of force exertion.

Fm

Fd

K p + Kd s
Fl

Ks

Motor is assumed to be an ideal force source acting on a

lumped mass. The desired input force ( Fd ) is the output of a
higher level controller, which according to the special
application of the actuator, e.g. in a robot joint, generates the
desired force. Here, as we see later, we used some special
curves as the input force to investigate the behavior of the
actuator.
Using a PD controller, the open- and closed-loop relations
for the system are as below, respectively [2];

( K d s + K p ) Fd ( s ) (mm s 2 + bm s ) X l ( s )
mm 2 bm + k s K d
s +
s + ( K p + 1)
ks
ks

Fl

bm

One would think of a nonlinear relation for the spring as

Figure 2: Suggested Series Elastic Actuator model [2]

Fl ( s ) =

(3)
F = K1x 3 + K 2 x
Where x is the spring deflection, and K1 , K 2 are constants.
The spring stiffness increases gradually as the deflection
increases in the spring. Specifically, the spring constant is equal
to K 2 at zero deflection.
X1
Fm
X2
Nonlinear
Fd
Nonlinear
mm
Controller

Figure 3: Nonlinear Series Elastic Actuator model

mm

Fm ( s) (mm s 2 + bm s ) X l ( s )
mm 2 bm
s +
s +1
ks
ks

Nonlinear Electromechanical model

In the nonlinear model, we substituted the linear spring in
the above model with a nonlinear stiffening spring (Figure 3).
A convenient model of a nonlinear stiffening spring is as
follows;

Xl

bm

Fl ( s ) =

the output force ( Fl ). The goal for the actuator controller is to

make the output force track the desired force, no matter what
the output displacement is. Also obviously, the system is of
second order. We used this model to compare to the nonlinear
one.

(1)

F = Kx 3 , which satisfies the stiffening condition for the

spring. But this model has some disadvantages. Besides the fact
that manufacturing this spring would be impossible in reality,
F
, is zero or near
the spring stiffness, which is the derivative
x
zero at small deflections of the spring. This results in large
constants for the actuator controller, and thus causes large
control efforts, even when there exists a small error signal.
Hence, despite more complexity, we used Equation (3) as the
force-deflection relation for the nonlinear spring. This way, in
the Series Elastic Actuator model we have:
Fl = K1 ( X 1 X 2 )3 + K 2 ( X 1 X 2 )
F F b X& = m X&&

(4)

(5)
Where X 1 and X 2 are the motion of mm (motor output) and the
actuator output displacement, respectively. From Equation (4)
we have three solutions for X 1 , two of which are complexvalued in the normal range of parameters we usually deal with.
The third and real solution is as
m

m 1

m 1

(2)

Where X l is the displacement of the actuator output. As can be

seen, the system has two distinct inputs: the desired force, and
the output displacement, and one output: force on the load or

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X 1 = 2

b + ks Kd
s 2 + m
mm

K2
1/ 3

3
108 K 2 F + 12 K 2 12 K 2 + 81F 2
l
1 l
1

K1

(6)

1/ 3

3
108 K 2 F + 12 K 2 12 K 2 + 81F 2
l
l
1
1

K1
1

+
K1
6

=s

((

((9F +
l

&2
Fl + AF&&l

) )4 / 3

3B K12

(8)

) )

2/3

9 Fl + 3B K12
+ K 2 (12 )1 / 3 K1

and

+ 27 Fl K1
(9)
K1
Equation (7) is the open-loop equation of the system, which
obviously is a nonlinear relation between the system inputs
( Fm , X 2 ) and the system output ( Fl ). This relation can also be
illustrated with the block-diagram description (Figure 4).
B=

4 K 23

X1
1
mm s 2 + bm s

(11)

2 n mm bm
ks

(12)

Nonlinear Model Control

Gain Scheduling was implemented as the control strategy
for the nonlinear model. Details for this method can be found in
the nonlinear control literature [5, 6, 7]. Here we present a brief
summary.
Assuming that the (constant) input signal to the system is
set such that the output is at a constant value , all the time
derivatives vanish, and from Equation (7) we will have
(13)
Fl = = const. Fm =
Linearizing the system about this equilibrium point we obtain
(14)
Fm Fl + bm AF&l + mm AF&&l
Where Fl is the approximate of Fl near the equilibrium point,
and A is defined in Equation (8). Using a PD controller to
stabilize the system we have
(15)
Fm = K p e + K d e&
where error ( e ) is defined as
e = Fl r , r = Fd

Fl
K1u + K 2 u
3

= K p r K d r&
(17)
Similar to the linear case, to make the closed-loop characteristic
equation (left side of Equation (17)) to be similar to a secondorder system, we should set

Figure 4: Block diagram of the open-loop nonlinear

Series Elastic Actuator model
CONTROL
Linear Model Control
Since the output displacement of the actuator is not under
control, and also is not measured, control is designed
considering merely the first input of the actuator, i.e. motor
force in the literature, and the output displacement is treated as
perturbation. We proceeded similarly.
If we want the closed-loop behavior of the linear model to
be similar to a second-order system with natural frequency n
and damping , we should have (See Equation (2))

(16)

and Fd is the desired output force of the actuator. With

Equation (15) for the motor force, Equation (14) turns into
mm AF&&l + (bm A K d )F&l + 1 K p Fl

X2
Fm

mm 2
n 1
ks

Kp =
Kd =

(7)

(10)

+ 2 n s + n2

and from there

+ X2

Substituting Equation (6) in (5) we obtain

Fm bm X& 2 mm X&& 2

A
= Fl + bm AF&l + mm
F
l
in which A is as
1
K1 (12)1 / 3 B + 3 3 Fl
2
A=

K p +1

s + k s

mm

K p = 1 Amm n2

(18)

K d = A m 2 n mm
mm

(19)

SIMULATION RESULTS
For the simulation purpose, parameter values must be
selected properly. Common parameters between the two models
are the equivalent mass ( mm ) and viscous friction constant
( bm ), values of which were adopted from [2]. Also to be able
to compare the two models, the desired damping ( ) and
natural frequency ( n ) of the two controlled systems were
given equal values. The spring constant for the linear model

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This can be explained informally: When there is no need

for large forces (e.g. when a robot is in contact with an object),
and the spring deflection is small, the spring stiffness is small,
either. Hence, the force source of the actuator has to move a
distance shorter than that of the linear model, in order to
compensate for the output displacement, and consequently its
dynamics and delay are less seen at the output. In fact, the idea
of using nonlinear springs in Series Elastic Actuator is
biologically inspired: "Biological springs (tendons) are
stiffeningAt low forces or during contact tasks, the low
stiffness helps maintain stability. At much higher forces, low
stiffness is unnecessary and may be even undesirable. [2]"
As could be foreseen from the output impedance, the linear
model fails to track the input force when used as a torquegenerating device for the human knee joint. The second half of
the gait cycle involves large flexion angles in the knee joint,
corresponding to large output displacements of the actuator
(Figure A3 of Annex A). Also there is no need for large amount
of force to be exerted by the knee (or here, the assistive
device). At this time, the linear model shows some impedance
and exerts undesirable force. But the nonlinear model tracks the
force perfectly and does not deviate significantly. One thing to
have in mind about the simulations in Figure 9 is that these
results are pure hypothetical, and there has been an ideal
assumption that the knee joint flexion angle tracks its temporal
trajectory perfectly. Of course, if the actuator exerts undesirable
force, especially in the case of the linear system, the knee joint
angle would deviate from its trajectory, and the whole gait
cycle would be different, which makes the simulation process
more sophisticated. Here we used the simulation only to
compare the potential behavior of the two actuator models.
As we mentioned, stiffness of the nonlinear spring is small
in zero or small deflections. This, in fact, is the source of low
output impedance of the actuator. Also, because the spring
deflections for both linear and nonlinear models are less than
unity (< 1 m) in the normal operating conditions, according to
its force-deflection relation (Equation (3)), the nonlinear spring
has lower force capacity, and this shows another advantage of
the nonlinear Series Elastic Actuator model over the linear one:
An actuator with lower force producing capacity, not only
generates enough forces for its normal operation, but also has
less output impedance.
CONCLUSIONS
Selecting the proper spring for Series Elastic Actuators is a
critical and difficult task. Having a large force bandwidth
requires a stiff spring, while output impedance limits the spring
constant. Substitution of the linear spring in the Series Elastic
Actuator model with a nonlinear, stiffening one, makes the
process of spring selection simpler, and results in improved
closed-loop behavior. The nonlinear actuator acts so close to
the ideal conditions and shows low output impedance, while
maintaining the desired force bandwidth. Specifically, when
used as a torque producing device for human normal gait, the

linear Series Elastic Actuator deviates from the desired

behavior in the simulation. Especially when there is no need for
large forces, the linear model resists against movement and
exerts undesirable force, but the nonlinear model tracks the
desired force well, despite large actuator output displacements.
REFERENCES
1. Pratt, G.A., Williamson, Matthew M., 1995, "Elastic
Actuator for Precise Force Control", United States Patent,
No. 5,650,750.
2. Robinson, David W., 2000, "Design and Analysis of Series
Elasticity in Closed-loop Actuator Force Control", Ph.D.
Thesis,
Mechanical
Engineering
Department,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
3. Pratt, J., Krupp, B., and Morse, C., 2002, "Series Elastic
Actuators for high fidelity force control", Industrial Robot,
Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 234-241.
4. Robinson, David W., Pratt, J., Paluska, D. and Pratt, G.,
1999, "Series Elastic Actuator Development for a
Biomimetic Walking Robot", IEEE/ASME International
Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics.
5. Slotine, J.J., 1991, Applied Nonlinear Control, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey.
6. Khalil, H.K., 2000, Nonlinear Systems, Pearson Education,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
7. A. Alasty, 2006, "Lecture Notes For Nonlinear Control
Course", School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
8. Pratt, J., Krupp, B., Morse, C., Collins, S., 2004, "The
RoboKnee: An Exoskeleton for Enhancing Strength and
Endurance During Walking", IEEE International
Conference on Robotics and Automation.
9. Rezaeian, T., 2002, "Comparing Investigation of Lower
Extremity Resultant Torques In Upper Knee Amputee and
Healthy People", M.Sc. Thesis, University of Health
Sciences and Rehabilitation, Tehran, Iran.
10. Parnianpour, M., Snajari, Mohammad A., Soudbakhsh, D.,
Sahraei, E., Malekipour, F. and Khamseh, J., 2005,
"Design, Modeling and Manufacturing The Prototype of
An Exoskeleton Assistive Device", 12th Iranian Conference
on Biomedical Engineering (ICBME).
11. Veneman, J.F., Ekkelenkamp, R., Kruidhof, R., van der
Helm, F.C.T., van der Kooij, H., Design of a Series
Elastic- and Bowdencable-based actuation system for use
as torque-actuator in exoskeleton-type training, 2005,
IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics.
12. Hurst, J.W., Chestnutt, J.E., Rizzi, A.A., 2004, An
Actuator
with
Mechanically
Adjustable
Series
Compliance, Technical Report, Robotics Institute,
Carnegie Mellon University.
13. Katz A., The Design and Application of a Nonlinear
Series Compliance Actuator for Use in Robotic Arms,
1999, M.Sc. Thesis, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Copyright 2007 by ASME

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Figure 7: Force bandwidth of the two Series Elastic

Actuator models
Output Impedance
Output impedance is a measure of the actuator resistance to
the load motion. In general, actuator is used where the load is
in motion, and an ideal actuator exerts no "undesirable" force
on the moving load. Hence, in the design process of real
actuators, output impedance has to be kept in a minimum
amount.
Similar to the process in the literature, output impedance
can be plotted as follows: The input desired force is set to a
fixed (=zero) value and a sine wave is applied to the actuator
model as the output displacement. The ratio of the amplitude of
the exerted force ( Fl ) to the amplitude of the applied
displacement is plotted versus frequency. Again, for the linear
model, this is as simple as plotting the Bode diagram for the
F (s )
in the closed-loop model, which can
transfer function of l
X l (s )
be easily obtained from Equation (2). Also for the nonlinear
model, we acted as the case of bandwidth. The results are
shown in Figure 8.

Series Elastic Actuator for Force Augmentation

As mentioned above, Series Elastic Actuator can be used
as an exoskeleton device for force augmentation in human
joints [8]. Here we simulated the two models in generating the
desired torque for the human knee joint in a normal gait cycle.
Series Elastic Actuator was hypothetically attached to the knee
joint, and using simple geometric relations, the desired torque
and knee flexion angles in normal human walking gait were
transformed into the desired actuator force and output
displacement. Also, assuming that some of the required force is
exerted by the human, only half of the desired force amplitude
was placed at the actuator input (Annex A). Gait data were
adopted from [9], which were obtained by image processing the
human motion sequences on a force platform. Figures 9 and 10
show the results.
DISCUSSION
As long as there is no displacement at the actuator output,
both models have somewhat similar behaviors. In Figures 5 and
6, there is negligible deviation form the reference input for both
models. Also in the case of force bandwidth, both models show
a large force bandwidth greater than 90 Hz. But when it comes
to the output displacement, the differences appear. In Figure 8,
one can easily see the lower output impedance of the nonlinear
model, which noting the logarithmic scale of the plot, its
significance is further revealed.

Figure 9: Simulation of Series Elastic Actuator for human

force augmentation during walking

Figure 8: Output impedance of the two Series Elastic

Actuator models

Figure 10: A small portion of the curves in Figure 8

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This can be explained informally: When there is no need

for large forces (e.g. when a robot is in contact with an object),
and the spring deflection is small, the spring stiffness is small,
either. Hence, the force source of the actuator has to move a
distance shorter than that of the linear model, in order to
compensate for the output displacement, and consequently its
dynamics and delay are less seen at the output. In fact, the idea
of using nonlinear springs in Series Elastic Actuator is
biologically inspired: "Biological springs (tendons) are
stiffeningAt low forces or during contact tasks, the low
stiffness helps maintain stability. At much higher forces, low
stiffness is unnecessary and may be even undesirable. [2]"
As could be foreseen from the output impedance, the linear
model fails to track the input force when used as a torquegenerating device for the human knee joint. The second half of
the gait cycle involves large flexion angles in the knee joint,
corresponding to large output displacements of the actuator
(Figure A3 of Annex A). Also there is no need for large amount
of force to be exerted by the knee (or here, the assistive
device). At this time, the linear model shows some impedance
and exerts undesirable force. But the nonlinear model tracks the
force perfectly and does not deviate significantly. One thing to
have in mind about the simulations in Figure 9 is that these
results are pure hypothetical, and there has been an ideal
assumption that the knee joint flexion angle tracks its temporal
trajectory perfectly. Of course, if the actuator exerts undesirable
force, especially in the case of the linear system, the knee joint
angle would deviate from its trajectory, and the whole gait
cycle would be different, which makes the simulation process
more sophisticated. Here we used the simulation only to
compare the potential behavior of the two actuator models.
As we mentioned, stiffness of the nonlinear spring is small
in zero or small deflections. This, in fact, is the source of low
output impedance of the actuator. Also, because the spring
deflections for both linear and nonlinear models are less than
unity (< 1 m) in the normal operating conditions, according to
its force-deflection relation (Equation (3)), the nonlinear spring
has lower force capacity, and this shows another advantage of
the nonlinear Series Elastic Actuator model over the linear one:
An actuator with lower force producing capacity, not only
generates enough forces for its normal operation, but also has
less output impedance.
CONCLUSIONS
Selecting the proper spring for Series Elastic Actuators is a
critical and difficult task. Having a large force bandwidth
requires a stiff spring, while output impedance limits the spring
constant. Substitution of the linear spring in the Series Elastic
Actuator model with a nonlinear, stiffening one, makes the
process of spring selection simpler, and results in improved
closed-loop behavior. The nonlinear actuator acts so close to
the ideal conditions and shows low output impedance, while
maintaining the desired force bandwidth. Specifically, when
used as a torque producing device for human normal gait, the

linear Series Elastic Actuator deviates from the desired

behavior in the simulation. Especially when there is no need for
large forces, the linear model resists against movement and
exerts undesirable force, but the nonlinear model tracks the
desired force well, despite large actuator output displacements.
REFERENCES
1. Pratt, G.A., Williamson, Matthew M., 1995, "Elastic
Actuator for Precise Force Control", United States Patent,
No. 5,650,750.
2. Robinson, David W., 2000, "Design and Analysis of Series
Elasticity in Closed-loop Actuator Force Control", Ph.D.
Thesis,
Mechanical
Engineering
Department,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
3. Pratt, J., Krupp, B., and Morse, C., 2002, "Series Elastic
Actuators for high fidelity force control", Industrial Robot,
Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 234-241.
4. Robinson, David W., Pratt, J., Paluska, D. and Pratt, G.,
1999, "Series Elastic Actuator Development for a
Biomimetic Walking Robot", IEEE/ASME International
Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics.
5. Slotine, J.J., 1991, Applied Nonlinear Control, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey.
6. Khalil, H.K., 2000, Nonlinear Systems, Pearson Education,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
7. A. Alasty, 2006, "Lecture Notes For Nonlinear Control
Course", School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
8. Pratt, J., Krupp, B., Morse, C., Collins, S., 2004, "The
RoboKnee: An Exoskeleton for Enhancing Strength and
Endurance During Walking", IEEE International
Conference on Robotics and Automation.
9. Rezaeian, T., 2002, "Comparing Investigation of Lower
Extremity Resultant Torques In Upper Knee Amputee and
Healthy People", M.Sc. Thesis, University of Health
Sciences and Rehabilitation, Tehran, Iran.
10. Parnianpour, M., Snajari, Mohammad A., Soudbakhsh, D.,
Sahraei, E., Malekipour, F. and Khamseh, J., 2005,
"Design, Modeling and Manufacturing The Prototype of
An Exoskeleton Assistive Device", 12th Iranian Conference
on Biomedical Engineering (ICBME).
11. Veneman, J.F., Ekkelenkamp, R., Kruidhof, R., van der
Helm, F.C.T., van der Kooij, H., Design of a Series
Elastic- and Bowdencable-based actuation system for use
as torque-actuator in exoskeleton-type training, 2005,
IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics.
12. Hurst, J.W., Chestnutt, J.E., Rizzi, A.A., 2004, An
Actuator
with
Mechanically
Adjustable
Series
Compliance, Technical Report, Robotics Institute,
Carnegie Mellon University.
13. Katz A., The Design and Application of a Nonlinear
Series Compliance Actuator for Use in Robotic Arms,
1999, M.Sc. Thesis, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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ANNEX A
"ATTACHMENT" OF SERIES ELASTIC ACTUATOR TO THE KNEE JOINT

Figure A1: Schematic of the Series Elastic Actuator, attached to the human knee joint

In Figure A1, Series Elastic Actuator is assumed to be fixed to the human knee joint, and values for L1 to L4 are 35, 35, 5 and 5
cm, respectively. The required knee joint torque for the movement and the knee flexion angle during the gait cycle can be easily
transformed into the Series Elastic Actuator desired force and output motion considering the geometry of the attachment. The force
and displacement curves are presented in Figures A2 and A3.

Figure A2: Desired force for Series Elastic Actuator during human walking gait

Figure A3: Output displacement of Series Elastic Actuator during human walking gait

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